Early Childhood Education Journal, Vol. 30, No.

1, Fall 2002 ( 2002)

To Tell a Tale: The Use of Moral Dilemmas to Increase

Empathy in the Elementary School Child

Richard L. Upright1

Empathy, the ability to care about others, is a learned process and can be successfully modeled in
the elementary classroom. Although there are various methods available for improving empathy
and other aspects of moral development, one recommended strategy is the use of moral dilemmas
and role-play. This strategy involves (a) the use of formal and informal observations, (b) informal
interviews, (c) the choosing of appropriate stories, (d) various presentation methods, (e) large and
small group discussions, and (f) closing techniques such as creative writing samples.

KEY WORDS: empathy; moral growth; moral dilemmas; moral development; story techniques; storytelling;
role-play; decision making.

INTRODUCTION strengthened and acted on, empathy leads to kindness

and a caring attitude. When you feel empathy for others,
It was Valentine’s Day, and my third-grade class
your actions toward them often boomerang back to you.
was having a party. The students exchanged cards, and
You feel good if you are good to them and, conversely,
I was handing out cupcakes and candy bags to celebrate
bad if something hurts them (Schulman & Mekler, 1985,
the holiday. The children lined up, eagerly waiting to be
p. 49). Adults can support children’s empathetic inclina-
served. Soon, it was Joshua’s turn. As I handed him a
tions by letting them know that they are pleased with
cupcake, Joshua quietly asked if he could give his to
their sensitivity to others and by assisting and guiding
Kristin, a bashful girl who was sitting by herself in a
their efforts to give aid (Smith, 1982, p. 83).
corner of the classroom. I looked toward Kristin and
When promoting moral values such as empathy in
then asked Joshua, “Why? Don’t you like what we are
children, modeling is often more successful than direct
having?” “Yes, I do,” Joshua whispered, “but Kristin
teaching (Goodman, 2000; Smith, 1996). Through model-
didn’t get many cards, and she thinks that nobody in the
ing, we can teach children to examine life realistically, to
class likes her. That’s why she isn’t in line right now.
understand that they usually have a range of possibilities
Maybe she’ll feel better if I give her my treats and sit
from which to choose, to consider the consequences of
with her for a little while. That would be okay, wouldn’t
each possibility, and to make their choices based on the
it?” Joshua grinned thoughtfully at me. He walked over
awareness of each option and its consequences (Simon &
to Kristin, holding out his cupcake to her. Kristin, sur-
Olds, 1976, p. 23). This is neither a quick nor easy pro-
prised, looked up and smiled.
cess. Young children generally have a very egocentric
Joshua, in the above story, understood the feelings
view of the world that gradually expands to encompass
of another student. He could sense, inwardly, what was
the feelings and motives of others (Piaget, 1927/1960).
happening to Kristin. This ability to care about others
As children like Emily (see Fig. 1) mature, they learn and
and to put oneself in their place is called empathy. When
experience more. As this knowledge base increases, moral
growth should also increase (Vygotsky, 1967).
1
Correspondence should be directed to Richard Upright, 647G Creek
Many theories about moral growth have been de-
Ridge Road, Greensboro, N.C. 27406; e-mail: richardupright@ veloped over the past 40 years (Denton, 1997). Early
yahoo.com. research, such as that of Lawrence Kohlberg (1969),

15
1082-3301/02/0900-0015/0  2002 Human Sciences Press, Inc.
16 Upright

Teacher: Emily, what is kindness?

Emily: It’s when somebody helps somebody else. You know, it’s being nice to people.
Teacher: Tell me about a time you were kind to somebody else.
Emily: Well, yesterday at school I helped my teacher get trash off the floor after art class. Gold glitter was everywhere! She didn’t even ask
me to help.
Teacher: Why did you do that?
Emily: Because some of the mess was mine and I like to help people.
Teacher: Why are people kind?
Emily: To make friends.
Teacher: Can you think of any other reasons?
Emily: Just for the fun of it. Like, I just like to be kind.
Teacher: What happens when you are kind?
Emily: It makes people happy. It can make animals happy too if you pat them on the head or rub their belly.
Teacher: Emily, what does helping mean?
Emily: It means to be kind to others.
Teacher: Give me an example of someone being helpful.
Emily: If there was somebody who missed the ball . . . like Hannah. When she tried to kick the kickball, she missed and fell down. Daniel
saw her and shouted, “Hannah’s hurt!” Me and Charity ran over and helped her to the classroom. She was bleeding all over but got better.
My teacher put a Disney Band-Aid on her knee. That was being helpful.
Teacher: Can you tell me what generosity means?
Emily: It means to share.
Teacher: What is sharing?
Emily: It’s kinda like the Pilgrims and the Indians, I mean Native Americans. They really didn’t come from India, you know. The Pilgrims
were very hungry the first winter they were in Plymouth. They might have starved and died if the Native Americans hadn’t shared their food
and taught them how to grow plants.
Teacher: Now, give me an example of how you could be generous.
Emily: Hmm. Well, I guess that if I had something to eat and I was playing with kids who were hungry, then it would be really generous to
share my food with them.
Teacher: What exactly would you do with your food?
Emily: Well, I would split it up and ask them if they wanted any.
Teacher: Let’s pretend that you know someone who is very sick. How could you be kind to that person?
Emily: I’d buy a present for them, or maybe make a card. I could bring them some chicken soup; that’s supposed to be good for sick people!
Teacher: What would you do if you saw a child who was crying?
Emily: I would go over and try to make her feel better.
Teacher: What would you do to make her feel better?
Emily: Oh, talk to her. Make a funny face or tell a joke. Maybe I would ask her to play with me.
Teacher: Let’s suppose that there is someone who really doesn’t need any help, but you want to make him happy anyway. What could you do?
Emily: Just leave them alone. That’s what my mom likes!
Teacher: What if it was a child on a playground?
Emily: Just ask her if she wanted to play with me. Maybe we could dig holes in the ground, and bury things like [dead] squirrels. I did that
with Daniel one time. It was fun! Or maybe we could look for bugs.
Teacher: If you wanted to say something kind to someone, what might you say?
Emily: “Hey! What you doing?” Or I might say, “What’s up?”

Fig. 1. An interview with Emily (age 7 years): A child’s understanding of empathy.

To Tell a Tale
looked at moral development mainly from an individual
perspective. Recent theories take a more comprehensive
look, considering influences such as gender (Francis,
1998; Gilligan, 1993; Jett-Simpson, 1993), culture (Jen-
sen, 1997; Zipes, 1995), and public service experiences
where children learn through volunteering in their com-
munities (Bilig, 2000; Krystal, 1998). Some even sug-
gest that children should be exposed to examples of so-
cially inappropriate behavior at a very young age so that
they can learn from the mistakes of others and, subse-
quently, begin to apply new moral principles (Oser, 1996).
One way to help a child experience the world from
another’s perspective is through the use of role-play and
moral dilemmas (Barton, 1986; Barton & Booth, 1990;
Clare, 1996; Furness, 1976; Shaftel & Shaftel, 1982; Van
Ments, 1999). Role-play refers to the process of imagin-
ing that you are someone else, seeing the world through
his or her eyes, and behaving as he or she would behave.
When a mother says to her son, “Imagine how your sis-
ter feels when you call her names,” she is, in effect,
asking him to role-play (Schulman & Mekler, 1985, p.
58). This type of role-play is a very powerful means of
strengthening empathy. Moral dilemmas are the stories
from which role-play situations can be derived. These
stories make children think purposefully (Whyte, 1995).
A method for implementing role-play and moral di-
lemma situations has been developed by Galbraith and
Jones (1976). In the example below, their original
framework has been synthesized with the recommenda-
tions of other experts in moral development (Barton,
1986; Bolton, 1999; Clare, 1996; Egan, 1989; Trostle-
Brand, 2001) and by my personal experience of using
role-play and other story-based techniques in the ele-
mentary classroom.
NINE STEPS IN THE CLASSROOM MORAL
DILEMMA PROCESS
1. Determine the Initial Moral Level of Students
Before beginning the moral dilemmas process, it is
necessary to gain a sense of the overall classroom level
of moral development. One way to do this is through
general observations of student interaction. These obser-
vations should ideally take place in both formal and in-
formal school situations and target specific behaviors
that need improvement (Teglasi, 2001). Another method
of assessment is the informal interview, such as the one
I conducted with Emily. Interviews not only provide in-
formation about a child’s moral thinking, but can also
be used to identify possible themes for future stories.
From Emily’s interview, for example, a teacher might
develop a story about a kickball game or a sick class-
17
mate. Record these early observations. They will be re-
ferred to later in the process when the amount of moral
growth is considered.
2. Choosing an Appropriate Story
The choice of stories used as moral dilemmas is
very important. Appropriate stories must have an obvi-
ous problem in which the main characters have to choose
between two or more justifiable positions with the ulti-
mate solution in mind. They should also be of interest
to most of the children in the class. Teacher-written (see
Fig. 2), student-written, and published stories all can be
used as resources. Teacher and student-written stories
can be very personal and directly relevant to individual
classrooms and situations. Thus, they can be strikingly
poignant and memorable. Alternatively, published sto-
ries such as Bedtime for Frances (Hoban, 1960) and Al-
exander and the Terrible, Horrible, No Good, Very Bad
Day (Viorst, 1972) have been proven, and the results
of their use can often be predetermined. School Library
Journal is an excellent resource for finding suitable sto-
ries for specific grade levels and situations. Many topi-
cal story lists are available as well. One excellent list
that I have referred to is One Hundred Books that Shaped
the Century (Breen, 2000). These lists can be found in
many professional journals and on the Internet. Also, do
not overlook narrative possibilities and teachable mo-
ments that arise in subjects such as history (Allan, 1999),
science (Allan, 1999; Hall, 1996; Horwood; 1995), and
even math (Lipke, 1996). These can be great opportuni-
ties. One of my favorite subject-related dilemmas is
based on the story of the Boston Tea Party (see Fig. 3).
3. Warm-Up Exercises
Begin by describing the story’s background. Ask
questions and provide details that will cause students to
begin thinking about the circumstances or context of the
dilemma. For example, when using the Flood (see Fig.
2), one must make certain that the children understand
the dangers of flooded areas and downed electrical lines.
With the Boston Tea Party, students need to understand
“taxation without representation.” Teachers can ask their
students to imagine that they are part of the situation
and to brainstorm possible problems that they would
face. The story might then be modified based on what
they suggest. This introduction should allow students to
identify with the characters and lead them in forming
initial opinions.
4. Presentation
Moral dilemmas can be presented in many ways.
In elementary schools, the most obvious, and probably
18 Upright

It seemed like it had rained almost forever! Rebekah had endured days and days of being cooped up in the house with her younger brothers
due to the torrential downpours. Phone and power lines were down. The nearby river and tributaries were flooding. School had been closed
for a week.
Finally the rain stopped, and Rebekah was allowed outside. Before leaving the house, however, she had to promise her mother that she
would not go near any downed electrical wires or into any of the flooded areas.
Rebekah decided to check out her school. The road she walked followed the bends of a very large stream that emptied into the river a
couple miles ahead. The water was spilling over the banks and was moving very rapidly.
Rebekah saw a small cat, claws firmly hooked in a large tree limb, coming toward her in the water. She realized that the cat could not
swim to safety alone, and that it would be badly hurt or even killed when it reached the river. Rebekah was a excellent swimmer; she was
a member of the local Jr. Olympics swim team. She knew that she could swim out and rescue the cat, but she also remembered her promise
to her mother.
What do you think Rebekah should do? Why?

Fig. 2. The flood story (recommended for third-grade students).

most effective, method is through oral storytelling (Mal-
lan, 1996; Sillick, 1997). Children love to hear good sto-
ries, and effective storytellers can attract and hold a child’s
attention easily (Gillard, 1996; Maguire, 1998; Mill-
stone, 1997). This should not be the only method used,
however. Other possibilities include written stories, au-
diotapes, videos, puppets, and the Internet. Allow stu-
dents to role-play the story as it is presented; this is an
excellent way to get students personally involved in the
situation and often happens spontaneously (Barton,
1986; Van Ments, 1999). Teachers should experiment
with various methods to determine which they are most
comfortable using and which elicit the best response
from their students. Preferred methods may change from
year to year and with each group of children. Always
make the presentation enjoyable.
5. Asking Initiating Questions
It is often not helpful or productive to ask young
children to immediately state their position on a dilemma.
First, they need the opportunity to discuss the story and
to clarify their understanding of the different characters
and situation involved (Lyle, 1996). The following steps
should follow the presentation of the story:
a. Ask the students if they have any questions about the story.
Carefully clarify the circumstances, and make certain that the
students understand the background of the situation and any
unfamiliar words or ideas.

Ben was a merchant in colonial Boston. He had lived in the city most of his life, having moved from England at the age of eleven. He
owned his own store and sold farm equipment, food, and other household necessities. He was married and had three children, ages four,
seven, and ten.
England had been taxing the colonists heavily without representation for the last several years. One tax that upset the colonists greatly
was called the stamp act. Each time a person bought any paper product, he would also have to buy an expensive stamp to place on it. The
money made from selling the stamps went directly to England and, many thought, into the King’s own pocket.
There were many other taxes on a lot of different items. Many colonists quickly became tired of paying these taxes since they received
nothing in return. Unlike today where our tax money goes to pay for roads, libraries, and police officers, the colonists received no benefits
from the money they paid. Finally, many colonists said, “Enough! We won’t give our money to England anymore!”
The King of England, fearing a rebellion, soon backed down and removed all taxes except for one. He left a small tax on tea. “That’s
fair enough,” he said, “I still have to show them who is boss.”
The colonists, however, given a taste of victory, even refused to pay that tax on tea. The King became very angry and threatened to
block the harbor, allowing only English ships in or out. How dare he! In response, a group of colonists planned an ambush on one of these
English ships that was delivering tea to the city. They decided that they would rather dump that tea into the harbor than pay the required
tax. That would show the King!
These men asked Ben to help. They wanted him to dress like an Indian, board the ship, knock holes in the tea chests, and dump the
tea into the water.
Ben did not know what to do. While he had been angry when the King was taxing everything, he really didn’t think that the small tea
tax was that bad. He didn’t like tea! Besides, if he was caught, what would happen to his family? He loved his city, however, and realized
that the King was treating the colonists badly. A naval blockade could shut down the city. He was also afraid that the colonists would
boycott his store if he did not help.
What do you think Ben should do? Why?

Fig. 3. Ben and the Boston Tea Party (recommended for third-grade students).
To Tell a Tale
b. Ask the students to explain the conflict of the story in their
own words. They will often add details and see problems that
the teacher has not considered.
c. Ask several general probing questions, and give several stu-
dents an opportunity to voluntarily indicate their position on
the issue. This will give the students a chance to make their
views known and will allow the teacher to determine whether
or not the story has produced disagreement among classmates.
This disagreement is essential. Over time, it will increase em-
pathy as students learn to objectively listen to, understand, and
respect the ideas of others (Luwisch, 2001; McCabe, 1996).
With proper modeling and practice, students should learn to
be persuasive without being argumentative, and understanding
while still being decisive.
At this point the teacher can decide to:
• use a small group strategy to continue the discussion, or
• continue with a discussion involving the whole class, playing
one idea off of another and making sure that differing opinions
are heard, or
• introduce a story expansion for the dilemma situation that will
allow students to consider a different aspect of the situation.
6. Group Work
Elementary students work best in small groups if
objectives are clear. Small groups can be either homoge-
neous or heterogeneous. If groups are homogeneous, all
members agree on the solution of the dilemma. Opinions
then can be broadened and strengthened as students dis-
cuss the situation. Conversely, in heterogeneous groups
where members disagree, students have the opportunity
to personally defend their position. In either case, if stu-
dents are truly involved in the discussion, role-playing
opportunities will often arise spontaneously and should
be encouraged. Many times, though, elementary students
can continue discussions without forming small groups
(Lyle, 1996). Teachers should gauge the students’ mood
and use whichever method seems best for each situation.
One important aspect to implement is guidelines for par-
ticipating in discussions such as the following:
Eight Ground Rules for Discussions
1. Everyone is entitled to an opinion.
2. No one attacks anyone else’s ideas.
3. Criticism and ridicule are avoided at all times.
4. Only one person talks at a time; nobody interrupts.
5. All are expected to listen well and receive the same treatment.
6. What one contributes is always considered important.
7. One always has the right not to answer or participate.
8. Changing one’s mind is a sign of personal growth.
7. Story Expansion
When a teacher feels that the original dilemma
story does not create the initial conflict necessary for a
good discussion, additional aspects of the story can be
19
introduced. These aspects will lean toward and focus on
changing the opinion of some students. This can be done
by continuing the story or by altering certain parts of it.
For example, if when using the Boston Tea Party di-
lemma most students feel that Ben should not help the
colonists, the teacher can describe in more detail how
the colonists might react. They might burn Ben’s store!
The students’ own ideas and insights will often be used
in this phase of the process.
8. Closing Strategies for Reflection
At the conclusion of the discussion, students need
reasons to continue thinking about it. You might want
to invite students to complete the original story, either
orally or in writing, based on their initial reaction be-
fore finishing it yourself. At the end of the story, allow
students, when appropriate, to modify the original di-
lemma or write a new one that involves the same char-
acters (Haven, 1999). Younger children can draw pic-
tures of the story and explain orally in their own words
what they learned. Students also could be encouraged
to share the dilemma with others outside of the class.
These closing strategies are important parts of the pro-
cess as they are designed to make it both memorable
and personal.
9. Recording of Responses
As this process will be repeated many times
throughout the school year, some record of students’ re-
sponses should be kept. This record will allow the teacher
to look for growth in both empathy and decision-making
ability. Creative writing samples are an excellent means
of saving these data as they can show clear progress
over time (Haven, 1999). Anecdotal records should be
kept, and video recordings can be made. Share early
work samples with students at the end of the school year
and allow them to make their own observations and con-
clusions.
CONCLUSION
Empathy is a learned process; it does not happen
automatically. Given time and practice, children can learn
to care for others and to act on that concern. They can
also grow to appreciate that others have ideas and opin-
ions that may be different from their own. Teachers should
always reinforce empathetic feelings, such as the one
that Joshua displayed at the beginning of this article.
Using moral dilemmas and similar story-based techniques,
teachers can guide students to strengthen such feelings
even more.
20
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