I. ! ! !

Mathematical Modeling: Hardy-Weinberg

II. Purpose
! The purpose of these labs was to reenforce the ideas of the Hardy- Weinberg
Theorem. It was also to show evolution at work in a population of organisms. Evolution
usually occurs through Natural Selection which will happen as an animal needs to
change and adapt to the needs of a changing environment. The proportion of genotypes
in a population from generation to generation can be determined using that Hardy-
Weinberg Theorem. This only works though under the conditions of Mendelian
segregation and recombination of alleles is at work. This theorem shows how Mendelian
genetic inheritance preserves genetic variation. The proportion of allelic frequencies can
be calculated by using the formulas p2+2pq+q2 and p-q=1. Genetic frequencies would
change with the changes in the environment, the phenotype or genotype that is best
suited for that specific environment will be the most observed at the time. When a
bottleneck effect is observed the allelic frequency will be drastically changed from what
it was. In addition when a founders affect is observed two populations of a species will
evolve differently and become genetically different as they are no longer breeding
together.
III.Hypothesis
! Lab A. If you Randomly pick variable then the offspring produced in each
generation will evolve to suit their changing environment.
! Lab B. If organisms are separated randomly then the offsprings that evolve from
the parents will have a smaller gene pool and evolve differently from one another.
IV.Materials
! Lab A. Computer, Paper, Pencil, AP Biology Investigative Lab book, Excel
(spreadsheet)
! Lab B. Paper, Pencil, Ruler, Lab Packet, Notebook, Classmates
V.Procedure
Lab A:
Step 1: Open a program that enables the creation of spreadsheets.
Step 2: Complete the steps of model making
1. Formulate the question.
2. Determine the basic ingredients.
3. Quantitatively describe the biological system.
4. Quantitatively describe the biological system.
5. Analyze the equations.
6. Perform the checks and balances.
7. Relate the results back to the question.
Step 3: To quantitatively describe the biological system you need to:
1. Set variable for the frequency of the alleles.
a. Allele A can be p and Allele B can be q
2. P and q must add up to be 1. So after you input a value for p in D2 you can then
put =1-D2 into D3
3. Next it is necessary to simulate random mating and this is done by using the
function =RAND(). In E5 input the equation =IF(RAND()<=D$2,”A”, “B”)
4. Create the same formula in E5. Then Copy them both down for 16 cells.
5. Place the zygote in cells G by entering the equation =CONCATENATE(E5,F5) then
copy this formula down to match the numbers in column F.
6. Columns H,I,and J are used to keep track o the numbers of each zygote’s
genotype.
7. In H5 input the equation =IF(G5=”AA”,1,0). Then copy it down the column
8. In J5 input the equation =IF(G5=”BB”,1,0). Then copy it down the column
9. In I5 input the equation =IF(G5=”AB”,1,(IF(G5=”BA”,1,0))Then copy it down the
column
10. Calculate the sums of each generation by using the sum function.
11. Use the genotype frequencies to calculate new allele frequencies and to
recalculate new p and q values.
12. Make a bar graph of the genotypes using the chart tool.
13. Copy the chart and use different p and q values to describe the patterns of
different allele frequencies over many generations.
14. Use the model before to determine the p and q values of the next generation.
15. Create graphs for the following generations to observe the change.
! Lab B:
Step 1: Determine if you are a PTC taster and if your earlobes are attached or
unattached.
Step 2: Determine of homozygous recessive frequency (q2). Do this by dividing the
number of students who cannot taste PTC by number of students in the class. This
gives you the q2 value.
! Do the same for attached earlobes.
! Fill in the first column of table 1.
Step 3: Determine the frequency of the recessive allele (q) by calculating the square
root of q2. Fill in the second column of table 1.
Step 4: Determine the frequency of the dominant allele (p) using the formula p+q=1, that
is, p=1-q and fill in the third column of table 1.
Step 5: Determine the frequency of the homozygous dominant genotype (p2) by
multiplying p times p and fill in the fourth column of table1.
Step 6: Determine the frequency of the heterozygous genotype (2pq) by multiplying 2
times p times q and complete column five in table 1.
Step 7: Select a trait for further testing.
Step 8: Test the Hardy-Weinberg law
1. Calculate the genotypic frequencies for the given trait.
2. Once the genotype to be used is contrived you must mate randomly with your
fellow class mates for five generations and then record your results.
3. Separate 6 students onto and island to create a founders effect and mate within
your population for five generations.
4. Calculate the genetic frequencies of each population and how they have
become different.

VI. Data Collection

! Lab A:
P = Frequency of A= 0.6
q= Frequency of B= 0.4 Number of each Genotype
0.4 Gametes Zygote AA AB BB
A A BB 0 0 1
A A BB 0 0 1
A B AB 0 1 0
B A BB 0 0 1
A B AB 0 1 0
A B AB 0 1 0
B A BB 0 0 1
B A BB 0 0 1
A A AB 0 1 0
B A BB 0 0 1
A A AA 1 0 0
A B AA 1 0 0
B A BA 0 1 0
B A BA 0 1 0
B A BA 0 1 0
B A BB 0 0 1
Sums for each genotype 2 7 7

A B
number of each allele 0.125 0.4375 0.4375
p q
allele frequency next generation 0.3536 0.6614 0.6614
Generation 2
p 0.3536
q 0.6614
Gametes Zygote AA AB BB
B A AB 0 1 0
B A AB 0 1 0
A B AB 0 1 0
B A BB 0 0 1
A A AB 0 1 0
B B BB 0 0 1
A B AB 0 1 0
A A AB 0 1 0
A A AB 0 1 0
A A AB 0 1 0
A B AB 0 1 0
B A BB 0 0 1
A A AB 0 1 0
B A BB 0 0 1
 A B AB 0 1 0
B A BB 0 0 1
0 11 5

A B
0 0.6875 0.3125
p q
0 0.8292 0.559
Generation 3
p 0
q 0.559
Gametes Zygote AA AB BB
A A AB 0 1 0
A A AB 0 1 0
B A BB 0 0 1
B B BB 0 0 1
B A BB 0 0 1
A A AB 0 1 0
B A BB 0 0 1
A B AB 0 1 0
A B AB 0 1 0
A A AB 0 1 0
B B BB 0 0 1
A A AB 0 1 0
B A BB 0 0 1
B B BB 0 0 1
A B AB 0 1 0
B B BA 0 1 0
0 9 7

A B
0 0.5625 0.4375
p q

P= 0
Q= 0.66143783
 Genotype Frequencies
10

0
Generation 1

AA AB BB

Genotype Frequencies
9

0
Generation 2

AA AB BB
 Genotype Frequencies
9

0
Generation 3

AA AB BB

0
Allelic Frequencies

P Q

! Lab B:
Non Taster with attached ear lobes
 Taster Non-taster Attached Earlobe Free Earlobe

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

x x

7 10 aa 7 aa 10
Table 1
Trait q2 q p p2 2pq

PTC Tasting 0.58 0.76 0.23 0.05 0.35

Earlobes 0.41 0.64 0.35 0.12 0.45

Table 2: Present Generation
Genotypes Genotypic Frequencies Number of Students

PTC Tasting Earlobes PTC Tasting Earlobes

Homozygous 0.59 0.41 10 8

Recessive (q2)
 Genotypes Genotypic Frequencies Number of Students

Homozygous 0.06 0.13 1 2

Dominant (p2)

Heterozygous 0.45 0.46 6 7

(2pq)

Breeding Round 1:
! ME! MATE!! Child!
F1! tt! tt! ! tt
F2! tt! Tt! ! Tt
F3! Tt! Tt! ! TT
F4! TT! Tt! ! Tt
F5! Tt! Tt! ! Tt

Table 4: F5 Generation
Genotypes Genotypic Frequencies Number of Students

Homozygous recessive 0.05 1

(q2)

Homozygous dominant 0.57 10

(p2)

Heterozygous (2pq) 0.36 6

Table 5: Parental Generation
Genotypes Genotypic Frequencies Number of Students

Homozygous recessive 0.05 1

(q2)

Homozygous dominant 0.57 10

(p2)

Heterozygous (2pq) 0.36 6

Class Results:
Heterozygotes! ! Homozygous Recessive! ! Homozygous Dominant
Tt! ! ! ! tt! ! ! ! ! TT! ! !

12! ! ! ! 1! ! ! ! ! 4! !

Breeding Round 2:
! ME! MATE!! Child 1! Child 2! Chosen Child!
F1! Tt! Tt! ! Tt! ! Tt! ! Tt! !
F2! TT! Tt! ! Tt! ! Tt! ! Tt
F3! Tt! tt! ! Tt! ! tt! ! tt!
F4! tt! tt! ! tt! ! tt! ! tt! ! !
F5! tt! Tt! ! Tt! ! tt! ! tt

Our portions results:

Heterozygotes! ! Homozygous Recessive! ! Homozygous Dominant
Tt! ! ! ! tt! ! ! ! ! TT! ! !

6! ! ! ! 2! ! ! ! ! 3! !

Table 6: F5 Generation
Genotypes Genotypic Frequencies Number of Students

Homozygous recessive 0.181818 2

(q2)

Homozygous dominant 0.3294 3.6

(p2)

Heterozygous (2pq) 0.489 5.4

Island Results:
Heterozygotes! ! Homozygous Recessive! ! Homozygous Dominant
Tt! ! ! ! tt! ! ! ! ! TT! ! !

1! ! ! ! 1! ! ! ! ! 4

Table 7: Island Results

Genotypes Genotypic Frequencies Number of Students

Homozygous recessive 0.166 1

(q2)
 Genotypes Genotypic Frequencies Number of Students

Homozygous dominant 0.35 2

(p2)

Heterozygous (2pq) 0.48 3

VII. Assigned Questions

Lab A.
1. What can you change in your model? If you change something, what does the
change tell you about how alleles behave?
! You can change the original allelic frequencies and this shows that everything is
completely random.
2. Do alleles behave the same way if you make a particular variable more
extreme? Less extreme?
! The should behave the same way in the fact that they will combine together
randomly.
3. Do alleles behave the same way no matter what the population size is? to
answer this question you can insert rows of data somewhere between the first
row of data and the last row the copy the formulas down to fill in the space.
! They will still behave randomly but it depends on how large the population size
is.
4. What would happen if there were no randomness to this selection?
! It would not be an accurate display of the Hardy-Weinberg equation or evolution.
5. What kind of pattern of genotypes would you expect in the next generation?
! The genotype that is best suited for the environment that its living in will be most
present.
6. In the absence of random events ( an infinitely large population), are the allele
frequencies of the original population expected to change from generation to
generation?
! No because the random events are what makes evolution happen.
7. How does this compare to a population that has random gamete selection but its
small
! the gametes will still display genetic variation though it will have a smaller
population which would make evolution occur faster.
8. What happens to allele frequencies in such a population? Is it predictable ?
! They become concentrated toward one side or another, yes as long as there is
random mating.
Lab B.

1. List the condition that must exist for the Hardy-Weinberg law to apply.
! Random mating must be present.
2.What evidence would you look for to indicate that a population is evolving?
! The phenotypes are changing in one direction or another.
3.Assume Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium.
a. If p=0.8 for a population, calculate the values of q,p2,q2, and 2pq. Show all your
working.
q=.2
p2=.64
q2= .04
2pq= .32

b. what would be the gene pool frequencies in the next generation if evolution does not
occur?
! it would continue shifting toward the Q direction.

VIII. Conclusion
! The reason behind this lab was to try to use the Hardy-Weinberg equation in a
real life situation. The first lab was teaching us to create a model on the computer and
to show us something that is very important to the science field , as nothing can be
proven unless math is behind it. A generalized error for this section of the lab is that
Excel is not the easiest application to use and the lab was meant to be used with Excel.
For this reason it made it slightly more difficult to concentrate on what the lab was trying
to teach. The second lab though was a more hands on way to teach the same thing.
Through mating with people in the class room the different theories of selection were
demonstrated while given a more realistic example of speciation and what the Hardy-
Weinberg equation is composed of. Some errors that might have occurred in this
section of the lab is that some of the results might not have been recorded down
correction and there may be variation between the genotypes that were recorded
between the class.
! In this lab i learned why and how the Hardy-Weinberg equation should be used
and why it is used. I also realized what is happening to the population not just that
numbers are being found through the equation. It helped to illustrate what the equation
means and how it should be used. Also i learned how to create a mathematical model.
More importantly than that i learned how to use Microsoft Excel. I also learned through
this lab that communicating with a lot of people you have to be organized with your
data, as people are moving around constantly.
! Experiments that could be done to further the study might be to look at real life
examples or organisms in an environment and to observe how they are changing with
the environment in which they live. In addition to this bacteria could be observed to see
how it becomes resistant to antibiotics and also use to Hardy-Weinberg equation to
predict what might happen.
! This applies to both evolution and in a small way genetics. Evolution because it
shows the amount change in a population of organisms over many different
generations. There are many real life applications for the skills and topics that were
learned through these labs. For example mathematical modeling is used in many
different fields of science, for predicting almost everything. This can also be used to
predict the evolution of a species over time and also what that species might do to the
environment it lives in.
Mathematical Modeling:
Hardy-Weinberg Theory

A.P Biology
3rd Block
Denise Grover