CDMA:

Introduction:

Code division multiple access (CDMA) is a channel access method used by

various radio communication technologies. CDMA is an example of multiple access,
which is where several transmitters can send information simultaneously over a single
communication channel. This allows several users to share a band of frequencies
(see bandwidth). To permit this to be achieved without undue interference between the
users, CDMA employs spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme (where
each transmitter is assigned a code). CDMA is used as the access method in many mobile
phone standards such as cdmaOne, CDMA2000 (the 3G evolution of cdmaOne),
and WCDMA (the 3G standard used by GSM carriers), which are often referred to as
simply CDMA.

CDMA is a spread-spectrum multiple access technique. A spread spectrum

technique spreads the bandwidth of the data uniformly for the same transmitted power. A
spreading code is a pseudo-random code that has a narrow ambiguity function, unlike
other narrow pulse codes. In CDMA a locally generated code runs at a much higher rate
than the data to be transmitted. Data for transmission is combined via
bitwise XOR (exclusive OR) with the faster code. The figure shows how a spread
spectrum signal is generated. The data signal with pulse duration of   (symbol period) is
XOR’ed with the code signal with pulse duration of   (chip period). (Note: bandwidth is

proportional to  , where   = bit time.) Therefore, the bandwidth of the data signal

is   and the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is  . Since   is much
smaller than  , the bandwidth of the spread spectrum signal is much larger than the

bandwidth of the original signal. The ratio   is called the spreading factor or
processing gain and determines to a certain extent the upper limit of the total number of
users supported simultaneously by a base station.
Generation of a CDMA signal

Each user in a CDMA system uses a different code to modulate their signal.
Choosing the codes used to modulate the signal is very important in the performance of
CDMA systems. The best performance will occur when there is good separation between
the signal of a desired user and the signals of other users. The separation of the signals is
made by correlating the received signal with the locally generated code of the desired
user. If the signal matches the desired user's code then the correlation function will be
high and the system can extract that signal. If the desired user's code has nothing in
common with the signal the correlation should be as close to zero as possible (thus
eliminating the signal); this is referred to as cross-correlation. If the code is correlated
with the signal at any time offset other than zero, the correlation should be as close to
zero as possible. This is referred to as auto-correlation and is used to reject multi-path
interference.

An analogy to the problem of multiple access is a room (channel) in which people

wish to talk to each other simultaneously. To avoid confusion, people could take turns
speaking (time division), speak at different pitches (frequency division), or speak in
different languages (code division). CDMA is analogous to the last example where
people speaking the same language can understand each other, but other languages are
perceived as noise and rejected. Similarly, in radio CDMA, each group of users is given a
shared code. Many codes occupy the same channel, but only users associated with a
particular code can communicate.
In general, CDMA belongs to two basic categories: synchronous (orthogonal codes) and
asynchronous (pseudorandom codes).

CDMA Overview and Features:

1. ACCESS SCHEMES

For radio systems there are two resources, frequency and time. Division by frequency, so
that each pair of communicators is allocated part of the spectrum for all of the time,
results in Frequency Division Multiple Access (FDMA). Division by time, so that each
pair of communicators is allocated all (or at least a large part) of the spectrum for part of
the time results in Time Division Multiple Access (TDMA). In Code Division Multiple
Access (CDMA), every communicator will be allocated the entire spectrum all of the
time. CDMA uses codes to identify connections.

Multiple Access Schemes

2. CODING

CDMA uses unique spreading codes to spread the baseband data before transmission.
The signal is transmitted in a channel, which is below noise level. The receiver then uses
a correlator to de spread the wanted signal, which is passed through a narrow band pass
filter. Unwanted signals will not be despread and will not pass through the filter. Codes
take the form of a carefully designed one/zero sequence produced at a much higher rate
than that of the baseband data. The rate of a spreading code is referred to as chip rate
rather than bit rate. 

3. CODES

CDMA codes are not required to provide call security, but create a uniqueness to enable
call identification. Codes should not correlate to other codes or time shifted version of
itself. Spreading codes are noise like pseudo-random codes, channel codes are designed
for maximum separation from each other and cell identification codes are balanced not to
correlate to other codes of itself. 

4. THE SPREADING PROCESS

WCDMA uses Direct Sequence spreading, where spreading process is done by directly
combining the baseband information to high chip rate binary code. The Spreading Factor
is the ratio of the chips (UMTS = 3.84Mchips/s) to baseband information rate. Spreading
factors vary from 4 to 512 in FDD UMTS. Spreading process gain can in expressed in
dBs (Spreading factor 128 = 21dB gain).

5. POWER CONTROL 
CDMA is interference limited multiple access system. Because all users transmit on the
same frequency, internal interference generated by the system is the most significant
factor in determining system capacity and call quality. The transmit power for each user
must be reduced to limit interference, however, the power should be enough to maintain
the required Eb/No (signal to noise ratio) for a satisfactory call quality.
Maximum capacity is achieved when Eb/No of every user is at the minimum level
needed for the acceptable channel performance. As the MS moves around, the RF
environment continuously changes due to fast and slow fading, external interference,
shadowing, and other factors. The aim of the dynamic power control is to limit
transmitted power on both the links while maintaining link quality under all conditions.
Additional advantages are longer mobile battery life and longer life span of BTS power
amplifiers

6. HANDOVER
Handover occurs when a call has to be passed from one cell to another as the user moves
between cells. In a traditional "hard" handover, the connection to the current cell is
broken, and then the connection to the new cell is made. This is known as a "break-
before-make" handover. Since all cells in CDMA use the same frequency, it is possible to
make the connection to the new cell before leaving the current cell. This is known as a
"make-before-break" or "soft" handover. Soft handovers require less power, which
reduces interference and increases capacity. Mobile can be connected to more that two
BTS the handover. "Softer" handover is a special case of soft handover where the radio
links that are added and removed belong to the same Node B.
See Handover page for more details.
CDMA soft handover

7. MULTIPATH AND RAKE RECEIVERS

One of the main advantages of CDMA systems is the capability of using signals that
arrive in the receivers with different time delays. This phenomenon is called multipath.
FDMA and TDMA, which are narrow band systems, cannot discriminate between the
multipath arrivals, and resort to equalization to mitigate the negative effects of multipath.
Due to its wide bandwidth and rake receivers, CDMA uses the multipath signals and
combines them to make an even stronger signal at the receivers. CDMA subscriber units
use rake receivers. This is essentially a set of several receivers. One of the receivers
(fingers) constantly searches for different multipaths and feeds the information to the
other three fingers. Each finger then demodulates the signal corresponding to a strong
multipath. The results are then combined together to make the signal stronger. 

Main types of CDMA technology:

1. cdmaOne
This is the older version of the CDMA technology and now it is now known as cdmaOne
as well as IS-95.

2. cdma2000
We now have cdma2000 and its variants like 1X EV, 1XEV-DO, and 3X. The refer to
variants of usage of a 1.25Mhz channel. 3X uses a 5 Mhz channel MC. This first phase of
cdma2000 - variously called 1XRTT, 3G1X, or just plain 1X - is designed to double
current voice capacity and support always-on data transmission speeds 10 times faster
than typically available today, some 153.6 kbps on both the forward and reverse links.

3. CDMA2000 Technical Detail

 Frequency band: Any existing band
 Minimum frequency band required: 1x: 2x1.25MHz, 3x: 2x3.75
 Chip rate: 1x: 1.2288, 3x: 3.6864 Mcps
 Maximum user data rate: 1x: 14.4 kbps now, 115 kbps in the future 1xEV-DO:
max 307 kbps - 2.4 Mbps, 1xEV-DV: 4.8 Mbps

4. WCDMA
Wideband CDMA that forms the basis of 3G networks, Developed originally by
Qualcomm, CDMA is characterized by high capacity and small cell radius, employing
spread-spectrum technology and a special coding scheme. WCDMA uses 5 MHz
bandwidth

5. CDMA Phones at Glance

 Samsung SCH-N191
 LG RD2030
 LG-Elect-TM910
 LG Electronics TM510

Two types of CDMA systems deployed in practice:

→ direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS)
→ frequency hopping spread spectrum (FHSS)

Direct sequence spread spectrum (DSSS):

DSSS is based on the linear algebra each user gets their own vector
→ called code vector (i.e., private key)
→ code vectors between users: orthogonal
→ in practice: also look random (pseudo-random)
→ prevents easy eavesdropping

Single-user DSSS: used in 802.11b WLAN

→ 11-bit chip sequence
→ single-user means: two laptops do not use orthogonal code vectors for simultaneous
bit transmission
→ even use same chip sequence
→ Multi-user communication: a different method called
CSMA (carrier sense multiple access)
→ Similar to Ethernet’s method
→ discussed under link layer protocols

W-CDMA/HSPA+ X-Series
Measurement Application N9073A & W9073A

Technical Overview

● Perform W-CDMA, HSPA, and HSPA+ downlink and uplink transmitter test per 3GPP
standard
● Perform one-button tests with pass/fail limit per 3GPP standard
● Use hardkey/softkey manual user interface or SCPI remote user interface
● Leverage built-in, context-sensitive help
● Move application between X-Series signal analyzers with transportable licensing
Advantages:
1. prevents eavesdropping
2. resistant to jamming (“spread spectrum”)
3. Used in old IEEE 802.11 WLAN (standards specify both DSSS and FHSS)
4. Used in old IEEE 802.11 Bluetooth
5. 79 frequency hopping sequence
6. Now: part of 802.15 Wireless PAN (personal area network)
7. Implications for networking
8. Increase bandwidth W (Hz) to proportionally increase reliable throughput
e.g., FDM, OFDM
9. Best possible way
10. Wireless bandwidth: scarce resource
11. Power control (e.g., handheld wireless devices)
trade-off w.r.t. battery power
trade-off w.r.t. multi-user interference: doesn’t work
12. if everyone increases power
→ signal-to-interference ratio (SIR)

USES:

1. One of the early applications for code division multiplexing is in the Global

Positioning System (GPS). This predates and is distinct from its use in mobile
phones.
2. The Qualcomm standard IS-95, marketed as cdmaOne.
3. The Qualcomm standard IS-2000, known as CDMA2000, is used by several mobile
phone companies, including the Globalstar satellite phone network.
4. The UMTS 3G mobile phone standard, which uses W-CDMA
5. CDMA has been used in the OmniTRACS satellite system for
transportation logistics.
6. STEPS in CDMA modulation: