Differential Protection

City of uMhlathuze
24 – 27 October 2017
 DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION
• Differential protection is a form of Unit Protection,
which is protection that is restricted or confined to a
defined physical area determined by the CT locations.
• As the name implies, the protection operates as a
result of a DIFFERENCE between quantities or
compared to what went in to an area versus what
came out of the area.
• It is practical implementation of Kirchhoffs Current Law
which considers the sum of current into a node.
• A fault inside the defined area will cause the protection
to operate and isolate the fault, while a fault just
outside of this area will not result in any protection
operation and the fault will not be isolated.
• Differential protection can be used on Overhead Lines,
Cables, Transformers, Motors, Bus Bars, Reactors
Generators or any other piece of equipment.
• This protection has the distinct advantage in that it can
be set very fast with no intentional time delays thereby
limiting any damage which is especially important for
areas with high fault levels and currents (remembering
that thermal damage is directly proportional to the
square of the current i.e. I2).
• Differential protection has evolved over the years from
an analogue balanced voltage and current scheme to
the current systems that make use of digital
communication over fiber optic.
• The analogue differential protection using copper pilot
wires has steadily declined in application with most
applications these days being digital numerical systems
over fibre optic.
 Advantages of Differential Protection
• Improve protection co-ordination in large
interconnected networks where there is not enough
grading margin between different circuits or current in-
feeds are problematic.
• Protection of short lines and cables where impedance is
too small to provide enough current discrimination
between different points.
• Improved fault resistance coverage.
• Protection of lines with in-zone equipment installed (eg.
transformers).
• Three (multi) terminal applications.
• Applications with series connected capacitors.
• Protection where tripping times are critical and needs
to be fast.
 Circulating Current Scheme
• The circulating current scheme is based upon the
principle established by Merz and Price (Charles
Hestermann Merz and Bernhard Price) and used as
early as 1906 – 1907, with South Africa having one of
the first schemes in 1911.
• The circulating current principle involves the currents
being placed such that currents circulate between the
CTs with the relay being placed across the electrical
mid-point of the secondary circuit.
• Out of Zone faults results in no current flowing through
the relay and the protection is therefore stable with no
operation.
 Out of zone fault

• The same primary current is common to both CTs at

location A and B, and if the CT ratios are equal then
currents IAsec and IBsec are equal with Irelay = 0.
 In-zone fault
• For a fault in the protected zone (internal fault)
the primary and secondary currents are shown for
radial and interconnected networks.
• The magnitudes of the primary fault currents will
depend upon the respective source impedances
and the angle difference between these currents
are 180ᵒ.
• From the diagram we can understand that if the
relay was located between the two CTs, then the
trip signal would need to be sent to both ends to
trip the circuit breakers.
• This makes it impractical in its present form for
protection zones that are a distance apart, and
can only be used for localized equipment.
• The solution is then to have localized relays with
a connecting medium between either ends of the
protective zone.
• Initially pilot-wires were used for this purpose
that connects the two end relays to each other.
 Errors in Measurement
• The analysis above assumes that the CTs are ideal and
perfectly matched with no difference between the
secondary currents on either end of the zone.
• In reality this is not possible and the inherent errors
and differences in the system would result in a current
through the relay.
• This is termed “spill” current and can be present
without a fault on the system under normal load
conditions.
• Normally the greater the load, the greater the spill
current and so the relay would need to be desensitized
so as not to operate under these conditions.
• The circuit is modified to include the affected circuit
parameters, and the equivalent circuit is shown:

• A stabilising resistor is included in series with the relay

which results in a reduced setting and greater
sensitivity achieved. The relay now operates as a
voltage device.
 Balanced Voltage Scheme

• The balanced voltage principle involves the connection

of the CTs such that the circulating current that would
flow in the secondary are opposed to each other.
• Thus, for a through fault the induced CT secondary
voltages at either end of the zone are equal
• (i.e. VA = VB). The resultant of voltage is then:
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 0
• If there is no voltage difference between two points,
then from Ohms Law no current can flow between the
two points and the relays cannot operate.
 Out of zone fault

𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑉𝐴 − 𝑉𝐵 = 0
• For a fault internal to the protected zone the CT
secondary voltages at either end of the zone is
equal but opposite in polarity (i.e. VA = -VB). The
resultant voltage is then:
𝑉𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡 = 𝑉𝐴 − −𝑉𝐵 = 𝑉𝐴 + 𝑉𝐵
• This voltage difference then drives current
between the 2 points and the relay can operate.
• For a through fault no current flows in the CT
secondary and it is then effectively open circuited.
• The scheme design is modified in order to prevent CT
saturation.
• This is achieved through the use of a transactor which
is the summation transformer that has distributed air
gaps in the core and a few primary turns with a high
number of secondary turns.
• The primary currents then results in a secondary
voltage being produced which is required in the
balanced voltage scheme.
 Translay H04 relay

• An example of the balanced voltage scheme with

a rotating disk is the Translay H04 relay.
• The principle of operation is the same as for
other rotating disk relays, where a rotational
torque is developed on a disk and once it has
travelled a certain distance (and time) contacts
are closed which executes the trip.
• A spring is used to return the disk to its original
position and which also determines he pickup of
the relay.
• The relay has a summation winding which is connected to
the line CTs and a secondary winding which connects the
two relays via the pilot-wire.
• Rotation of the disk occurs due to Eddy Currents that is
produced in the disk by interaction between currents in the
top and bottom magnets.
• An in-zone fault with current fed from one source only
results in the relay operation for the source end only as
there is no Ferraris effect on the remote relay due to current
only present in the secondary winding of the remote relay.
 Translay – S
• The Translay – S system is a static scheme with no
moving parts and works on the circulating current
principle.
• Tuned Phase Comparators are used to determine
operation or not and the scheme functions to trip
both relays at either end of the zone even if there is
only one source.
WORK SHEET: Circulating Current Translay - S

• Complete the following work sheet to show stability for external

faults.
 Solkor – R relay

• The Solkor – R relay is another older static relay

that works on the circulating current principle.
• Its working principle is different to that of the
Translay – S and makes use of diodes.
• If we assume that the relay
resistance is equal to the
pilot-wire resistance, then
for an external fault which is
out of zone on the right-
hand side, the positive half
cycle would result in the
following equivalent circuit
and voltage profile:
• The diode shorts out the
resistance Ra of the right-
hand relay, and the electrical
voltage midpoint occurs at
point X with zero volts. The
relay at Y is reverse biased
and current cannot flow
through the relay
• For the negative half cycle,
the equivalent circuit and
voltage profile is shown:
• Similarly, the diode shorts
out the resistance Ra of the
left-hand relay and the
electrical voltage midpoint
occurs at point Y with zero
volts.
• The relay at X is reverse
biased and current cannot
flow through the relay.
• The diagrams shows the effect if Ra ≠ Rp , the analysis as
above still holds with the only difference being that the
electrical voltage midpoint shifts and so there is a small
voltage across the relay.
 • For an in-zone fault the voltages are positive at both
zone ends during the positive half cycle and current
can flow in both directions and through the relays.
• Both relays will operate during this half cycle.
• For the negative half cycle, both voltages are negative
and the relays are reverse biased. Consequently no
current can flow in this direction.

• The balanced voltage

schemes installed in
networks are legacy
devices with new
installations being of the
circulating current type.
 Pilot Wire
• When the object to be protected is not large and
localized to a particular physical location, the
connection of the CTs and the relay can be easily
accommodated.
• When the object to be protected is a line or cable, the
ends of which may be quite a distance apart, then
connection between these devices can be achieved by
means of pilot-wires.
• Pilot-wires are copper cable of small cross sectional
area which is laid in trenches alongside the cables or
under the overhead lines. By reducing the cross
sectional area of the pilot-wire the cable cost can be
decreased but the resistance of the cable then
increases.
• If the pilot-wire cable were to be excessively long, then
an earth fault on an adjacent line may cause a high
enough voltage to be induced in the pilot-wire causing
maloperation and incorrect trips.
• There is then a practical limit to short distances where
pilot-wires can be employed (less than 10km).
• Pilot-wire also tends to be stolen for the copper
conductor which can be sold for scrap metal and this
makes pilot-wire systems less attractive in certain
applications and locations and results in differential
protection failure or maloperation.
 Pilot Wire Resistance
• The pilot-wire resistance affects the sensitivity of the
protection since the minimum operating level is
desensitized.
• This is mitigated by introducing a large and controllable
resistance into the circuit.
• This is called a padding resistance and is engineered such
that the loop resistance of the pilot circuit is fixed at
1000Ω.
• Relay settings can then be standardized.

𝑅𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝑅𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑡
2𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑑 + + = 1000 𝛺
2 2

∴ 2𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑑 = 1000 − 𝑅𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑡 𝛺

1000 − 𝑅𝑝𝑖𝑙𝑜𝑡
∴ 𝑅𝑝𝑎𝑑 = 𝛺
2
 Pilot Wire Capacitance
• We had previously described the capacitance present in
the primary circuit, but there is also a capacitance in the
secondary system between the pilot-wires themselves.
• For a circulating current system the pilot-wire capacitance
appears in parallel with the relay operating coil. At the
electrical midpoint of the pilot-wire circuit, there is a zero
voltage and consequently zero voltage across the
capacitance.
• The capacitive reactance for a capacitor is:

1
𝑋𝑐 = 𝛺
2𝜋𝑓𝐶

• And so by increasing the capacitance the denominator

of the equation increases which results in the
capacitive reactance decreasing. We also know that
with capacitors in parallel, the total capacitance then
becomes the sum of the capacitance i.e. CTotal = C1 + C2
+C3 + … + Cn which is an increase in the capacitance.
• Using this reasoning, we can think of the
increasing capacitance as shorting the pilot-
wires with more current then flowing down the
pilot-wire circuit but less current being present
in the operating coils.
• For a balanced voltage system the pilot-wire
capacitance is seen as being in series with the relay
operating coil.
• For the same reasons as above we can determine that
the capacitance creates a large current to flow, but
now this current will flow through the relay coil
causing a possible maloperation.
• If each phase were to be protected using this
technology, then three sets of pilot-wires are
needed – one for each phase.
• This is then prohibitively expensive.
• Large currents (and even small currents)
cannot be circulated by CTs over large
distances.
• The current is then reduced to the milli Amp
(mA) range by transformation.
• A solution to this is to use a summation
transformer at each protection end.
• This allows for the three phases to be represented
by a single quantity and only one set of pilot-wires
would be required which caters for phase-ground
as well as phase-phase faults.
• Even with a balanced three phase fault where IA
+ IB +IC = 0 a voltage output is still obtained. This
is because even though the current magnitudes
are equal, the number of turns on the core is not
equal.
• A single phase-ground fault has maximum sensitivity
since the current flows through the most windings
which results in maximum resultant voltage.
• Using an ampere-balance principle we can determine
the effective ratios for different fault conditions:
FAULT SUMMATION CT OUTPUT
A-G x+y+z
B-G y+z
C-G Z
A-B X
B-C Y
C-A x+y
A-B-C √(y2 + y + x)
• A Summation Transformer with ratio
1.25 : 1 : 3 will result in the following
setting for a A-G fault:
𝐼𝐴 ∙ 1.25 + 1 + 3 > 𝐾
𝐾
∴ 𝐼𝐴 >
5.25
𝐼𝐴 > 0.19 ∙ 𝐾
 WORK SHEET:
• Similarly, complete the Work Sheet for the
possible faults:
FAULT SUMMATION SETTING
B-N y+z

C-N z

A-B x

B-C y

C-A x+y

A-B-C √(y2 + y + x)

• From this we can see that the relay is not as sensitive for
phase-phase faults as what it is for phase-ground faults.
• This is not too much of a concern as there is usually lots of
current for phase-phase faults as it is only the inherent line
impedance that limits current and this is designed to be as
low as possible to keep losses low.
 Capacitive Line Charging Currents
• Cables and Overhead Lines have an inherent capacitance,
with the capacitance values for lines generally being low
and for cables they are substantially higher.
• Due to this capacitance, a charging current flows in the
primary system which is then seen at one end of a line /
cable but not at the other end.
• As an example the charging current for a 132kV Overhead
Line is approximately 0.3 A/km while for a 132kV cable it is
in the region of 9 A/km.
• Since the charging current is seen at one end of the line
and not at the other, differential protection would need to
be set not to operate for these measured differences.
• This capacitive charging current can be determined from
the equation:
2𝜋𝑓𝐶𝑈
𝐼𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑟𝑔𝑖𝑛𝑔 = 𝐴/𝑘𝑚
√3 ∙ 106

Where C = Capacitance per phase (µF)

U = Line-line voltage

• From the equation for the charging current, assuming that

the capacitance of the plant and the frequency is fixed, the
current magnitude is directly proportional to the voltage.
• In an unearthed or resistively earthed system, a phase-
ground fault on one phase will displace the voltage on the
other two phases which could result in the voltage being √3
times higher.
• Thus the charging current is then also √3 times higher in
those phases.
 High Impedance Differential
• High Impedance Differential Protection is sometimes
also referred to as Unbiased Differential Protection.
• For circulating current methods, when the CTs are not
perfectly matched, impedances in secondary cables,
transients are present or any other imbalance or
deviation from theoretical systems exists then the
differential scheme can become unbalanced and
differential currents or “spill” currents are measured.
• When the spill currents are large enough, false or
unwanted differential protection trips may occur
causing widespread disruption and system instability.
• For this unit protection the aim is to achieve maximum
sensitivity for internal in-zone faults while being stable
for out-of-zone faults.
• High Impedance Differential schemes and relays make
use of a stabilizing resistor to increase the operating
point of the differential relay thereby making it more
secure.
• This resistance may be internal to the relay or external.
• This scheme has only one electrical actuating quantity i.e.
current or voltage. High Impedance Differential can be set
to operate very quickly as it has zero time delay and is used
extensively in networks and applications such as Restricted
Earth Fault (REF) and Bus Bar Differential systems.
• The critical criteria when applying a high impedance
differential scheme is stability, where the relay should not
trip for fault that is out-of-zone.
• A worst case scenario that needs to be catered for is when
a maximum fault current occurs just beyond the defined
zone of protection and one CT saturates completely.
• We recall that when a CT saturates the magnetizing branch
impedance collapses (tends towards zero ohms) and
effectively shorts the CT out of circuit.
• We can redraw this system as an equivalent circuit
which includes the CT magnetizing branch and the
CT internal resistance as well as the lead (cable)
resistance between the CT and the relay.
• With the CT saturated and the magnetizing impedance
branch short circuited, the secondary current flows
through the CT internal resistance and the line resistance
as shown.
• It is possible to calculate the voltage across point X-Y
which is then also the voltage across the shunt relay
branch, by using:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 ∙ (2 ∙ 𝑅𝐿 + 𝑅𝐶𝑇 )
∴ 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔 > 𝑉
• To ensure stability, it must be checked that the relay does
NOT operate when this voltage is present across the relay
and the setting on the relay needs to ensure that it is
above the calculated value.
• A further check is to ensure that the CT knee-point voltage
is greater or equal to twice the voltage set voltage value
that is calculated and selected.
𝑉𝐶𝑇 𝐾𝑛𝑒𝑒𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡 ≥ 2 ∙ 𝑉𝑠𝑒𝑡𝑡𝑖𝑛𝑔
• By ensuring that the CT knee-point is sufficiently high, fast
and stable operation of the High Impedance scheme is
achieved.
Hi Impedance
 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION
• For the voltage calculation the cable resistance is multiplied
by 2 as it caters for the loop resistance which is the distance
from the CT to the relay and back.
• This is variable depending upon the length of the cable and
cross sectional area of the cable used.
• For this reason it is best to consider the longest cable run or
the equipment that is then furthest away from the relay as
this should give the highest resistance value.
• The RCT value is usually on the nameplate of the post type
CT.
• When the CT resistance is not known, a rule-of-thumb value
is to use 5mΩ per turn for 1A CTs and 3mΩ per turn for 5A
CTs.
• The maximum fault current is obtained from fault
simulation of the network in maximum conditions.
• Some relays have voltage settings where the stabilizing resistor is
incorporated within the relay, while others may have a current
operate setting where the resistor is external and needs to be
determined and set.
• If the relay has a fixed operating current setting (Ioperate) then the
external stabilizing resistor is calculated by considering the
minimum fault sensitivity, voltage across the relay and the burden of
the relay.
• Performing system analysis the minimum fault current can be
determined, and a level well below this can be selected as the
operating pickup. This then ensures that fault will be easily
detected and protection operation will be fast. Thus:

𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 ∙ 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 ∙ 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦

Considering the relay burden:

2
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 ∙ 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦
∴ 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 2
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
• Substituting Rrelay back into the equation:
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 ∙ 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏 + 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 ∙ 2
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 ∙ 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏 +
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑆𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦
∴ 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 ∙ 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏 = 𝑉 −
𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦
𝑽 𝑺𝒓𝒆𝒍𝒂𝒚
𝑹𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒃 = − 𝟐
𝑰𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚 𝑰𝒔𝒆𝒄𝒐𝒏𝒅𝒂𝒓𝒚
• For an in-zone fault,
significant voltage is
developed across the
relay as the fault current is
shunted through the relay
branch.

radial source network

The voltage developed across the
relay shunt branch can be calculated
as:
𝑉 = 𝐼𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 𝐹𝑎𝑢𝑙𝑡 ∙ 𝑅
Where R = Rstab + Rrelay

IRelay Fault = Secondary Fault Current in

interconnected sources relay shunt branch
• As the term High Impedance Differential implies the shunt
resistance R (Rstab + Rrelay) can be high and during an
internal fault condition the current in the secondary that
flows through this resistance can also be significant.
• From Ohms Law we can determine that the voltage
developed across the stabilizing and relay resistance can be
high.
• The secondary system has an insulation level that should
not be exceeded, and should the instantaneous voltage
exceed 3kV then a special non-linear resistor called a
Metrosil needs to be installed in parallel.
• The purpose of the Metrosil is to clamp the voltage above a
certain design level.
• The peak voltage that gets
developed in the
secondary circuit during
very heavy internal faults
can be highly non-linear.
• It is therefore a complex
matter to determine the
exact voltage. • This peak voltage Vp
• An empirical formula can developed by the CT under
be used which indicates a heavy internal faults is:
peak voltage based upon 𝑽𝒑 = 𝟐√(𝟐𝑽𝑲 𝑽𝑭 − 𝑽𝑲 )
the CT knee-point voltage
(VK) and a calculated Where
voltage produced using the 𝑉𝐹
fault current and circuit = 𝐼𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑𝑎𝑟𝑦 ∙ (𝑅𝐶𝑇 + 2 ∙ 𝑅𝐿
impedances.
+ 𝑅𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑏 + 𝑅𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 )
• This peak voltage calculated
is to be used as a guide, and
is valid where the knee-point
voltage is less than half the
calculated voltage i.e.
VK ˂ VF/2
• When a number of CTs are
connected in parallel, then
the peak voltage calculated
above will also be reduced as
a factor of the shunt
conductance of the parallel
CTs.
• However, for a worst case
scenario the calculation
above can be used to check
whether insulation levels are
adequately protected.
• If this calculated Vp voltage is greater than 3kV then a
Metrosil has to be installed. The Metrosil is a non-linear
resistor and chosen based upon the relay voltage setting and
the maximum internal fault current
• The Metrosil has a voltage / current characteristic that is
defined by the equation:
𝜷
𝑽𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌 = 𝑪𝑰𝒑𝒆𝒂𝒌
Where
Vpeak = peak value of the voltage.
Ipeak = peak value of the current.
C = Constant that depends on physical size, composition and
manufacturing process.
β = Constant that depends on composition and manufacturing
process.
 • A typical
characteristic
curve for a
Metrosil

• A table showing the

Metrosil Type for 1A
CTs corresponding to
the voltage setting
required
• An important criteria and consideration when applying Metrosils in
the circuit is that the leakage current through the unit should be kept
to a minimum and not have an adverse effect on the current
requirement for operation.
• The continuous voltage rating of the unit as well as short time
current ratings also needs to be within design limits

• From the Metrosil equation it can be seen that Vpeak and Ipeak are given
parameters and only C and β can be chosen or specified.
• To limit the leakage current through the unit the value for C needs to
be specified such that the current is within an acceptable level which
for a 1A CT is in the region of 30mA.
• The Metrosil equation can be re-written for the AC
waveforms as:
𝑰𝑹𝑴𝑺 𝜷
𝟐 ∙ 𝑽𝒔𝒆𝒕𝒕𝒊𝒏𝒈 = 𝑪 ∙
𝟎.𝟓𝟐
• To minimize the spill current for load, heavy through fault
currents and transient conditions, the CTs need to be
matched with identical magnetization characteristics.
• A mismatch in the CT magnetization curves results in a
false differential current being measured by the High
Impedance Differential relay.
• Many incorrect relay trips are as a result of this mismatch
of CTs.
• From the analysis and equivalent circuits above, we have
seen that there are a number of shunt impedances in
parallel with the stabilizing and high impedance relay eg.
magnetizing branch for each CT and Metrosils connected to
limit voltage levels.
• Each of these devices results in current having to flow in
these parallel paths and this current is then not available to
be used to operate the differential relay or it can be said
that the effective primary current is then the sum of all of
these currents.
• The effective primary setting is then:
𝐼𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 = 𝐶𝑇𝑅 ∙ (𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 + 𝐼𝑚𝑒𝑡𝑟𝑜𝑠𝑖𝑙 + 𝑛 ∙ 𝐼𝑚 )
Where n = number of CTs connected in parallel
Im = CT magnetizing current
Imetrosil = metrosil current
Irelay = relay branch current
 Low Impedance Differential

• Low Impedance Differential Protection is also

referred to as Biased Differential Protection.
• This system uses a part of the measured current
to desensitize the differential protection.
• There are two quantities used in Low Impedance
Differential termed Restraint and Operate
quantities as opposed to only the one Operate
quantity used in High Impedance Differential
protection.
 Transformer Differential
• Current Magnitudes
• Phase Shifts
• Zero Sequence Current
Transformer Differential
• Traditional Biased Differential schemes used a
split coil in the series circuit as a restraint winding
with an operate winding in the shunt circuit as
shown:
• All the current, whether it is load current,
internal fault current or external fault current
passes through one or both restraint coils.
• The higher the primary current the more secondary current
that flows through the restraint coils. With larger currents
through the restraint coils, the less sensitive the relay
becomes to operation. The restraint current can also be
referred to as bias or stabilizing current in some relays or
applications.
• Redrawing the circuit with the operating coil having No
windings and the restraint coil having Nr windings, then
each half of the restraint coil will have Nr/2 windings as
shown
• Currents I1 and I2 will flow in the secondary circuit with
their direction determined by whether the fault is in or
out of zone.
• The current in the Operate Coil depends upon whether
the fault is in or out of zone, while there is current in
the Restraint Coil irrespective of the fault location
(direction may change).
• For electromechanical type relay devices, the Force
developed is directly proportional to current in the coil or
winding (from the Ferraris principle Torque = K·ø1·ø2·Sin
but this can be derived from a single current input as with a
CDG relay).
• The current through the Operate Coil is the vector sum of
all the zone currents while the current through the
Restraint Coil is the total zone current. Thus:
𝐹𝑜𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 ∝ (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 ) ∙ 𝑁𝑜
And
𝑁𝑟 𝑁𝑟
𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡 ∝ ∙ 𝐼1 + ∙ 𝐼2
2 2
𝑁𝑟
∴ 𝐹𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛𝑡 ∝ ∙ ( 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 )
2

Where No = Number of windings in operate coil

Nr = Number of windings in restraint coil
• The current in the Operate Coil (Iop) and the current in the
full Restraint Coil (Irest) is then:
𝐼𝑜𝑝 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2
𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 =
2
• The relay is designed to initiate a trip when the operate
current is above a set value or portion of the restraint
current (i.e. the operate force is greater than the restraint
force).
• So we can rewrite this as:
𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐼𝑜𝑝 = 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 𝐾 ∙
2

𝐼1 − 𝐼2
∴𝐾=
𝐼1 + 𝐼2
2
• We can plot this characteristic with (I1 – I2) on
the vertical axis and (|I1| + |I2|)/2) on the
horizontal axis for different values:

• This gives us a percentage differential characteristic,

where the relay will operate (trip) for a fault condition
that appears above the characteristic line
• while the relay restrains (does not trip) when the fault
condition is below the characteristic line.
 Restraint Equations
Restraint Equation
• The relay restraint
characteristic may be 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
defined or programmed 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 =
2
differently by the
various relay 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
manufacturers.
• The principle of
operation and 𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 𝑀𝑎𝑥( 𝐼1 ; 𝐼2 )
understanding remains
the same.
𝐼1 + 𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 ∙ 𝐼2 ∙ 𝐼1 ∙ 𝐼2
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 =
2
 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION
• With High Impedance Differential protection the
relay is desensitized to prevent false operation
from spill currents by adding the stabilizing
resistor.
• This has the effect that it desensitizes the
protection across its entire range i.e. irrespective
of the fault current the value to operate remains
fixed.
• Plotting this characteristic on an Operate
(Differential) versus Restraint (Bias) graph it is
depicted as a horizontal linear characteristic and
is then moved up/down based upon the level of
stabilization chosen.
• With Low Impedance Differential protection the
relay is desensitized to prevent false operation by
changes in the operate-restraint characteristic
which is then a function of the fault current.
• The plot of this characteristic has the effect of
changing the gradient of the curve.
• The major advantage of this is that at lower
current levels the relay is more sensitive and at
higher current levels the relay becomes less
sensitive.
• A minimum value of operate current (Iop min) is
added as an additional security measure to
prevent spurious operation for minor differences
in current between the two ends of the defined
zone or equipment error margins.
 Modern differential relays
• Modern differential relays typically have two slopes of
bias characteristic and are termed Dual Slope
Differential protection relays.
• The slopes can be set independently with the second
slope at a steeper angle than the first.
• Different parts or sections of the characteristic are
designed to cater and mitigate specific phenomena
that may lead to protection instability.
• The area of the Operate – Restraint curve shown as ①
caters for current mismatch between the end zone
current measurement as well as inherent errors in the
instrument transformers.
• This is usually denoted as an Idmin value i.e. the
minimum value of differential current needed for
operation
 • An example of the current mismatch between the two
ends of a differential zone is magnetization current into a
transformer which is measured on one side but not on the
other side of the transformer.

• The diagram shows a

simulation with the HV side of
a star-star transformer
energized, while the MV side
is open.
• It is seen that a magnetizing
current can be measured at
the HV terminal with no
corresponding current at the
MV terminal.
• The first slope of the characteristic shown as ② is
designed to cater for mismatches in the current
measurements as a result of the protected object as well as
CT error.
• As an example, for transformers the tap changer may cause
a current mismatch when it is not on the nominal tap
position and the more heavily loaded the transformer the
greater this mismatch then appears.
• The second slope of the characteristic shown as ③ caters
for severe external faults that may cause CT saturation.
• For this reason the slope gradient is increased, allowing for
greater stability and security at the expense of sensitivity.
 PRACTICAL CONSIDERATION
• The Differential equations shown above are for
two ended zones with currents I1 and I2 being the
currents measured for each end.
• 3 Terminal Differential applications with currents
I1, I2 and I3 measured at each end are also
commonly found within utilities and industry.
• For these 3 terminal applications the Operate
(Differential) and Restraint (Bias) equations are
then:
𝐼𝑜𝑝 = (𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3 )
𝐼1 + 𝐼2 + 𝐼3
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 =
2
 Numerical Differential Relays
• With the advent and advancements in
microprocessors, telecommunication and computing,
differential protection has taken a quantum leap
forward.
• This has seen the evolution of differential protection
from an analogue system to a digital protection system
which transfers information securely over greater
distances at high speed.
• Many information packages and pieces of information
are carried within a digital message which allows for
added functionality such as phase segregation,
intertripping, remote end status etc.
• At each end of the zone the current waveforms
are sampled, digitized and filtered before being
applied to the differential algorithms.
• The relays interchange information between each
end via the communications medium through its
communication interface.
 • The primary electrical network ensures that the current
and voltage within the system is aligned and balanced
and any instantaneous change is reflected across the
network.
• The digital secondary system is separated from this
natural alignment of electrical quantities across the
network and measured quantities needs to be actively
aligned in order to reduce errors.
• This is best explained by considering an AC waveform
with a frequency of 50Hz.

• Every 1ms of the waveform

corresponds to an 18ᵒ change in the
instantaneous point on the wave
• The sampling of the current
waveform at each end of the
protected zone is determined
by the microprocessor and the
starting time of each relay may
not be synchronized with the
remote end.
• It is therefore possible that the
instantaneous point in time
when the sample is taken will
differ between each relay.
• Furthermore, the transmission
times of the signals would
depend upon the
communication interface which
could introduce time delays.
• The effect of this time difference is to introduce a phase-shift
between the two signals, which in terms of the differential
relay is interpreted as a differential current and possibly an
internal fault.
• To illustrate and simplify this concept, assume that there is a
1ms difference between two ends of a differentially
protected line with a load current of 100A and no fault
present on the system.
• For simpler analysis we also assume that all information is
sampled, processed and communicated to the remote ends
and the cumulative timing difference between the received
signals is then 1ms.
• Calculating the Operate (Differential) component:
𝐼𝑜𝑝 = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐼𝑜𝑝 = 100∠0° − 100∠18°
𝐼𝑜𝑝 = 31.3∠ − 81°
∴ 𝐼𝑜𝑝 = 31.3
• Calculating the Restraint (Bias) component:
𝐼1 + 𝐼2
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 =
2
100∠0° + 100∠18°
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 =
2
100 + 100
𝐼𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 =
2
∴ 𝐼 𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑡 = 100
• If the signals were perfectly aligned and sampled,
processed and communicated at exactly the same
instant in time there would be no phase displacement
between the sampled values and the communicated
signals would be 180ᵒ out of phase.
• This results in an Operate (Differential) current value of
0 as shown below:
• It is then evident that phase shift correction is
required in order to align the current vectors
within the relay.
• This alignment is required in order to prevent the
false differential current from operating the relay.
• Furthermore, the relay would need time to
process information and perform its programmed
algorithms before sending the information to the
remote end.
• A time delay is also introduced by the
communication medium
• Many modern relays have the ability to connect GPS
devices in order to synchronise their clocks and so
doing provide synchronous communication and time-
stamping of events and records.
• Differential relays with these time synchronization
functionality are then easily able to align their current
vectors mitigating any threat of false differential
operation.
• This functionality however requires infrastructure that
sits outside of the protective device.
• The differential relay therefore needs an inherent
internal system that is able to perform vector
correction internally in an asynchronous mode of
operation.
• Early differential relays allowed the user to input the
time delay, with more modern relays calculating the
time delays on their own.
• A simple but effective method by which time correction
is achieved, is through the continuous monitoring and
time-stamping of the received and sent data messages.
• When the data package is sent a time stamp is placed in
the communicated message. The receiving relay can
compare the time stamp of the received message with
its own time, process the data and determine
processing time and time stamp the return message.
• Upon receipt of the returned message the original local
relay is then able to determine the loop time difference
of the system.
• By subtracting the processing time and dividing
the calculated difference by 2 the propagation
time delay is determined.

𝑡𝑑𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑦 = 𝑡𝑑1 = 𝑡𝑑2

𝑡𝐴𝑛 − 𝑡𝑝 − 𝑡𝐴𝑛−1
=
2
• This assumes that the send and receive time delays are
equal and that the communications path are the same
in both directions.
• When the communications paths and time delays are
different, special measures need to be taken to ensure
vector alignment and may require external
synchronization devices.
• Since current information and data is sent from the
local end to the remote end in a digital package the
differential protection is easily phase segregated
allowing for Operate and Restraint calculations to be
done on a per phase basis as compared to using
summation CTs which combines the phase information.
• It is therefore simple to perform single pole tripping,
intertripping and fault analysis or fault finding.
 Advantages and Disadvantages
ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
1. Can detect and operate for high resistance faults. 1. Does not inherently provide back-up for out of
zone faults.
1. Can be applied on multi-terminal feeders. 2. Communication infrastructure required.

2. Fast operation. 3. Large bandwidth and high speed required of

communication medium.
3. Consistent operating time. 4. Communication failure results in protection being
solid (may switch to Emergency Overcurrent and
Earth Fault) or being unstable.
4. No Voltage Transformers required, only Current 5. Typically limited to short line and cable
Transformers. applications.
5. Not affected by Power Swings. 6. Relays at each end of the line usually have to be of
the same manufacturer and series of device.
6. Caters for CT saturation and transient conditions.

6. Not affected by Series Compensation on the

feeder.
6. Not affected by Mutual Coupling.
6. Simple settings and no Grading complications.

6. Fibre Optic communications medium is immune

to electrical interference and offers isolation of
circuits.
Thank you