Research Methods (PF2105)

What is Research? (Lecture 1, pg 2)

• Systematic, controlled, empirical and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about presumed relations among natural phenomenon
• Uses information that is reliable
• A cyclical process

Reasons for Research to be done:

1. Develop new materials, processes, technologies,
2. Fine-tune designs
3. Gather market information
4. Aid in policy making
5. To better understand about a particular objects or substance

Research can be done at different levels like individual, group, institutional,

departmental, ministry, national, team, project and industry levels.

Sources of Knowledge (Lecture 1, pg 5)

1. Superstition – not empirical or logical
2. Intuition - not empirical or logical
3. Authority (from those viewed as authority figures) - not empirical or
logical
4. Tenacity (clinging stubbornly to repeated ideas despite evidence given) -
not empirical or logical
5. Rationalism (logical reasoning) – logical but not empirical
6. Empiricism (through observation of real world organisms and events) –
empirical but not necessarily logical
7. Science (through empirical methods and logical reasoning) – only
acceptable way to gain knowledge

Characteristics of Enquiry by Scientific Method:

1. Generated by a question
2. Gives a clear statement of objectives
3. Divides the principal problem into more manageable problems
4. Requires collection and interpretation of information in an attempt to
resolve the problem that initiated the research
5. Interpreting information and reaching some conclusions about their
meaning
6. Requires reasoned argument to support conclusions
7. Reiterative in its activities
8. Accepts certain critical assumptions

Research Process:
Research Area > Topic > Research Background > Lit. Review > Research Design
> Detailed Literature Review > Aims and Objectives > Research Questions > Field
Survey (Data Collection) > Data Analysis > Discussion > Recommendations
Assumptions Made in Scientific Method:

1. There is some order in the universe and events have causes

2. Must agree that people see and view things in the same way
3. Reliability of human perception and intellect
4. Complexity should be avoided

Types of Research (Lecture 1, pg 9)

1. Basic research done to find scientific information or for more knowledge
2. Applied research done for practical significance and potential solutions

Problems in Group Research:

1. Organizing group work can be challenging
2. Meetings to be determined
3. Proper communication between every member is required
4. Consider strengths and weaknesses of the group
5. Respect differences among members
6. Develop conflict resolution mechanisms

Things to Consider when Choosing a Topic:

1. Time available
2. Cost
3. Resources available
4. Methods to be taken
5. Access to information

Questions to Consider to have a Suitable Research:

• What is the nature of the phenomena, or entities, or social reality that you
wish to investigate?
• What might represent knowledge or evidence of the entities, or social
reality that you wish to investigate?
• What topic or broad substantive area is the research concerned with?
What would be the generic label for your research?
• What do you wish to explain or explore?
• What is the purpose of your research? What are you doing it for? (this
requires one to consider political and ethical issues of one’s research)

Characteristics of Science (Lecture 2, pg 2)

1. Empiricism - based on observation
2. Public – Scientists publish their findings in various media for easy access
by others
3. Replication – what one finds should be repeatable
4. Theory
– They work together.

Philosophy of Science (Lecture 2, pg 3)

• Scientists of a discipline normally share a paradigm, which is a common
viewpoint that determines the questions to be asked and methods to use
Features of a Paradigm:
1. Suggest new methodological procedure for gathering supporting
empirical evidence
2. Suggest new problems for solution
3. Explain phenomena that older paradigms could not explain
4. Represent a radically new conceptualization of phenomena in a particular
field

Social Research Paradigms (Lecture 2, pg 4)

• Positivism: View that social science procedures should mirror, as near as
possible, those of the natural sciences
• Aim of positivism paradigm is to offer explanations leading to control
and predictability
• Post-positivism: A response to criticisms of positivism
• Aim of post-positivism: Objectivity remains but qualitative methods used
to ‘check’ validity of findings
• Interpretivism: Interpretations of the social world are culturally derived
and historically situated
• Post-modernism: Locally, temporally and situationally limited narratives
required
• Aim of post-modernism: To overcome boundaries, divisions imposed on
art and social science

How Disciplines Advance (Lecture 2, pg 5)

1. Conjecture – development of new ideas that may be challenging the
existing ideas
2. Refutations – attempts to falsify existing ideas via empirical research
• If old one is refuted, the new idea well be settled in the area
3. Conjecture
• If there is no conjectures, the area of research will not develop in a
good way
4. Refutation

Hypothesis: A prediction regarding the outcome of a study involving the

potential relationship between at least two variables

The Research (Lecture 2, pg 6, 7)

1. Background of Study:
• Found in the first chapter of research
• To establish relevance, need for, timeliness of study
• Establish why is it necessary and important
2. Knowledge Gap:
• Must be wide and extensive search
3. Research Aim:
• Broad, quite big
 • Broad statement of what the researcher actually sets out to achieve
by undertaking the investigation that leads to answers to the
research question
4. Research Objectives:
• More detailed, but limit it to a small number
• Maximum 4
• Should be attainable
• Should include a proposal of some use for the findings
• More detailed series of statements on steps to take achieve the aims
• Can be used to assess success or failure of the research project
5. Hypothesis
• Should be detailed
• Should be drawn from very extensive research and supported by
literature review
• Should be able to be established (debate on whether failure to
establish hypothesis is failure of the research)
• May include sub-hypotheses which can be broken down into
‘propositions’
• Must be shown in final chapter that it has been established
6. Research Scope
• Making the study manageable but not oversimplified
• Ensuring study is worthwhile
7. Research Design
• Approach should be appropriate to the subject, nature and sources
of information, method of analysis possible
• Should be formulated to enable the study to contribute to both
knowledge and practice
• What should be done
• Outline of research
• Detailed framework or plan that helps to guide you through the
research process, allowing greater likelihood of achieving your
research objectives
• Explain, justify why particular design was adopted, stating also
limitations
8. Research Methodology
• Should not only be one method
• Choose one out of many methods after decision
• Review all methods suitable for the study
• Select and justify method to be adopted; cite previous users
• Evaluate the method adopted at the end of the study, e.g. is it
appropriate?
9. Literature Review
• Conceptual background and academic foundation of study
• Identify mainstream theory
• Real review, with comparisons, contrasts, critique, own comment
• Must be in detailed
10. Field Study
• Must be in detailed
 11. Analysis and Discussion of Findings
• Related the discussion to the literature
12. Validation of Model or Framework
13. Contribution to Knowledge – Academic Significance
14. Contribution to Practice – Practical Significance
15. Recommendations for Further Research
• Tell others what they should do
• Example: Research Agenda of CIB (Lecture 2, pg 8)

Topic, Question, Aims and Objectives (TQAO)

1. Topic: Developed from the identified (broad, subject) area of research, it
narrows the issue to be researched
2. Question: The research problem or question that the researcher wants to
answer and is developed from the topic and brief review of background
and literature

Questions to Consider in Research Design (Lecture 2, pg 9)

1. Purposes of the research?
2. Researcher’s role in the research?
3. Nature of knowledge?
4. What voice do you adopt when writing?
5. What criteria will be used to judge the quality of the research?
6. Place of ethics in the research?
7. Audience of the research?

Types of Research (Lecture 2, pg 10)

1. Qualitative research – aims to achieve depth rather than breadth
2. Quantitative research – involves large scale, representative sets of data

Output from Research

1. Patents
2. Spin off companies
3. Products
4. Processes, procedures, policies

Impact from Research

1. Member of editorial boards
2. Consultancy assignments
3. Keynote speaker invitations
4. External examiner appointments
5. Editor of journals
6. Appointment to government committees and boards

Differences and Similarities between Qualitative and Quantitative Research

(Lecture 2, pg 10)

Details found in a Journal (Lecture 2, pg 13,14)

1. Abstract: a brief summary of the paper that normally discusses:
• Purpose of study
 • Problem being studied
• Aim of study
• Method applied
• Findings, including some headline numbers
• Recommendations
• Conclusions
2. Introduction that covers
• Introduction to the problem being investigated
• Review of relevant previous research
• Purpose and rationale of study
3. Method: Describes how the study was conducted, in sufficient detail to
enable one who reads the paper to replicate the study
4. Results: Summarizes data collected and statistical techniques used to
analyze the data; includes tables, figures
5. Discussion: Results are evaluated and interpreted.
• Starts with a restatement of the prediction of the study
• Includes discussion of relationship between results and past
research and theories
• May include:
– Recommendations
– Criticisms and limitations of the study
– Implications for further research
6. Conclusion
7. References
8. Appendix
• Questionnaire may be included here

Research Method VS Research Methodology

1. Research method: Relates to the tools of data collection or analysis and
different ways by which data can be collected and analyzed (Data
collection and analysis)
2. Research methodology: Normally refers to approach all paradigms that
underpin the research and approach and strategy used to conduct
research. An overall approach to the research process and includes
theoretical approach, collection and analysis of data

Main Concepts of Research (Lecture 3, pg 3)

1. Inductive research
• Have certain theories but trying to build something new step by
step
• Involves collecting of data and developing theory as a result of the
data
• Induces new activities
• Often qualitative
2. Deductive research
• Starts with the existing theory
• Involves developing a hypothesis based on existing theory and
designing a research strategy to test the hypothesis
 • Often quantitative
– Both are acceptable and established.
– Deductive VS inductive (Lecture 3, pg 3)

Research Philosophies (Lecture 3, pg 3)

1. Epistemology: Refers to the nature of knowledge
• Positivist approach used in natural sciences where they take an
objective view when conducting research (Remove own
interpretations/feelings)
• Interpretivists support the view that researcher must enter social
world of what is being examined. May involve qualitative,
subjective observations (Include himself in the process)
• Positivism and interpretivism are 2 best known research
philosophies
2. Ontology: Concerned with the nature of reality
• Subjectivism which is linked to interpretivism where researcher
examines motivation and social interactions of respondents that
lead them to behave in observable ways (Try to understand why)
• Objectivism taking an external view of the world (Take the world
as it is; reality is independent of the mind and truth)
3. Axiology: Concerned with the nature of value
• Positivists consider the process of research as value free as they
are independent of their research
• Interpretivists believe their own values can influence the
collection, analysis and interpretation of data

Qualitative Approach VS Quantitative Approach (Lecture 3, pg 4)

Literature Review (Lecture 3, pg 4-6)

• Should be started early in the study as it helps to determine the research
gap and research problem, and related hypotheses and questions
• Researcher must ‘pull together the diverse perspectives and research
results and read into a cohesive whole. Some possible ways:
– Describe general trends in the topic
– Identify general themes running through the literature
– Show chronological development of ideas on, approaches to, the
topic
– Compare different theoretical perspectives on the topic
– Identify contradictory findings and suggest possible explanations
• Benefits:
– Helps ascertain whether other researchers have already addressed
the research problem
– Offer new ideas, perspectives, approaches
– Inform researcher about persons working on similar areas for
possible collaboration
– Shows how others have dealt with design and methodological
issues
– Reveals sources of data
– Introduces measurement tools developed and or used by others
 – Helps researcher interpret and make sense of findings from the
study, and to relate them to the work of others
– Reveals methods for addressing problems similar to those
encountered on the study.
• Purposes:
– Establish the present condition of the field
– Clarify relevant concepts, theories
– Summarize the results of previous research to form a foundation
on which to build your own research.
– Gather ideas on how to collect data.
– Investigate methods of data analysis.
– Study the instrumentation which has been used.
– Assess the success of the various research designs of the studies
already undertaken.
– Provide justification for the present research by: (i) finding areas
of the subject not yet researched (gap); (ii) methodological
weaknesses; (iii) limited perspectives
– Enable the researcher to claim originality.
• Aims:
– To address a specific, focused research question to provide a basis
to the research
– To reduce bias at all stages of the review
• Sources:
– Should be relevant to the topic
– Be written by an authoritative author (check biographical notes,
affiliation, previous works)
– Should be up-to-date
– Should be published by a reputable author in the field
• Process of reviewing literature
– Decide: a separate chapter?
– Critique the literature
o Comment on the works
o Compare, criticize them
o State opinions on them
– Link the review to the rest of the writing
o Relate the literature to research question
o Highlight relevant literature in your analysis, discussion,
conclusion
– Key considerations to:
o Cover relevant important, contemporary works and debates
o Cover works by key authors in the field
o Cover most up to date works
o Ensure coverage is comprehensive (number of works is not
critical)
– Indicate and justify how the literature review is organized
o Explain and defend how works are categorized
o Explain what is omitted and why
o Discuss the rationale for your selection of works to review
 – In presenting the review, avoid citing too many works to back the
same point, cite only what you have actually read
– Search may end when already reviewed work keeps appearing.
– Key processes are: Categorization, summary, selective quotation,
synthesis, evaluation and critique

Types of Research (Lecture 3, pg 6)

1. Historical Research: Using historical data to explore for meanings,
relationships of events
2. Comparative Research: Comparing of people’s experiences of different
societies between times or in parallel situations (Normally used together
with Historical Research)
3. Descriptive Research: Relieves on ‘observation’ (interview,
questionnaire survey, visual or sound recording) as means of collecting
information
• Researchers should be aware of various forms of bias as it cannot be
eliminated when depending on human observations
4. Correlation Research: Assess degree of relationship between 2 variables
• Often quantitative method that comprises relational studies and
prediction studies
• Correlation does not imply causation
• Require data from large number of cases
5. Experimental research: Has greater control over subjects of the study
• Highly objectivist, deductive
6. Evaluation Research: Descriptive type of research to deal with complex
social issues
• Examples are many research projects by governments
• Highly demanded
7. Action Research: Constant monitoring and evaluation are carried out
• Depends on observation and behavioral data
• Examples: Social impact assessment by those that are affected, nature
of competitiveness in a UK construction firm
8. Ethnogenic Research: Looking at people’s reality through their own eyes
• Aims to represent a view of the world as it is structured by the
participants under observation by eliciting phenomenological data
• Takes place in undisturbed natural setting of participants
• Attempts to represent the totality of the social, cultural and economic
situation, regarding the context to be equally important as the action.
9. Feminist Research: Model of social research involving theory and
analysis that highlight differences between lives of men and women.
10. Cultural Research:
• Content analysis
• Semiotics
• Discourse analysis

Research in Social Sciences (Lecture 3, pg 9-11)

1. Descriptive methods
 • Observational methods: Type of quantitative research in which a
particular aspect of behavior is observed
– Naturalistic observation – observing the behavior of humans or
animals in their natural habitat
o Main concern is reactivity (where participants change their
behavior), expectancy effects (influence of researcher’s
expectations on the outcome of the study), resource intensity
and lack of control
– Laboratory observation – observing the behavior of
humans/animals in a laboratory
o Concerns are reactivity, expectancy effects and lack of
flexibility because of controlling the way things are
• Content analysis: Detailed, systematic examination of contents
• Correlational research: (stated in the previous page)
• Developmental study: An observational-descriptive type of research
that either compares people in different age groups (cross-sectional
study) or follows a particular group over a lengthy period of time
(longitudinal study)
• Ethnography: (Stated in the previous page)
• Grounded theory: Aimed at deriving theory through the use of
multiple stages of data collection and interpretation
• Case-study method: In-depth study of one or more individuals, a
program or event, for the purpose of learning more about an unknown
or poorly understood situation
• Survey method: Questioning individuals on a topic or topics and then
describing their responses, allowing researchers to study large groups
of people easily, but sample may not be representative and wording
may not be properly worded
• Historical research: Attempt to reconstruct or interpret historical
events through the gathering and interpretation of relevant historical
documents and/or oral histories
• Phenomenological research: A qualitative method that attempts to
understand participants’ perspectives and views of social realities
• Quasi – experimental method: research that compares naturally
occurring groups of individuals and the individuals are not assigned to
random groups (less rigid than experimental)
• Experimental research: Scientific research to compare two or more
groups that received different treatments and to establish a cause-
and-effect relationship through manipulation of a variable and control
of the situation
• Meta-analytical research: Looking at the results of previous research
and summarizing the results

Research Methods (Lecture 3, pg 11)

1. Archival method – Descriptive method involving describing data that
existed before the time of the study
• Reactivity eliminated and researcher does not deal with
participants
 • Reliability or validity of the information and data uncertain
• Researcher will not know whether some of the data might have
been disposed of over time; thus, what is in the archive might not
give the full picture
• Researcher must rely on the existing data for assumptions and
context that might not be complete
• Researcher has no control over what was studied, or how it was
studied
2. Field Studies – Involves observing everyday activities as they happen in a
natural setting
• Observer directly involved with those being observed
• Similar to naturalistic observation and participant observation
(Lecture 3, pg 9 slide 34)
• Major concern: Reactivity
3. Action Research – involves co-generation of new information and analysis
together with actions aimed at transforming the situation
• Focuses on finding a solution to a local problem in a local setting
• Can be a process, enquiry, approach or a cyclical process involving
extensive field work
• Can be both qualitative and quantitative
4. Experiment – Situation in which the independent variable is carefully
manipulated by the researcher under controlled conditions, or by natural
occurrence.
• 2 groups: one exposed to the interventions by researchers, and the
other not exposed.
• 2 groups should be equivalent, and examined systematically under
conditions that are identical, to minimize variation between them.
• Pros and cons (Lecture 3, pg 13)
5. Survey research – Study designed to determine the incidence, frequency
and distribution of certain characteristics in a population
• Involves systematic observation or interviewing

Survey Research – Writing the questions (Lecture 3, pg 13,14)

1. In writing the questions:
• Should be clear, short, in simple language to avoid confusion
• Ensure information elicited by each question is specific, and
unambiguous
• Do not include questions which require specialist knowledge to
answer
• Avoid questions requiring respondents to recall events which
happened long in the past
• Do not frame too many of the questions in a particular sense
(positive or negative)
• Do not give vague alternative answers
2. Open-ended questions
• Avoid too many of it as takes too much time to answer them
properly
3. Close-ended questions
 • Possible answers provided should be comprehensive, and include
all that can apply
• Possible answers should be clear, simple, specific

4. Rating scale
• Easy to convert data to ordinal and analyze them statically
5. Common mistakes in questionnaires:
• Loaded questions
– Want to influence others’ thinking
– May be intentional or unintentional
• Leading questions
– Sways the respondent to answer in a desired manner
• Double-barreled questions
– Asks more than one thing
– Often include words like ‘and’ and ‘or’
• Wrong question
– Question that makes incorrect association between the subject
and object of the question
6. Response provided
• Response bias
– Tendency to consistently give the same answer to almost all of
the items in a survey to make responding easier
– Mix up questions requiring ‘positive’ and ‘negative’ answers
– Mix up sequence in which desired answers appear in each of
the questions
• Prestige bias
– Tendency to provide answers that make one look good

Survey Research - Arranging of Questions

1. Present related questions in subsets; this makes concept being
investigated clear to respondents, helps them to focus on an issue at a
time
2. Put questions dealing with sensitive issues (eg. age, salary, performance)
at the end; they are more likely to answer sensitive questions if they have
committed themselves by answering non-sensitive ones
3. Put demographic questions (asking for basic information such as
qualification, position, experience) at the end

Survey Research – Administering the Survey

1. Mail survey
• Advantages:
– Eliminates interviewer bias for example through facial
expressions in response to earlier questions
– Allows data on more sensitive information to be collected
– Less expensive than telephone surveys or interviews
– Answers tend to be more complete as respondents can take
their time to think about the questions.
• Disadvantages:
 – Not possible for respondent to seek clarification or ask
questions so items not clear might be left blank, or
misinterpreted
– Response rate is generally very low (much lower than
telephone surveys and interviews); follow-up mails may raise
response rate significantly
2. Telephone survey
• Survey in which the questions are read to participants over the
telephone
• Advantages (compared with mail surveys)
– Respondents can ask for questions to be clarified
– Researcher can ask follow-up questions.
• Disadvantages (compared with mail surveys)
– Time consuming as researchers must read each question
– Expensive, owing to telephone charges
– Participants likely to give “socially desirable responses”.
3. Personal interviews (Lecture 3, pg 15,16)
• Standardized interview
– Structured, formal, questions asked in particular sequence
– No deviation from wording of questions, with no clarification to
respondents, or follow up or spur of the moment questions
asked
• Semi-standardized interview
– Has some structure but wording of questions is flexible
– Level of language may be modified
– Respondents have flexibility to express their opinions, follow
up questions may be asked
• Unstandardized interview
– Unstructured, no set wording or order to the questions
– Questions are more spontaneous, free-flowing
– Participant can seek clarification, add further opinions
– Interviewer may add more questions, or leave some out.
• Advantages:
– Researcher can record both verbal responses, and facial and
other non-verbal expressions that might give more insight into
respondent’s true views, feelings
– Participants spend more time to answer questions than in
telephone interviews
– Respondents can ask for clarification
– Researcher can ask follow-on questions
• Disadvantages
– Likelihood of interviewer bias
– Presence of interviewer influences answers of respondent
– Socially desirable responses
– Time-consuming and expensive
– Lack of anonymity affects responses (audio recording makes
interviewees more self conscious)
– Response rate depends on access to suitable participants, tends
to be low
 4. Focus group interviews
• Questions are open ended and addressed to the whole group
• Participants are free to answer in any way they choose, and to
respond to each other. Researcher moderates discussion.
• Advantages:
– More information, diverse, possibly different views, can be
gathered
– Researcher can explore other relevant topics arising in the
discussion; group members may challenge researcher’s agenda
– Some participants may feel safer, more free in that setting
– Discussion may lead to unexpected findings.
• Concerns:
– A few individual members of the group may dominate the
interview
– Dynamics of the group may suppress or exaggerate specific
views, issues thus researcher should be skilled at dealing with
such situations
– Difficult to document who says what
– Much effort is required to organize such meetings.
5. Multi-modal survey methods
• Usage of different survey methods
• Different stages:
– Respondents contacted by mail to inform them they can go on-
line to complete the survey
– Respondents are sent a postcard as first reminder, an e-mail as
second reminder, telephone call as third reminder
– If they still do not complete the survey, they might be called,
and given opportunity to respond to the survey via telephone
• Have high response rates
6. Advantages and disadvantages of surveys (Lecture 3, pg 16)

Preliminaries of Research Report (Lecture 4)

1. For a research report commissioned by an authority or organization, it
may include:
• Letter of appointment, outlining the problem to be studied, stating
terms of reference, indicating time period, outlining reporting
structure
• Letter of transmittal (transmission) that accompanies the report upon
submission to the client
– Summarizes terms of reference
– Outlines how study was done
– Summarizes findings
– Summarizes recommendations
– Expresses gratitude for the assignment
2. Title
3. Acknowledgement
4. Table of contents
5. List of tables and list of figures
6. List of abbreviations
Abstract and Keywords of Research Report
• Should give a short, but complete summary of the entire work
• Should briefly cover:
– Background to the study – why it is being done (eg. research gap
and/or topicality or importance of subject)
– Aims and objectives – what was done
– Hypothesis
– Method of information and data collection
– Main technique of information and data analysis
– Main findings
– Recommendations for action
– Conclusion – including further work
• Keywords, usually 6, should be sufficient to describe the work and
facilitate cataloguing

Introductory Chapter
• First chapter
• Includes:
– Background to the study – why study was done (topicality or
importance of subject of research)
– Research gap and research problem, after short review of
literature
– Aims and objectives – what was done
– Hypothesis– may be stated here, or after literature review
– Scope of study … drawing the boundaries of the research
– Research methodology, including method of information and data
collection (briefly here, as another chapter should cover it into
more detail)
– Structure of the report, showing very briefly what each chapter
contains. It is usually accompanied by a figure showing how the
chapters relate to each other.

Hypotheses
• Indicate as clearly as possible
• Assertions (not suggestions)
• Limited in scope
• Statements about the relationships between certain variables
• Contain clear implications for testing the relationships
• Compatible with current knowledge
• Expressed as economically as possible using correct terminology in the
final chapter.
• How hypotheses can be stated (Lecture 4, pg 5)
• Possible errors in hypotheses (Lecture 4, pg 5)
Literature Review
• May spread over more than 1 chapter
• May take various forms according to:
– Different issues covered in the study, for example, as in variables
outlined in hypothesis
– Major views (paradigms or theories) on the subject in the
literature
– Key developments in the subject over time.
• No particular sequence for representing a report on ‘legitimate’ research
• Purpose:
– Entire basis of research
– Source of ideas on topics of research
– Develop a conceptual framework
– Source of information on research done by others
– Source of comparison between proposed research project and
other projects
– Source of methodological or theoretical ideas
– Learn from mistakes made by others

Conceptual Framework
• How researcher views the concepts involved in a study, especially the
relationships between concepts
• Development of conceptual framework involves:
– Identification of concepts
– Definition of concepts
– Exploration of relationships between concepts
– Operationalization of the concepts which involves deciding how it
might be measured

Research Methodology
• Sampling to explain why particular choices were made, for example,
sampling approach, sample size, stating limitations.
– Population
– Sampling frame
– Sampling method
– Sample size
• Method(s) of data collection
– Questionnaire design to discuss how the questionnaire was
developed from the hypothesis
– Pre-test
– Interview
• Data collection and processing must be discussed for each step.

Merits and Demerits of Questionnaire Survey (Lecture 4, pg 7,8)

Data Analysis
1. Representation of descriptive statistics
2. Ranking of variables using mean responses, with a simple test of ranks
3. Factor analysis

Conclusion (Lecture 4, pg 11)

• Summary that provides a concise account of all the work done. If a
hypothesis was made, statements as to whether it was proved will be
made in this section
• Academic and practical significance included
• Limitations of the research
• Recommendations for actions and recommendations for further research
can be included

Ethics in Research (Lecture 6):

• Relevant at all stages of research
• All researchers have a moral responsibility to:
– Carry out research in an honest, accurate way
– Respect privacy, confidentiality of participants
– Be transparent about the use of research data
– Follow principles which hinge on respect and trust
• Failure of researchers to carry out research ethically can:
– Cause real harm to participants
– Lead to adverse consequences from application of results
– Affect the reputation of the researchers
– Have a negative impact on the integrity of the participants
– Have an adverse impact on reputation of researcher’s organization
and profession.
• Ethics consent form required for consent on studies involving person and
animals to be submitted by researchers
• Informed consent form is to completed by participants
• Ethic Code of American Psychological Association (Lecture 6, pg 3):
– Beneficence and Nonmalificence: researchers should do no
harm, be aware of their influence on others, use their professional
positions for good; and monitor their health and personal factors
which might negatively affect their work
– Fidelity and Responsibility: researchers should be aware of
their professional and scientific responsibilities, interact
collegially with colleagues
– Integrity: researchers should be accurate, honest, truthful and
should keep their promises
– Justice: all people should have access to benefits of research and
services; researchers should be aware of their own biases and
professional limitations
– Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity: value people and their
dignity; respect diversity, right to privacy, confidentiality, and
self-determination.
 • Ethical Responsibilities to research stakeholders:
– Individual participants - select only persons or organizations
qualified to answer the questions and obtain informed consent of
participants.
– Both physical and psychological safety of researcher
– Both physical and mental well-being of all participants
– Informed consent can be dispensed with under some
circumstances.
– Offer all respondents the option to remain anonymous.
– Confidentiality of data collected: use generic names or codes to
refer to responding companies or persons.
– Fully brief all participants before, during, after the research.

Features of a Case Study (Lecture 5)

1. Investigates social phenomenon
2. Benefits from pior development of propositions
3. Rich in context
4. May be historical or contemporary
5. Relies on multiple sources of evidence
6. Used in distinctive situations
7. Empirical enquiry
8. Applies both qualitative and quantitative analysis

Case Study Research (Lecture 5, pg 4)

• Useful when:
1. Topic is broad and highly complex
2. Not a lot of theory available
3. Context is very important
4. Impossible to isolate or simulate (properties relevant to) the
phenomenon
5. Phenomenon is rare
6. Research design problems present
7. Combination of research and action
• Many put case studies at bottom of hierarchy of research methods

Types of Case Studies

1. Single case study
– one in which data from one instance is enough to achieve the
research objective
2. Comparative case study
– one which requires data from two or more instances to achieve the
research objective
3. Intrinsic case study undertaken to understand the particular case
– Not intended to contribute to theory building
4. Instrumental case study undertaken to provide insight into an issue or
redraw a generalization
5. Multiple or collective case study where a number of cases are studied
jointly to investigate a phenomenon, population or condition
– Individual cases can be similar or not similar
 – Leads to better theorizing
6. Intensive case study that aims at understanding a unique case from the
inside by providing a thick, holistic, contextualized description
– Case is critical
– Theoretically informed, capable of developing theory
7. Extensive case study
– Aims at elaboration, testing or generation of generalisable
theoretical constructs by comparing a number of cases
– Objective of testing or extending prior theory, or building new
theory
– Employed when there are no relevant specific theories or concepts
explaining the issues at hand
– Relies more on quantitative and positivist research
– Focuses on mapping common patterns, mechanisms, properties in
chosen context for developing, elaborating, or testing theory

Case Study Protocol

1. Overview of case study project
Objectives
Case study issues
Relevant literature on the topic
2. Field procedures
• Presentation of credentials
• Access to case study ‘sites’
• Sources of information
• Procedural reminders
3. Case study questions (specific questions investigator must keep in mind
in collecting data, etc)
4. Guide for the case study report
• Outline
• Format for the data
• Use and presentation of documentation
• Bibliographical information.

To Prepare a Case Study (Lecture 5, pg 7

1. Selecting the case
• For instrumental and collective casework
• Formal sampling is required such that the cases must represent some
population of cases
2. Sampling of a case
• Extreme case sampling is used to identify a subgroup within a culture
• Typical cases provide a cross-section of a larger group
• Minimum-variation case sampling identifies units that are able to
adapt to different kinds of contexts and conditions
• Critical case sampling looks for units representing the most ‘critical’ or
relevant cases for transfer of findings to other related cases
• sensitive cases are used to investigate important issues through the
use of individuals or groups who have particular viewpoints
 3. Data collection
• From one or a combination of sources
• Existing empirical data:
– documents – minutes of meetings, letters, agendas, progress
reports, annual reports, statistics
– archival records – service records, organisational charts, budgets
– media texts – newspaper and magazine articles, advertisements,
brochures
– personal diaries of organisation members
– digital materials – various types of web pages, chat conversations,
e-mail messages
– physical artefacts – trophies, photographs, signs, artworks,
furniture, awards, memorabilia.
• Data produced for the research (Lecture pg 7,8):
– interviews – typically open ended, but may also be focused or
structured
– surveys – mostly mini surveys to collect focused data
– protocols – transcriptions of participants talking about what they
are doing as they are doing it
– instructed stories and diaries written by the participants of the
study
– direct observation – formal or casual ... useful to have multiple
observers
– participant observation – assuming a role in situation; getting
insider view
4. Writing of case studies:
• 5 ways in reporting case studies:
– Linear-analytic structure – starts with outline of problem
formulation and research questions, then reviews literature and
describes theoretical framework, then methodology section and
analysis, ending with findings and conclusions
– Comparative structures – present several cases, one after the
other, comparing them (from theoretical, explanatory, or actor
perspectives)
– Chronological structure – presents evidence in chronological
order, each section discussing one phase of the case study
research
– Theory-building structures – built around theory-building logic of
research
– Suspense structure – starts with outcome of study, then reveals
empirical evidence incrementally, step by step
– Unsequenced structure – ordering of sections and chapters
follows a logic different from (1)-(5) above.

Writing a Case Report

1. Title
2. Introduction - presents a summary of the preparation phase of the study
• Research topic
• General research objective
 • Body of knowledge regarding the topic of the research
• Specific research objective
3. Methods – describe how the research was done and which
methodological choices were made
• Research strategy – description and justification of the research
strategy related to the specific research objective
• Candidate cases – description and justification of the candidate cases
from which the case(s) were selected
• Case selection – description and justification of the selection of case(s)
from candidate case(s)
• Measurement – A description of:
– how the variables were defined
– how objects of measurement were specified
– how sources of evidence were identified, selected, and accessed
– how evidence was extracted from these sources
– how evidence was recorded
– how the data were coded
• Data analysis
• Results - Describes the results of the research without further
interpretation and discussion
• Discussion – presents implications of the outcome of the research
– limitations of the research and their possible effects on the
outcome of the research
– implications of outcome for theory or for practice
– future research needs based on the outcome of the research
– possible contribution to practice and theory

Features of a Good Case Study

1. Significant
2. Consider alternative perspectives
3. Examine evidences from different prespectives
4. Look at evidence that most challenges research design and results
5. Display sufficient evidence for its research questions
6. Present critical evidence so reader can independently judge on merits of
analysis and conclusions