Latin American Hispanic Caribbean Literature Written in The United States

[ 16 ]
Latin American (Hispanic Caribbean) literature written in the

United States
William Luis
Hispanic C a r i b b e a n literature written in the United States is a relatively

new field in literary history and criticism. In recent years, Spanish
A m e r i c a n literature written in the United States has become a reality
because of writers w h o , for e c o n o m i c or political reasons, left their
countries to reside in the United States. A u t h o r s such as Reinaldo Arenas
(Cuba) and Sylvia M o l l o y (Argentina) write about their homelands; but,
as their stay in the United States becomes more permanent, these and
other authors such as Luisa Valenzuela (Argentina) and C a r l o s G u i l l e r m o
W i l s o n (Panama) tend to d o c u m e n t their experiences in a n e w environ
ment. T h e y are contributing to an existing b o d y of Hispanic A m e r i c a n
literature written by C h i c a n o s such as R o d o l f o A n a y a and G a r y S o t o ,
Puerto Ricans such as N i c h o l a s a M o h r and T a t o Laviera, and C u b a n
Americans such as O s c a r Hijuelos and R i c a r d o Pau-Llosa, w h o write and
live in cities like N e w Y o r k , L o s Angeles, M i a m i , and N e w a r k , w h i c h
have n o w acquired a distinctly Hispanic character.
Hispanic C a r i b b e a n literature written in the United States has profited
from the publicity received by the so-called Boom of the Latin A m e r i c a n
novel, w h i c h during the 1960s brought Latin A m e r i c a n literature to the
attention of a w o r l d reader. A t the same time, Hispanic C a r i b b e a n
narrative written in the United States appeals to a w i d e audience w h i c h
includes English-speaking readers living on the N o r t h A m e r i c a n conti
nent. Political events have helped to p r o m o t e aspects of this literature.
D u r i n g the turbulent decade of the 1960s, the Civil Rights and Black
P o w e r movements and Y o u n g Lords Party drew attention to the plight of
Blacks and Hispanics in the United States. Hispanic C a r i b b e a n college
students, many of them the sons and daughters of immigrants, were
instrumental in creating and developing Latin A m e r i c a n or Puerto R i c a n
Studies programs throughout N e w Y o r k and other northeastern states. In
search of an identity, they demanded relevant courses about life in Puerto
R i c o , the D o m i n i c a n Republic, and C u b a , and other Spanish-speaking
countries and, equally important, about their o w n experiences in the
526
Downloaded from https:/www.cambridge.org/core. University of Western Ontario, on 28 Jan 2017 at 00:14:43, subject to the Cambridge Core
Cambridge Histories Online © Cambridge University Press, 2008
terms of use, available at https:/www.cambridge.org/core/terms. https://doi.org/10.1017/CHOL9780521340700.018
Latin American (Hispanic Caribbean) literature
United States. T h e newly created courses were different from traditional

offerings insofar as they were taught from a sympathetic point of v i e w .
T h e enthusiastic efforts of college students on US campuses were paral
leled by c o m m u n i t y activists and organizers w h o sponsored events to
p r o m o t e ethnic awareness and artistic expressions emerging from the
barrios and ghettos.
Hispanic C a r i b b e a n literature written in the United States can be
divided by country of origin and genre, but more appropriately should be
divided into t w o main categories. T h e first consists of writers w h o were
formed and educated in their native countries and later emigrated or were
forced to flee to the United States. W h i l e in the United States, they
continued to write in the vernacular mostly about themes pertaining to
their island of provenance. Some traveled to the United States for brief
periods while others stayed longer. Regardless of the reasons for going to
the United States or length of time spent there, the writers' presence in the
United States has had a lasting effect on them and their w o r k s . T h e second
category includes writers w h o w e r e either born or raised in the United
States, and w h o for the most part write in English. A s a g r o u p , they write an
ethnic literature w h i c h responds to concerns about their isolation within a
dominant culture that has denied them an identity and access to N o r t h
A m e r i c a n society. For these writers, their parents' country of origin is a
distant m e m o r y . T h e s e Hispanic A m e r i c a n or Latino authors write about
Hispanic Caribbeans living on the US mainland and their w o r k s are at the
vanguard of a n e w literary movement w h i c h is both Hispanic and N o r t h
A m e r i c a n and is helping to bring the t w o literatures and cultures together.
Hispanic C a r i b b e a n literature written in the United States is not n e w . It
began as a literature of exile w h i c h can be traced to the early and mid
nineteenth century, w h e n C u b a n and Puerto R i c a n intellectuals and
writers, seeking political asylum from the Spanish colonial government,
traveled to and resided mainly in the northeastern part of the United
States. N e w Y o r k became the main center of operations against Spanish
dominion over the islands. N e w s p a p e r s and journals contain the political
and literary aspirations of generations of intellectuals fighting for their
countries' independence, including figures like Cirilo Villaverde ( 1 8 1 2 -
1894), Enrique Piiieyro ( 1 8 3 9 - 1 9 1 1 ) , and José M a r t i (1853-1895), of
C u b a ; and R a m o n Betances (1827-1898), Eugenio M a r i a de H o s t o s
(1839-1903), Francisco G o n z a l o (Pachin) M a r i n (1863-1897), and A r t u r o
Alfonso S c h o m b u r g (1874-1938), of Puerto R i c o . In the nineteenth
century N e w Y o r k emerged as an important intellectual and publishing
center for Hispanic C a r i b b e a n authors.
T h e number of Hispanics traveling to the United States increased after
the Spanish-American W a r of 1898, and during the first decades of the
twentieth century. After the Foraker L a w of 1900, w h i c h made Puerto
52.7
C A M B R I D G E H I S T O R Y OF L A T I N A M E R I C A N LITERATURE
R i c o a territory of the United States, and in particular the Jones A c t of

1 9 1 7 , w h i c h gave Puerto Ricans US citizenship, Puerto Ricans began to
leave their native island in large numbers to reside in N e w Y o r k and to
w o r k mainly in the t o b a c c o industry. Later, after O p e r a t i o n Bootstrap
w a s put into effect, during the 1940s and 1950s, they migrated in still
greater numbers and were employed in N e w Y o r k ' s garment district.
T h e s e Puerto Ricans were soon joined by a large w a v e of C u b a n s w h o left
their homeland shortly after the triumph of the C u b a n R e v o l u t i o n in 1959.
T h i s g r o u p of professionally trained middle-class exiles sought refuge in
San Juan but also in M i a m i , N e w a r k , and N e w Y o r k City. C u b a n s arrived
in three migratory w a v e s : first, from 1959 to 1962; second, from 1965 to
1972; and third, in 1980, as a result of the M a r i e l boatlift, w h e n they added
to a notable presence of Hispanics in the United States, w h i c h is increasing
by the day. D o m i n i c a n s are the newest members of a C a r i b b e a n popula
tion living in the United States. T h e i r numbers have risen as they began to
leave their country concomitantly w i t h the first t w o w a v e s of C u b a n s , a
period w h i c h corresponded with the end of the Trujillo dictatorship in
1961 and the US invasion of the D o m i n i c a n Republic in 1965. H o w e v e r , it
w a s not until the 1970s and 1980s that the D o m i n i c a n s became a
noticeable presence in Hispanic communities. Like the Puerto Ricans,
D o m i n i c a n s fled their homeland to escape declining economic conditions.
C u b a n writers were a m o n g the first to migrate to the United States; they
were at the forefront o f their country's liberation movement. José M a r i a
Heredia (1803-1839) w a s the first important Hispanic C a r i b b e a n writer
forced into exile. A leader in the " O r d e n de los Caballeros R a c i o n a l e s , " a
branch of the separatist society " L o s Soles y R a y o s de B o l i v a r , " Heredia
w a s accused of conspiracy in 1823 and, w i t h the help of friends, fled to
Boston and lived in N e w Y o r k and Philadelphia. N e w Y o r k became
Heredia's temporary h o m e , a l l o w i n g him to continue his literary career.
T w o years later, at the invitation of President G u a d a l u p e V i c t o r i a ,
Heredia left for M e x i c o , a country similar to his o w n , w i t h a w a r m
climate and the familiar Spanish language. H o w e v e r , before leaving N e w
Y o r k , Heredia w r o t e and published his Poesias, w h i c h placed him a m o n g
the leading lyric and R o m a n t i c poets of C u b a n and Spanish A m e r i c a n
literatures. T h i s collection includes his most important p o e m of the
period, " O d a al N i a g a r a , " a meditation on the N e w Y o r k waterfalls, the
poet's o w n passion, and the yearned-for p a l m trees of his native C u b a . En
route to M e x i c o , Heredia w r o t e " H i m n o del desterrado," a " h y m n "
about his country, his family, but also about the detestable colonial
situation in C u b a . " H i m n o del desterrado" became a source of inspi
ration to other C u b a n s living in exile.
Other C u b a n activists soon f o l l o w e d Heredia. Cirilo Villaverde w a s
forced into exile for his political beliefs and activism. A member of the D e l
528
M o n t e literary circle, Villaverde had produced a considerable b o d y of

literature before leaving C u b a and becoming one of the first notable Latin
A m e r i c a n narrators to seek political asylum in N e w Y o r k in 1849. In 1882
he completed and published in that city the definitive edition of his anti-
slavery novel Cecilia Vaides. T h i s novel, one of the most important w o r k s
of nineteenth-century Spanish A m e r i c a n literature, w o u l d not have been
written had Villaverde stayed in C u b a , where slavery w a s an integral part
of the Spanish colonial system. Like most exile-writers, Villaverde's life
and literary production can be divided into t w o parts: his formative years
in C u b a , where he published most of his fiction, including t w o early
versions of his Cecilia Vaides, and his exile, w h e r e he w r o t e political
essays and completed the definitive version of the novel. His later writings
include a posthumous h o m a g e to General N a r c i s o L ó p e z , for w h o m
Villaverde w o r k e d and w h o w a s captured and executed in C u b a in 1 8 5 1 .
T h e manuscript w a s published under the title To the Public (General
López, the Cuban Patriot) in N e w Y o r k , in 1850. H e also drafted a
response to José A n t o n i o Saco's independence ideas, w h i c h he entitled El
señor Saco con respecto a la revolución de Cuba, published in N e w Y o r k
in 1852. In addition, he contributed articles to many magazines and
newspapers and became editor of La Verdad in 1853, El Espejo Masónico
t o
and La Ilustración Americana from 1865 to 1873, & Espejo from 1874
1894, and El Tribunal Cubano in 1878.
A t the outset of the C u b a n T e n Y e a r s ' W a r of Independence (1868—
1878), Villaverde renewed his interest in politics, w i t h a slightly different
but significant change. Rather than the annexation of C u b a by the United
States, he n o w favored Saco's position, seeking total independence of the
island. In a document addressed to C a r l o s M a n u e l de Céspedes, entitled
La revolución de Cuba vista desde Nueva York, Villaverde w a r n s the
C u b a n patriot of the US intention not to help the rebel forces. By
supporting Céspedes and other rebels, Villaverde explicitly embraced the
anti-slavery cause. T h e Constituent C o n v e n t i o n of the G u a i m a r o
Assembly, of A p r i l 1 2 , 1869, made a provision for the emancipation of
slaves in C u b a . A l t h o u g h Villaverde lived to see the liberation of slaves in
1886, he did not witness the events w h i c h w o u l d lead to the independence
of his country.
Villaverde's separation from C u b a , his political concerns, literary
freedom, and events unfolding in the United States, in particular the
emancipation of slaves in 1865, encouraged him to rewrite his most
important novel. T h e last version of Cecilia Vaides is a denunciation of
slavery and the Spanish colonial government. Villaverde situates the main
action between 1823 and 1832; that is, within the historical context of the
corrupt administration of General Francisco Vives. Y e t Villaverde also
reminds his readers of the Ladder C o n s p i r a c y of 1844 in w h i c h hundreds
529
of free Blacks and slaves, including artists and writers, were put to death.
José M a r t i is certainly C u b a ' s most important literary and political
exile. After his second expulsion from C u b a and except for brief periods,
M a r t i resided in N e w Y o r k from 1880 to 1895. Like other intellectuals in
exile, M a r t i continued to write, publishing the chronicles " C a r t a s de
N u e v a Y o r k ; o, escenas norteamericanas" in La Opinión Nacional of
C a r a c a s , La Nation of Buenos Aires, El Partido Liberal of M e x i c o , and La
América of N e w Y o r k , from 1881 to 1891. M a r t i also w r o t e for other N e w
Y o r k papers, such as The Hour and The Sun. In N e w Y o r k , M a r t i
expressed his political beliefs and made plans for C u b a n independence. In
1892, M a r t i became a delegate to the Partido R e v o l u c i o n a r i o C u b a n o . H e
held other political positions including C o n s u l of Argentina, Paraguay,
and representative of Uruguay to the A m e r i c a n International M o n e t a r y
C o m m i s s i o n in W a s h i n g t o n , D C . In 1894, M a r t i completed the Plan de
Fernandina, w h i c h outlined the invasion of C u b a in three expeditions, to
be coordinated w i t h internal uprisings.
M a r t i ' s " C a r t a de N u e v a Y o r k , " dated A u g u s t 1 2 , 1 8 8 6 , is addressed to
the "Señor Director de L a R e p ú b l i c a . " T h e letter refers to a series of N e w
Y o r k publications w h i c h commented on the wonderful opportunities
available to private capital in H o n d u r a s , but also to another publication
w h i c h discouraged it. A c c o r d i n g to M a r t i , the country of H o n d u r a s w a s
vindicated by another article written by the President of the Central
A m e r i c a n W o r k e r s Union. A s a citizen of A m e r i c a in the broadest sense,
M a r t i assumed his patriotic duties and offered his advice to the emerging
republic. M a r t i begins his letter by referring to the sovereignty and natural
richness of A m e r i c a n soil and the need to w o r k the land. H e suggests that
jobs and education are the means to assure liberty. M a r t i supports
legitimate investment in H o n d u r a s and, w i t h this in mind, he does a close
reading of a pamphlet published by the C o m p a ñ í a de M e j o r a y N a v e g a -
ción del R í o A g u a n , a model to be applauded. H e refers to the c o m p a n y ' s
detailed and public intention to exploit certain natural resources such as
lumber, agriculture, and mining and describes the project, w h i c h includes
cost, profits, and benefits to the host country. T h e c o m p a n y even desires
to return the River A g u a n to its original path.
A prolific writer, M a r t i ' s most important literary w o r k s were written
and published in N e w Y o r k ; they include his poetry, Ismaelillo, Versos
sencillos, the essay " N u e s t r a A m é r i c a " (1891), and the novel Amistad
Funesta, and, from 1878 to 1882, he w r o t e many of the p o e m s included in
his posthumous Versos libres. W i t h Ismaelillo, w h i c h contains fifteen
brief poems dedicated to his son, and his prologue to Juan A n t o n i o
Bonalde's El poema de Niágara, M a r t í initiates Modernismo [Moder-
nism] in Spanish A m e r i c a , a literary m o v e m e n t later associated w i t h the
N i c a r a g u a n poet R u b é n D a r í o . M a r t i ' s poetry came into fruition w i t h his
530
Versos sencillos, a sincere expression of emotions related to his homeland,

N a t u r e , and mankind. His Versos libres, particularly " A m o r de ciudad
g r a n d e " w h i c h refers to N e w Y o r k C i t y , represents a period of transition
and confusion where he highlights content over form. T h e s e p o e m s
convey strength and energy w h i c h pour from the poet's pen and describe
universal symbols. Unlike Versos libres, Versos sencillos is filled w i t h
simplicity and sincerity, w i t h love and reflection about past and friends.
T w o other collections, Versos de amor and Flores del destierro, published
posthumously in 1930 and 1933, respectively, correspond to the period of
Versos libres. M a r t i ' s presence in the United States a l l o w e d him to carry
out his political ideas and to understand his adopted homeland. In his
much publicized essay, " N u e s t r a A m é r i c a , " M a r t i w a r n s the nations
south of the border about their powerful neighbor to the north. T h e
political and literary writings of M a r t i , Heredia, and Villaverde were
profoundly influenced by their exile to the United States.
N e w Y o r k w a s also a haven for Puerto Rican activists. By the time
M a r t i arrived in N e w Y o r k , Eugenio M a r í a de H o s t o s had already left his
mark there, having lived in the city in 1870 and 1874. H e w o u l d return
later in 1898, and w i t h Julio J. Henna and M a n u e l Z e n o G a n d í a w o u l d
publish The Case of Forto Rico (sic) (1899), a document in defense of
Puerto R i c a n independence. A l t h o u g h they did not coincide in N e w Y o r k ,
H o s t o s and M a r t i shared the same revolutionary spirit and belonged to
the same Partido R e v o l u c i o n a r i o C u b a n o . In N e w Y o r k , H o s t o s w a s the
unofficial editor of La revolución for the C o m i t é R e p u b l i c a n o Puertorri-
queño and called on Puerto Ricans to w o r k for independence. N o t i n g the
division between those w h o supported independence and those w h o
favored annexation, he w r o t e a manifesto calling for all Puerto Ricans to
join the fight for independence. Later he became a leader a m o n g w o r k e r s
in the n e w l y formed C l u b de Artesanos and p r o m o t e d his ideas against
annexation. H o s t o s ' s political ideas are gathered in his Diario.
In N e w Y o r k , M a r t i met many Puerto R i c a n intellectuals, including
Francisco G o n z a l o (Pachin) M a r i n w h o , like the C u b a n poet, attended L a
Literaria, a Hispanic A m e r i c a n literary society. D u r i n g this period of his
exile, Pachin M a r i n w r o t e a series of articles about N e w Y o r k , published
the newspaper El Postillón and, under the influence of Béquer but also
M a r t i , he w r o t e his Romances. Like M a r t i , Pachin M a r i n w o r k e d for
independence; he participated in the Liga de Artesanos, w a s secretary of
the C l u b Pinos N u e v o s , and in C u b a gave his life for C u b a n independence.
N e w Y o r k , an important theme in later Puerto R i c a n migration
literature, w a s already visible in the w o r k s of M a n u e l Z e n o G a n d í a
(1855-1930), one of Puerto R i c o ' s best-known authors. N o r t h Americans
are present throughout his w o r k s , but N e w Y o r k City becomes his main
concern in an inconclusive w o r k Nueva York, the fifth of a series of
531
CAMBRIDGE HISTORY OF L A T I N A M E R I C A N LITERATURE
chronicles entitled Crónicas de un mundo enfermo, about the Puerto

Rican migration to the United States. Needless to say, this w o r k had a
profound impact on future generations of writers w h o developed the
theme of migration in Puerto R i c a n literature.
In the twentieth century, C u b a n s continued to flee political persecution.
T h e M a c h a d o dictatorship resulted in the exile of t w o of C u b a ' s most
important narrators, Lino N o v a s C a l v o (1905-1973) and Alejo Carpen-
tier (1904-1980). Unlike their nineteenth-century counterparts, they did
not live in the United States, but in Europe: N o v a s C a l v o traveled to
M a d r i d as a correspondent for Orbe, w h o s e owners also published El
Diario de la Marina, and Carpentier, after being detained by M a c h a d o ' s
henchmen, fled to Paris where he contributed to the surrealist movement
and even participated in its disintegration. D u r i n g the same period,
N i c o l á s Guillen (1902-1989) lived in C u b a but also traveled abroad.
Guillen made t w o brief but important trips to the United States, w h i c h
influenced some of his poetry. T h e first w a s a train ride across the United
States, from M e x i c o to C a n a d a , in 1937; the second w a s a t w o - w e e k
excursion to N e w Y o r k on his w a y to M o s c o w . Guillen w a s familiar with
the racial situation in the United States, but he gained greater insight from
his conversations w i t h N o r t h A m e r i c a n s , such as Lindem Henry and Lulu
B. W h i t e , w h o m he met w h e n he w a s a delegate to the Congress of Peace in
1949. It w a s in his travels to the United States that he w a s able to confirm
w h a t he had already k n o w n . In an article " D e N u e v a Y o r k a M o s c ú ,
pasando por Paris," published in Bohemia in 1949, Guillen describes
impressions that w o u l d not fade easily from his memory. H e writes about
the H a r l e m of luxurious cabarets but also of the misery in w h i c h many
Blacks lived. A l t h o u g h "Elegía a Emmett T i l l " w a s not written until 1956,
it captures a part of the A m e r i c a n a Guillen experienced on his visits to the
United States. Similar to N e r u d a ' s interrogation of the W i l k a m a y u or
Heredia's questioning of N i a g a r a Falls, Guillen speaks to the mighty
Mississippi about the death of the black boy. His experience w o u l d also
serve him w h e n writing other p o e m s including one about black activist
Angela D a v i s .
Batista's dictatorship, from 1952 to 1958, produced a small number of
y o u n g exile writers for the United States. Incipient authors such as
R o b e r t o Fernández R e t a m a r (b. 1930), E d m u n d o Desnoes (b. 1930),
Pablo A r m a n d o Fernández (b. 1930), and A m b r o s i o Fornet (b. 1932) lived
and w o r k e d in N e w Y o r k , where they furthered their literary careers. For
example, Pablo A r m a n d o Fernandez's second b o o k of p o e m s , Nuevos
poemas, w i t h an introduction by Eugenio Florit, w a s published in N e w
Y o r k in 1956; Desnoes w a s the editor of Visión, from 1956 to 1959; and
Fernández R e t a m a r w a s a visiting professor at Y a l e University in 1957.
T h a t same year, Fornet w a s a student at N e w Y o r k University. O f the post
Second W o r l d W a r period, Eugenio Florit (b. 1903) is perhaps the best-
532
k n o w n writer to o c c u p y a position at a major university in the United
States. H e arrived in N e w Y o r k in 1940 to w o r k for the C u b a n Consulate
and in 1945 he joined the faculty at Barnard College of C o l u m b i a
University. Florit p r o m o t e d Spanish A m e r i c a n literature w i t h anthologies
and w o r k s of scholarship, and w i t h his o w n poetry w h i c h he w r o t e but did
not publish in the United States. Unlike the poetry written in C u b a by
members of Orígenes (1944-1956), his p o e m s are devoid of rhetoric and
seek to capture the essence of poetic language. O n e of his best p o e m s is
dedicated to N e w Y o r k , " L o s poetas solos de M a n h a t t a n . " T h i s period
includes his Conversation a mi padre, Asonante final y otros poemas, and
Siete poemas.
If the younger voluntary exiles returned to C u b a after Fidel C a s t r o ' s
victory to w o r k in the construction of a n e w society, the same event also
produced another w a v e of exiles, mainly to San Juan, M i a m i , and
N e w Y o r k C i t y , but also to other cities throughout the United States.
Every C u b a n writer living during the time of the C a s t r o government
w o u l d be affected in one w a y or another by C a s t r o ' s politics. L i n o N o v a s
C a l v o became the first and most important writer to leave C a s t r o ' s C u b a ;
he sought asylum in the C o l o m b i a n Embassy in i960, traveled to N e w
Y o r k City, and in 1967 joined the faculty at Syracuse University. H e
taught there until he suffered a stroke in 1973, from w h i c h he never
recovered.
N o v a s C a l v o acquired literary prominence during the 1930s and 1940s
w i t h the novel El negrero (1933) and the collections of stories La luna nona
y otros cuentos (1942) and Cayo Canas (1946). In exile, N o v a s C a l v o
continued to write in the United States and, like Villaverde, he used his
literary and political freedom to denounce events in C u b a . O f the first six
stories he published in Bohemia Libre, from i960 to 1963, five narrate
events in contemporary C u b a . For e x a m p l e , " U n buchito de c a f é , " " E l
m i l a g r o , " and "Fernández al p a r e d ó n , " describe the unjust sufferings of
innocent people at the hands of supporters of the R e v o l u t i o n .
In 1970 Novas C a l v o published Maneras de contar, the only collection
of short stories from his exile period. O f the eighteen stories, thirteen of
them were written in the United States and narrate events in the
Revolution; the other five are taken from his earlier collections and
include " L a noche de R a m ó n Y e n d í a " and " A q u e l l a noche salieron los
m u e r t o s , " t w o stories w h i c h date back to the M a c h a d o years. Novas
C a l v o ' s first exile stories w e r e flawed, but he regained the mastery noted in
his earlier tales after c o m i n g to terms w i t h his condition as an exile. In this
second period, Novas C a l v o de-emphasizes the antirevolutionary theme
and returns to earlier concerns to write, for e x a m p l e , " P e o r que un
infierno," " E l esposo invisible," " M i tío A n t ó n L u n a , " and " E l secreto de
N a c i s o C a m p a n a . " In spite of his renewed efforts to write fiction, Novas
C a l v o w a s unable to reach the level of recognition he had enjoyed prior to
533
1959. A s a writer, N o v a s C a l v o ' s reputation w a s hindered by historical

events. H e w r o t e antirevolutionary stories at a time in w h i c h the C u b a n
government enjoyed w i d e support a m o n g intellectuals in Europe, Latin
A m e r i c a , and even in the United States, a support w h i c h lasted until the
"Padilla Affair" of 1 9 7 1 , one year after the publication of Maneras de
contar.
Perhaps one of N o v a s C a l v o ' s important contributions to C u b a n exile
literature written in the United States is contained in " U n b u m " and " L a
noche que Juan t u m b ó a P e d r o , " both written in 1964 and w h o s e plots
develop not in C u b a but in N e w Y o r k . T h e y narrate the cruel reality exiles
must face in the United States, one w h i c h N o v a s C a l v o elaborated from
personal experiences. T h e theme of C u b a n s as foreigners will be repeated
by younger C u b a n exiles - in particular, in the w o r k s of those w h o were
either born or raised in the United States.
If N o v a s C a l v o made an effort to keep his craft alive, other exile writers
of his generation were less fortunate. Distinguished writers such as L y d i a
C a b r e r a (1900-1991), w h o left C u b a in 1962 and is k n o w n for her
treatment of A f r o - C u b a n themes, Enrique L a b r a d o r R u i z (1902-1990),
w h o abandoned the island in 1970 and is k n o w n for his imaginative
novelas gaseiformes, and C a r l o s M o n t e n e g r o (1900-1981), w h o sought
refuge in 1959 and is remembered for his prison narratives, have faded
into literary oblivion. After 1959, few younger writers left the island, the
majority staying in C u b a . O f those w h o published in the early years of the
Revolution and w r o t e for Lunes de Revolución, edited by G u i l l e r m o
C a b r e r a Infante, the literary supplement of the official newspaper of the
July 26th M o v e m e n t , Revolución, M a t í a s M o n t e s H u i d o b r o (b. 1931) has
remained active. A professor at the University of H a w a i i , he has written
literary criticism and continues to write plays such as Ojos para no ver,
w h i c h describes the dictator, C a s t r o , as a violent and enraged person.
Other exile-writers such as José Sánchez-Boudy (b. 1927) have been active
in p r o m o t i n g an anti-Castro literature.
In 1980, another w a v e of exiles popularly k n o w n as the " M a r i e l i t o s "
left C u b a during the M a r i e l boatlift. Established writers w h o had
achieved recognition in revolutionary C u b a also sought asylum during
this period. T h e y included Heberto Padilla (b. 1933), José T r i a n a (b.
1931), César Léante (b. 1928), R e i n a l d o A r e n a s (1943-1990), and A n t o n i o
Benítez R o j o (b. 1931). In comparison to their literary production in
C u b a , this g r o u p of exile-writers has published little in their respective
genres. E c o n o m i c imperatives have forced them to devote themselves to
other intellectual w o r k , such as publishing and teaching. O f these writers,
A r e n a s , Padilla, and Benítez R o j o reside in the United States, the latter
t w o e m p l o y e d by N e w Y o r k University and A m h e r s t College, respecti
vely. Benítez R o j o has re-edited w o r k s previously published in C u b a and
534
has shifted his interest from fiction to criticism. H e published La isla que
se repite, a poststructuralist approach to C a r i b b e a n culture, in w h i c h he
develops the scientific ideas associated w i t h the theory of C h a o s and
applies them to literature. Within the complexity of this sociocultural
region, order and disorder coexist. In La isla que se repite, Benítez R o j o
studies the plantation system as central for understanding the C a r i b b e a n .
T h e plantation has affected all aspects of life and is repeated in the various
islands and other parts of Latin A m e r i c a . La isla que se repite is a b o o k
that will find a place a m o n g such great w o r k s as Fernando O r t i z ' s
Contrapunteo cubano del tabaco y el azúcar (1940), R a m i r o G u e r r a ' s
Azúcar y población en las Antillas (1927), and M a n u e l M o r e n o Fragi-
nals's El ingenio (1978).
Padilla, a poet, published En mi jardín pastan los héroes (1981), a novel
written in and smuggled out of C u b a . W h i l e in the United States, Padilla
w r o t e La mala memoria, a testimonial pertaining to events surrounding
the "Padilla Affair" in w h i c h he states for the record his version of the
unfolding of political events in C u b a . Padilla has given much of his time to
editing Linden Lane Magazine, based in N e w Jersey, w h i c h publishes the
w o r k s of exile writers.
R e i n a l d o A r e n a s , w h o having tested positive for the H I V virus c o m m i t
ted suicide, w a s the only writer from this g r o u p w h o remained very active
and his w o r k s have placed him a m o n g the leading narrators of Latin
A m e r i c a n literature. After his arrival in the United States, A r e n a s founded
the magazine and publishing house Mariel and published a novel written
in C u b a , Otra vez el mar (1982). His w o r k in exile included an epic p o e m ,
El central, a play, Persecución: cinco piezas de teatro experimental, a
collection of essays, Necesidad de libertad: testimonio de un intelectual
disidente, and t w o novels, Arturo, la estrella más brillante and La loma
del Angel. L i k e many C u b a n exile-writers, A r e n a s w a s critical of the
C a s t r o government. His political position w a s most explicit in Necesidad
de libertad. Before his death, Arenas published t w o other w o r k s of fiction
- El portero, w h i c h takes place in N e w Y o r k and describes the p r o t a g o
nist's life in the city, and Viaje a La Habana, w h i c h gathers three
novelettes, each about a different C u b a n exile w h o returns to the island -
and t w o collections of p o e m s Voluntad de vivir manifestándose, in w h i c h
he collects poems written in the last t w o decades, and Leprosorio: (trilogía
poética). H e also left four manuscripts w h i c h have been published
posthumously, three of w h i c h are narratives: El asalto [The Assault] and
El color del verano [The Color of Summer], a collection of short stories
Adiós a mamá, and the autobiography Antes que anochezca [Before Night
Falls], in w h i c h the author refers to his literary talents and sexual concerns.
Arenas's La loma del Angel is a rewriting of Cecilia Vaides. T h e life and
w o r k s of one author recall those of the other. Both Villaverde and A r e n a s
535
opposed their respective governments w h e n each lived in C u b a . For their

political beliefs, both A r e n a s and Villaverde were imprisoned in C u b a n
jails and escaped from the island, seeking refuge in the United States. Both
authors rewrote and published their versions of Cecilia Vaides while in
the United States. Arenas completed his novel almost one century after
Villaverde published the definitive version of Cecilia Vaides. Finally, both
Arenas and Villaverde died in N e w Y o r k .
In his novel, A r e n a s joins Villaverde in denouncing slavery and uses the
incestuous relationship between the unsuspecting brother and sister to
narrate other cultural and political concerns. Just as Villaverde places his
narrative time during the corrupt Vives government (1823-1832), but also
breaks w i t h it to call attention to the Ladder Conspiracy of 1844, Arenas
likewise abandons the c h r o n o l o g y of his novel to recall a contemporary
time before and during the C u b a n R e v o l u t i o n . By including in his
narration L y d i a C a b r e r a , José L e z a m a L i m a , and Father A n g e l G a z t e l u ,
Arenas refers the reader to the 1940s and 1950s and to the periodical
Orígenes w h i c h L e z a m a edited. Before and after the triumph of C a s t r o ,
L e z a m a and other g r o u p members were accused of stressing the aesthetic
over the political. In Chapter 1 1 , Arenas identifies L e z a m a as a slave poet,
reminding us of the slave poet Juan Francisco M a n z a n o ' s status during
the first third of the nineteenth century and the censorship of anti slavery
works.
By including more than one narrator, Arenas's novel decentralizes the
authorial voice, and opens the text to multiple interpretations. In so
doing, he opposes all monolithic and unidimensional discourses of fiction
and history and challenges the v i e w that functionaries of the C a s t r o
government are the authorized interpreters of C u b a n history and culture.
For A r e n a s , C u b a n culture does not develop and flourish exclusively in
nineteenth-century C u b a , but exists outside the island, in the w o r k s of
Villaverde, M a r t i , and himself, authors w h o lived and w r o t e in exile in
N e w Y o r k . In Necesidad de libertad A r e n a s states that the real C u b a n
literature is written outside C u b a .
O f importance to this project is Arenas's El portero, a novel w h i c h takes
place in N e w Y o r k , specifically in a private apartment building in an
upper-class n e i g h b o r h o o d in M a n h a t t a n . T h e protagonist, Juan, is a
C u b a n refugee w h o arrived in N e w Y o r k as a result of the M a r i e l boatlift
and finds a job as a d o o r m a n . Juan is an exceptional d o o r m a n and does
anything to please his tenants, including having sex with men and w o m e n
alike, but is also interested in talking to them about a metaphorical door.
T h r o u g h Juan's exile perspective, the reader sees life in N e w Y o r k (or
perhaps in the United States), represented by rich and eccentric indivi
duals w h o pay more attention to their pets than to Juan's (human)
kindness. M o n e y is not the only factor w h i c h produces rudeness and
536
selfishness since the building's superintendent, w h o is not of the same

economic means as the occupants, is also another conspirator against the
doorman.
If Part i of the novel describes the people Juan meets on a daily basis,
Part ii centers on the pets and other animals w h o are a w a r e of Juan's
plight and talk to him about theirs. A t a prearranged meeting each animal
describes to Juan its o w n experience and persecution. Like Juan, they are
prisoners of men, in general, and their o w n e r s , in particular, and conspire
w i t h Juan to gain their independence.
T h i s , Arenas's latest novel is a denunciation of the social and political
conditions in C u b a w h i c h caused him, the d o o r m a n , and others to flee
from the island. In C u b a , the d o o r m a n "lived seventeen years in hunger
and humiliation under the communist system and had fled on a b o a t " (p.
4 7 ) . In addition, the novel is also a c o m i n g to terms w i t h Arenas's exile
condition in a foreign land. Juan and the animals speak of their marginal
position in society and their desire to seek unity amongst themselves and
independence for all. " A l l w h o have spoken wish to distance themselves
from man, or at least, live in a manner independent from him, and even, if
it were possible, to use him as one uses a s l a v e " (p. 1 1 3 ) .
In the end, the animals free Juan from an insane asylum; he had been
accused of "magnetic ventriloquism" since no one but him believed that
animals could speak. H e and the animals flee, first to the M i d - W e s t , then
to California, later to the Equator, and finally to the sea l o o k i n g for the
magic mountain, a symbol of independence, a magic d o o r w h i c h Juan
guards. H e becomes a St. Peter guarding the d o o r to H e a v e n , but perhaps
more like a bodhisattva w h o decides not to enter N i r v a n a in order to guide
others.
El portero, w h i c h reflects Arenas's o w n experiences in N e w Y o r k , is
sprinkled with English w o r d s and references to real characters, some of
w h o m live in the city. It is narrated by a collective " w e " w h o were once
C u b a n refugees and k n o w every aspect of Juan's life. A s a g r o u p , they
echo the C D R , the C o m m i t t e e in Defense of the R e v o l u t i o n , a neighbor
h o o d spy n e t w o r k to " d e f e n d " C a s t r o ' s government, but they live in the
United States. T h e narrator is a w a r e , and informs the reader, of Juan's
activities. In the end, the narrative voice recognizes the importance of the
m o v e m e n t for liberation of animals and inanimate objects, and also
understands Juan's usefulness: he symbolizes hope and can mediate
between them and humans.
Antes que anochezca — the title refers to the author's need to write
before the evening arrived - is Arenas's best w o r k . Arenas recounts his life
in revolutionary C u b a from the perspective of death; he w a s very sick
w h e n he w r o t e his autobiography and died shortly after completing it.
D e a t h is ever-present, from the opening paragraph to the end.
537
Arenas's life represents an attack on the C a s t r o government. T h e

government objected to his writing, sexual orientation, and political
beliefs and A r e n a s used the same w e a p o n s to denounce the injustices to
w h i c h he and many other C u b a n s were subjected. T h e detailed h o m o s e x
ual experiences are a w a y of desensitizing the reader but also of defying
C u b a n policy and culture. Arenas challenges the C u b a n authorities by
suggesting that all C u b a n s are h o m o s e x u a l s . F r o m a C u b a n cultural point
of v i e w , only the passive partner in a h o m o s e x u a l relationship is
considered to be gay; the active partner is regarded to be exercising his
rights as a man. Arenas l o o k s at this relationship from a N o r t h A m e r i c a n
perspective and reveals that everyone in C u b a has had some form of
h o m o s e x u a l encounter, including members of C a s t r o ' s police and mili
tary force w h o feel they are machos, but in reality are no different from
him.
In C u b a , Arenas is considered to be a marginal writer. Y e t outside the
island Arenas's w o r k elevates him to canonical stature.
C u b a n literature written in the United States is distinctly different from
Puerto R i c a n writing insofar as C u b a n s write about events and situations
on their island. In this respect, C u b a n writing both at h o m e and abroad is
similar to insular Puerto R i c a n literature. H o w e v e r , Puerto R i c a n litera
ture written in the United States describes the life of Puerto Ricans w h o
migrated to N e w Y o r k . T h e difference between C u b a n and Puerto Rican
writings in the United States is historical. C u b a n s traveled to the United
States mainly for political reasons and viewed their exile as transitory.
T h e i r presence in the United States afforded them a political and literary
freedom denied to them in their o w n country. Puerto Ricans traveled to
the United States mainly for economic reasons. T h e US government's
attempt to m a k e Puerto R i c o into the s h o w c a s e of the C a r i b b e a n and to
industrialize the island offset the Puerto R i c a n agricultural e c o n o m y and
forced many to leave the rural areas for better-paying jobs in the city.
O p e r a t i o n Bootstrap displaced farm w o r k e r s from the countryside to San
Juan and from the capital to N e w Y o r k City. T h e Puerto R i c a n rags-to-
riches dream turned into a nightmare as a large portion of N e w Y o r k ' s
Puerto R i c a n population w a s either unemployed or assumed the lowest-
paying jobs. Puerto R i c a n writers witnessed and some even experienced
the migratory pattern created, first by the Jones A c t and second by the
congressional decision of 1952, m a k i n g Puerto R i c o a Free Associated
State.
T h e large migratory w a v e s to the United States gave the Puerto Rican
c o m m u n i t y a sense of permanence, necessary for the development of a
literature of migration. Therefore, Puerto R i c a n literature in the United
States can be divided into t w o parts: the first is c o m p o s e d by island writers
w h o visited but did not stay in the United States, and is written in Spanish
538
and published abroad. T h e second, w h i c h is more recent, is written by
Puerto Ricans w h o were either born or raised in the United States. Since
most o f these writers lived in N e w Y o r k City during the 1960s and 1970s,
they identified themselves w i t h the city and called themselves Puerto
R i c a n N e w Y o r k e r s or N u y o r i c a n s , a term w h i c h gave identity and
meaning to their artistic and literary expressions. A l t h o u g h this term is
still relevant today, it does not speak to the experiences of younger Puerto
Rican writers w h o were born or raised in other parts of the United States.
Regardless o f whether they live in or outside the city, this second g r o u p
writes mainly in English and publishes in the United States. Nevertheless,
both groups write about the Puerto R i c a n experience in N e w Y o r k . Puerto
Ricans and other Hispanics born and raised in the United States share a
c o m m o n b a c k g r o u n d and are also k n o w n as Latinos.
Hispanic C a r i b b e a n narrative written in the United States acquires an
important dimension w i t h the Puerto R i c a n writers o f the Generación del
Cuarenta [ T h e Generation of 1940]; that is, w i t h those w h o began to
publish after O p e r a t i o n Bootstrap. M a n y o f them short-story writers,
they testify to the effects of O p e r a t i o n Bootstrap o n those w h o were
adversely affected by the "Puerto R i c a n M i r a c l e , " that is, the US effort to
industrialize the island. T h e characters are taken from society's l o w e r
socio-economic levels. T h e y are p o o r , uneducated, and marginal elements
of society; those w h o were supposed to benefit from the economic changes
become society's victims. F o r them, pain, suffering, and personal trage
dies are an integral part o f their migratory experience.
M a n y of the stories reveal the reason Puerto Ricans left their farms and
villages for the city. T h e theme o f displacement is best captured by La
carreta, by Rene M a r q u é s (1919-1980), a play about a family w h o
abandoned the countryside for the slums o f San Juan and ultimately for
the ghettos o f N e w Y o r k City. T h e theme o f M a r q u é s ' s play will be
explored by other writers. A l t h o u g h it is difficult to state categorically that
these authors w r o t e in the United States, w e d o k n o w that they, like Puerto
Rican writers before them, traveled frequently to N e w Y o r k .
José Luis G o n z á l e z (b. 1926) is o n e o f the first to write about the
displacement o f Puerto Ricans. In his third collection o f short stories El
hombre en la calle, he outlines the Puerto Rican tragedy and signals a n e w
trend in the short story, m o v i n g a w a y from rural to urban themes
represented by San Juan but also N e w Y o r k City. Gonzalez's En este lado
continues the theme o f Puerto R i c a n migration, this time, from San Juan
to N e w Y o r k . A s he reveals "this side" (the N e w Y o r k side) o f the Puerto
Rican experience, G o n z á l e z s h o w s a keener awareness of society and race
both in and outside Puerto R i c o , covering M e x i c o and the K o r e a n W a r .
Gonzalez's first story about N e w Y o r k w a s published in his En Nueva
York y otras desgracias. In the title story, written in 1948, his protagonist,
539
M a r c e l i n o Pérez, experiences a series of misfortunes from the moment his

boat d o c k s in N e w Y o r k harbor, some due to circumstances but others to
his o w n ignorance. Like many of G o n z a l e z ' s characters, M a r c e l i n o is a
desperate man; despite his ill health, he abandons his bed to rob an elderly
w o m a n w h o happens to be Puerto R i c a n . H e hesitates w h e n hearing her
speak Spanish. M a r c e l i n o , himself a victim of circumstances, retains a
sense of national dignity and does not add to the suffering of his o w n
people.
M a n y of Gonzalez's ideas are gathered in Paisa, a narrative version of
M a r q u é s ' s La carreta in w h i c h he describes the same migratory pattern as
the play, and the moral and physical destruction of the protagonist. In
N e w Y o r k , the story's protagonist, A n d r é s , is discriminated against and
has no other alternative but to turn to a life of crime. In its narrative
structure, Paisa is G o n z a l e z ' s most experimental story about N e w Y o r k .
T h e t w o narrations, one present and the other past, c o m e together w i t h
the police shooting of A n d r é s . T h e ending departs from La carreta but is
similar to " E n N u e v a Y o r k " and " E l pasaje"; for the protagonist, there is
no possible return to Puerto R i c o , rather he remains in the United States.
T h r o u g h the character Perucho, G o n z á l e z proposes that political action is
the only solution to the Puerto R i c a n dilemma in the United States.
L a n g u a g e is important for authors writing about N e w Y o r k and
G o n z á l e z captures it with varying success. His " E n N u e v a Y o r k " reveals a
lack of familiarity with some linguistic aspects of the Puerto Rican
experience abroad. For e x a m p l e , the narrator, w h o describes events in a
flawless Spanish, reports the temperature in Centigrade rather than in
Fahrenheit and, as M a r c e l i n o gets ready to assault a lady, he moves from
" h o u s e " to " h o u s e " instead of from one " b u i l d i n g " to another. A n d
except for a scattering of " S p a n g l i s h " w o r d s , his uneducated characters
speak standard Spanish. H o w e v e r , G o n z á l e z is more successful in his
reproduction of N u y o r i c a n speech in " L a noche que v o l v i m o s a ser
gente," from Mambrú se fue a la guerra, w h i c h describes the blackout of
N e w Y o r k in 1965.
O f the writers of the Generación del Cuarenta, Pedro Juan Soto (b.
1928) has been most preoccupied by the Puerto R i c a n presence in N e w
Y o r k and, w i t h authenticity, has recorded the speech of the p o o r or
working-class Puerto R i c a n as well as the linguistic phenomenon of
mixing Spanish and English. Soto writes from personal experiences,
having lived nine years in the B r o n x , from 1946 to 1954, and spending
much of his time in Spanish H a r l e m . Spiks, w h o s e title is a pejorative term
used to describe Puerto Ricans in the United States, contains Soto's best
stories. T h e stories reflect the same migratory pattern the author w a s
exposed to as a child, often contrasting life on the mainland and on the
island. W i t h the exception of " L a c a u t i v a , " all of his stories take place in
540
N e w Y o r k City. His " L o s inocentes" and " L a c a u t i v a " describe the

change between old and new values, echoing a conflict experienced by
many immigrants. H o w e v e r , unlike other immigrant groups, Puerto
Ricans are tragic figures as Soto's w o r k suggests. For sociopolitical
reasons, their integration into the US mainstream has been more difficult.
A l t h o u g h Soto resides in Puerto R i c o , and on occasion travels to N e w
Y o r k (he w a i t e d thirteen years before returning to N e w Y o r k , and in
1 9 7 0 - 1 9 7 1 taught at the State University of N e w Y o r k at Buffalo), he
writes about N u y o r i c a n s and pays h o m a g e to them in his Ardiente suelo,
fría estación. Soto's novel is realistic insofar as it captures the problems
experienced by many Puerto Ricans w h o returned to their native Puerto
R i c o during the 1960s and 1970s (in part as a result of the racial awareness
brought a b o u t by the Civil Rights and Black P o w e r movements and by a
heightened sense of Puerto R i c a n nationalism). Puerto R i c o symbolizes
the origin, but much to the dismay of N u y o r i c a n s , they w e r e not accepted
by-Puerto Ricans on the island and w e r e treated as A m e r i c a n s ; they were
foreigners w h o did not share a c o m m o n language and culture w i t h
islanders. Similarly, Soto's protagonist, E d u a r d o M a r í n , is confronted
w i t h Puerto R i c a n chauvinism; for the islanders he is an outsider. T h e
frustrations E d u a r d o experiences on the island recall those same feelings
in N e w Y o r k ; he is an outcast both in N e w Y o r k and in Puerto R i c o . In the
end, the protagonist decides to return to the mainland, to a more familiar
situation where he can assert his o w n individuality. E d u a r d o ' s older
brother remains in Puerto R i c o , thus alluding to the separation of the
Puerto R i c a n family. T h e theme of Soto's novel will be repeated by
N u y o r i c a n writers but, unlike Soto's characters, they will highlight the
Puerto R i c a n experience in the United States.
Unlike Spiks, in Ardiente suelo, fría estación Soto's characters are
better educated and speak standard Spanish and English, w h i c h at times
he juxtaposes to give authenticity to them. H o w e v e r , only seldom d o they
code-switch or recreate language to s h o w the imposition and predomi
nance of one culture over the other. T h e linguistic differences between
Spiks and Ardiente suelo, fría estación can be attributed not only to the
level of education of Soto's characters, but to Soto's distance from the
mainland. Perhaps Soto also w a n t e d to appeal to a broader Spanish-
speaking audience; Soto's novel w a s not published in Puerto R i c o but in
Mexico.
Like Ardiente suelo, fría estación, Harlem todos los días by Emilio D í a z
Valcárcel (b. 1929), a w o r k w h i c h brings the experimentation of the Boom
novel - prevalent in the same author's Figuraciones en el mes de marzo
(1972) - to the theme of Puerto Ricans in N e w Y o r k , continues the
concern of migration so evident in the w o r k s of D í a z V a l c á r c e l ' s
generation. In Harlem todos los días, the author underscores the anguish
541
experienced by the p o o r , but also the life of his counterparts; those w i t h

the resources exploit the less fortunate. Regardless of the social or
economic differences, all are victims of the N e w Y o r k environment. In this
nationalistic novel, D í a z Valcárcel is critical of the colonial status under
w h i c h Puerto Ricans live. H o w e v e r , like other island writers, D i a z
Valcárcel is not able to capture effectively the linguistic complexity of
N u y o r i c a n speech. (The theme of the t w o cultures c o m i n g together, this
time on the island, is continued in his Mi mamá me ama, 1981.)
T h e reproduction of the N u y o r i c a n dialect is best achieved in the w o r k s
of N u y o r i c a n authors w h o are at the vanguard of a Puerto R i c a n or
Hispanic C a r i b b e a n ethnic literature in the United States; that is, a Latino
literature w h i c h questions but also accepts its N o r t h A m e r i c a n environ
ment. T h e s e writers, like Sandra M a r i a Esteves (b. 1948), M i g u e l A l g a r i n
(b. 1941), and others, write in English and have published their w o r k s in
the United States. Unlike island-dwelling Puerto Ricans w h o visit the
United States and write for a b r o a d Spanish A m e r i c a n audience, N u y o r i
can authors explore in detail the lives and condition of Puerto Ricans w h o
live in N e w Y o r k . T h e s e younger writers use the language of the barrio to
describe life in the ghetto. In this regard, N u y o r i c a n narrative is not
directly influenced by Spanish A m e r i c a n literary currents, such as the
literature of the Boom or Post-Boom periods, but by N o r t h A m e r i c a n
literature, in particular, the literature written by A f r o - A m e r i c a n s ; for
example, some share c o m m o n characteristics w i t h C l a u d e B r o w n ' s
Manchild in a Promised Land (1965). M o r e accurately, N u y o r i c a n
literature has no obvious model; rather, it emerges from the socio
economic conditions of Puerto Ricans in the United States. Unfortunately,
N u y o r i c a n literature still goes unrecognized by many scholars and critics
of Spanish A m e r i c a n literature. M o r e o v e r , although Puerto R i c a n writers
in the United States celebrate their counterparts on the island, it is not
reciprocal; many of the N u y o r i c a n writers are u n k n o w n to the island
public. T h i s is so, as Soto has pointed out in his novel, because N u y o r i c a n s
are not considered authentic Puerto Ricans.
A m o n g N u y o r i c a n narratives, Down These Mean Streets by Piri
T h o m a s (b. 1928) is already a classic. H o w e v e r , T h o m a s ' s b o o k w a s not
the first and recalls other autobiographical w o r k s by Puerto Ricans in
N e w Y o r k , in particular The Son of Two Nations: The Private Life of a
Columbia Student by Pedro Juan Labarthe (1906-1966), but is closer to A
Puerto Rican in New York and other Sketches By Jesús C o l ó n ( 1 9 0 1 -
1974). Both w o r k s were written and published in the United States, but
they did not have the impact T h o m a s ' s autobiography has had on a
N u y o r i c a n and English-speaking public. O n l y after the publication of
T h o m a s ' s b o o k are these earlier w o r k s receiving attention from critics
and readers alike.
542
Labarthe's and C o l o n ' s b o o k s provide a f r a m e w o r k for understanding

w o r k s that were to follow. W i t h their autobiographies t w o patterns
emerged: first, C o l o n ' s A Puerto Rican in New York conveys the hostility
w i t h w h i c h Puerto Ricans are treated in N e w Y o r k , thus continuing the
themes of the writers of the Generación del Cuarenta; second, Labarthe's
The Son of Two Nations reflects the lives of immigrants in general, the
United States representing an opportunity for the characters to improve
their social and economic position. O n e is critical of the A m e r i c a n dream,
the other accepts it.
T h e difference in perspective can be attributed to the years in w h i c h the
w o r k s were published. Labarthe published his novel shortly after the
Great Depression, w h e n many migrants, regardless of their place of
origin, were struggling to survive in A m e r i c a n society. C o l o n ' s b o o k
profited from a different historical setting, marked by political awareness
associated with cigar-workers and other union activists, the detainment
of nationalist leaders like Lolita Lebrón and A l b i z u C a m p o s , the failure of
the T y d i n g s bill in 1943 to grant Puerto R i c o independence, the implemen
tation of O p e r a t i o n Bootstrap, and the prominence of the Civil Rights
movement, particularly during the decade of the 1950s.
C o l o n ' s collection of sketches, some of w h i c h appeared in the Daily
Worker and Mainstream, describe the assault of A m e r i c a n society on
Puerto Ricans and on the author, in part, often mistaken for a black
A m e r i c a n because of his dark skin. H o w e v e r , the b o o k is also a testament
of C o l o n ' s political beliefs and his support for the betterment of Puerto
Ricans on the island through independence and Socialism.
In contrast, Labarthe's b o o k is a reflection of the g o o d will and faith o f
N o r t h A m e r i c a n s and of the character's o w n intelligence. Labarthe's
formative years were influenced by his aristocratic and pro-independence
father and his humble and p r o - A m e r i c a n mother. T h e father's abandon
ment of the mother, a m o n g other reasons, brings Labarthe closer to his
mother's ideology; they travel to the United States not for economic
reasons, but in search of a better education. In the United States, Labarthe
and his mother w o r k hard and w i t h the help of friends, ambition, and a bit
of opportunism, the author is able to transcend his condition and attain
the " A m e r i c a n d r e a m . "
Certainly T h o m a s ' s Down These Mean Streets is the best-known w o r k
w h i c h describes the Puerto R i c a n experience in N e w Y o r k during and
after the Depression. Unlike C o l ó n and Labarthe, T h o m a s w a s born in
N e w Y o r k and had no direct connection w i t h the island. T h o m a s w a s
raised in El Barrio and his life mirrors that of many N u y o r i c a n s w h o
lacked either economic opportunities or a political ideology and were
susceptible to drugs, gangs, and crime. T h o m a s ' s life represents the
United States at its w o r s e ; he is the product of a society w h i c h has
543
destroyed him and his self-worth. Down These Mean Streets allows the
reader to l o o k into a w i n d o w of poverty and discrimination experienced
by many Hispanics w h o have no other choice but to live in the ghetto.
F r o m a different point of v i e w , as an author T h o m a s is a success story; he
has transcended his economic and social conditions and has become a
k n o w n writer within the N o r t h A m e r i c a n context.
T h o m a s ' s subsequent b o o k s develop aspects of his life already seen in
Down These Mean Streets. Savior, Savior, Hold My Hand is a continua
tion of Down These Mean Streets and, therefore, of T h o m a s ' s life. Here
T h o m a s l o o k s to the Pentecostal church for salvation, and his conversion
is precipitated by his aunt and N i t a , his wife-to-be. In the end, T h o m a s ' s
rebellion against institutions results in his separation from N i t a . Seven
Long Times develops in more detail the chapter on prison from his first
b o o k , providing accounts of T h o m a s ' s life in C o m s t o c k . Prison is a h o m e ,
a family of sorts, and a w a y of life for those w h o have difficulty in
adjusting to the outside w o r l d .
T h o m a s ' s autobiography has opened the door for the writing and
publishing of w o r k s by other Puerto Ricans living in the United States. O f
particular historical value is Memorias de Bernardo Vega; though V e g a
(1886-1965) w r o t e his autobiography in 1947, César A n d r e u Iglesias did
not edit and publish it until 1977. V e g a ' s autobiography offers a chrono
logy of one century, from the A m e r i c a n Civil W a r to the post-Second
W o r l d W a r period. T h i s is accomplished through a series of flashbacks
narrated first by a fictitious T í o A n t o n i o , w h o migrated to N e w Y o r k in
1847, and second by V e g a himself, w h o traveled to the same city in 1 9 1 6 .
T h e useful historical information offered by V e g a , w h i c h includes some
statistics, interviews, and newspaper clippings, is part of a historical
development to trace the origins of the Puerto R i c a n independence
movement from the nineteenth century to the present. A n t o n i o recalls the
role played by intellectuals and w o r k e r s living in N e w Y o r k , the center of
C u b a n and Puerto R i c a n independence movements. W i t h his o w n
experience, V e g a s h o w s that in the twentieth century, the independent
spirit w a s kept alive by the unionist activities of cigarmakers. T h e w o r k e r s
have been at the forefront of the independence movement, though V e g a
sees marked differences between the Puerto R i c a n nationalist and c o m m u
nist parties. V e g a is concerned w i t h preserving Puerto Rican nationalism
and identity.
T h e r e are other w o r k s w h i c h attempt to imitate Down These Mean
Streets, such as Una isla en Harlem by M a n u e l M a n r i q u e , Nobody's Hero
by Lefty Barreto (b. 1942), and Run Baby Run by N i c k C r u z (b. 1938).
Like T h o m a s ' s w o r k , they are " a u t o b i o g r a p h i c a l " accounts of Puerto
Ricans w h o turned to a life of crime and violence. H o w e v e r , Richard
R u i z ' s The Hungry American and H u m b e r t o Cintrón's Frankie Cristo
544
follow more closely the pattern set by Labarthe's The Son of Two Nations
and describe those w h o g r e w up in the ghetto and believed in the
A m e r i c a n dream. For R u i z , N e w Y o r k is just a resting place to travel to
other parts of the United States. R u i z ' s life recalls Labarthe's: both
authors were born in Puerto R i c o , their families had a difficult time
making ends meet on the island, they leave hoping to better their lives, and
they succeed in m a k i n g it out of the N e w Y o r k ghetto. Like Labarthe w h o
earned an M A at C o l u m b i a University, Cintron valued education and
completed his M A at the University of California.
If T h o m a s ' s experience provided a disturbing view of a country in
w h i c h violence, drugs, crime, and sex were c o m m o n p l a c e , the experience
of w o m e n w a s much different. In this regard, N i c h o l a s a M o h r (b. 1935),
perhaps the first Puerto R i c a n w o m a n to write fiction in English,
represents still another side of the N u y o r i c a n perspective. A painter
turned writer, she has been very active, publishing three novels, Nilda,
Felita, and Going Home, and three collections of short stories, El Bronx
Remembered, In Nueva York, and Ritual of Survival: A Woman s
Portfolio, and has completed her memoirs, In My Own Words: Growing
Up Inside the Sanctuary of my Imagination. M o h r ' s narratives appeal to a
broader English-speaking reader and have received a w a r d s such as the
New York Times Outstanding B o o k of the Y e a r , Library Journal Best
B o o k of the Y e a r , the A m e r i c a n B o o k A w a r d , and others. Because of the
simplicity of her language, images, and metaphors, and for marketing
purposes, M o h r ' s b o o k s have been unjustly classified as children's
literature. A c c o r d i n g to M o h r , only Felita w a s written for children.
Written from a child's or adolescent's perspective, her w o r k s offer a
balanced v i e w of reality, describing both positive and negative exper
iences. M a n y of M o h r ' s stories contain autobiographical references,
particularly Nilda and Felita. For e x a m p l e , in Nilda, she describes her
brother's involvement in crime and drugs and, in Felita, the prejudice her
family encounters w h e n they m o v e from a c r o w d e d neighborhood to a
white one and back again. T h e child narrator is advantageous to M o h r ,
allowing her to describe the ghetto w i t h objectivity and innocence,
tenderness and compassion u n k n o w n in the w o r k s of her male counter
parts. T h e r e are no political or social commentaries of an adult narrator,
but a description of everyday life: the b r o k e n - d o w n buildings, the
roaches, the lack of food, the loss of innocence are part of the narrative
b a c k g r o u n d . M o h r ' s w o r k s represent a new direction for N u y o r i c a n
narrators, a w a y from the violence and assimilation and t o w a r d a more
balanced view of Puerto Ricans in the United States.
O f the writers, M o h r , but also A l g a r i n and M i g u e l Pinero (1946-1988),
have been outspoken about reappropriating Puerto R i c a n identity and in
their criticism of the treatment N u y o r i c a n s receive w h e n returning to
545
Puerto R i c o . M o h r demystifies the Puerto Rican paradise and accepts

N e w Y o r k and the United States as her permanent h o m e . T h e return to
Puerto R i c o is the theme of Going Home. A s in Soto's Ardiente suelo, fría
estación, Felita experiences difficulty in accepting the island's culture.
M o h r contrasts the values of the mainland w i t h those of the island and
s h o w s the difference in the treatment of men and w o m e n . Felita misses
N e w Y o r k and returns " h o m e " to her native city. M a i n s t r e a m Puerto
Rican writers living on the island are also concerned about the question of
identity. T h i s is evident in Luis Rafael Sanchez's " L a guagua aérea,"
w h i c h describes the daily air shuttles between San Juan and N e w Y o r k , or
allá and acá, and h o w that frequent migratory travel underscores the
dilemma of Puerto R i c a n identity.
T h e narrative has played a prominent role in describing the life of
Puerto Ricans in the United States, but N u y o r i c a n poetry, although
recent, is popular and has received publicity in centers like T h e N u y o r i c a n
Poets Cafe, El C a n e y , and T h e N e w R i c a n Village. Poetry written in the
United States can be traced to Julia de Burgos ( 1 9 1 6 - 1 9 5 3 ) , w h o lived in
N e w Y o r k from 1942 to 1953 and w r o t e about the city w h i c h occupied an
important place in her life; this is particularly evident in her posthumous
El mar y tú, otros poemas. But her Obra poética contains fourteen p o e m s
written in N e w Y o r k , though others have been found. L i k e island writers
w h o traveled to N e w Y o r k , Burgos w r o t e about the political situation in
her native Puerto R i c o , as seen in " U n a canción a A l b i z u C a m p o s , " "23 de
septiembre," and " D e Betances a A l b i z u , " though t o w a r d the end of her
life she w r o t e in English about " W e l f a r e Island," and " T h e Sun in Welfare
Island," where she died. It w o u l d h o w e v e r be left to another g r o u p of
poets to displace the attention Burgos gave to Puerto R i c o and develop
further the ideas contained in the p o e m s she dedicated to life in N e w Y o r k .
Puerto R i c a n poetry in the United States acquires a bilingual dimension
w i t h Jaime Carrero (b. 1931) and his Jet neorriqueño-Neo-Rican Jetliner,
the first w o r k to introduce the term " N e o - R i c a n " w h i c h later gave
coherence and identity to a g r o u p of younger writers. Carrero also brings
to poetry the theme of migration prevalent in the w o r k s of the writers of
the Generación del Cuarenta. C a r r e r o ' s poetry is taken one step further by
N u y o r i c a n poets w h o are mainly concerned with the presence of Puerto
Ricans in N e w Y o r k . O f this g r o u p , Pedro Pietri (b. 1944) is its best
exponent. A writer of plays, narratives, and poetry, Pietri is best k n o w n
for his Puerto Rican Obituary; the title p o e m , "Puerto Rican O b i t u a r y , "
w a s first published in Palante: Young Lords Party, in 1 9 7 1 , and w a s
k n o w n to Hispanics in N e w Y o r k City many years before. A descriptive
but also symbolic p o e m , "Puerto R i c a n O b i t u a r y " is the single most
important p o e m in N u y o r i c a n literature. Juan, M i g u e l , M i l a g r o s , O l g a ,
and M a n u e l are familiar figures w h o w o r k e d hard and believed in the
546
A m e r i c a n dream w h i c h they could not attain. A s they mirror the
conditions under w h i c h they lived, the poetic voice condemns them for
abandoning their roots and culture. A c c o r d i n g to the p o e m , the cycle can
be broken if Puerto Ricans develop a sense of national pride and identity.
Written in spoken (street) language, w h i c h for Pietri includes mixing some
Spanish and English, this and other p o e m s are closer to an oral tradition
and are meant to be performed or read aloud. L a n g u a g e expresses pride
and unity a m o n g N u y o r i c a n s , thus rejecting the pressures to assimilate
into a " s t a n d a r d " language or w a y of life. Pietri continues the theme of his
best-known w o r k in p o e m s , such as " T h e Broken English D r e a m , " where
he s h o w s that Puerto Ricans did not gain, but rather lost w h a t little they
had, including their identity and pride, w h e n they traveled to the United
States.
T h e standards set by Pietri are equaled by T a t o Laviera (b. 1951) w h o ,
like Pietri, is a p l a y w r i g h t and poet. In poetry, Laviera has published La
Carreta Made a U-Turn, Enclave, AmeRican, and Mainstream Ethics.
Laviera's first b o o k continues the ending of M a r q u e s ' s play, but rather
than returning to Puerto R i c o , N e w Y o r k is the final destination; that is,
there is no lost paradise to w h i c h Puerto Ricans return, but a new-found
reality. By not completing the full circle, Laviera speaks about his o w n
migratory process; he w a s born in Puerto R i c o and raised in N e w Y o r k
City. Despite the difficult life Puerto Ricans must endure abroad, the
p o e m reveals that Puerto Ricans in the United States have undergone a
change; although they still identify symbolically w i t h the motherland,
they are no longer her children and in reality can never g o back. T h i s
observation is due to a noticeable predominance of English over Spanish.
Y e t , ironically, Laviera ends his b o o k w i t h a series of poems in Spanish,
suggesting that the problem need not be linguistic but is one of preference.
Cultural elements such as those expressed in A f r o - C a r i b b e a n culture are
revered; they a l l o w for an identity of sorts w i t h others struggling in the
ghetto and in particular African-Americans. In effect, Puerto Ricans have
set the g r o u n d w o r k for the creation of a Hispanic C a r i b b e a n subculture
within the N o r t h A m e r i c a n context.
Laviera has the gift of assuming many voices w h i c h include the street
junkie, the w o m a n , and even the Statue of Liberty. Y e t he is most effective
w h e n taking on the voice of a fetus about to be born on Christmas D a y .
D r a w i n g on religious symbolism, "Jesus P a p o t e " is an epic p o e m about
the Puerto R i c a n experience in the United States. T h i s other Christ figure
is born not of a sacred virgin but of a heroin addict w h o has numerous
lovers. T h e fetus's struggle for survival begins in the w o m b ; he w a s forced
to be a man before he became a child. "Jesus P a p o t e " is certainly a major
p o e m in contemporary Hispanic and A m e r i c a n poetry. Y o u n g e r poets
continue to write in the style of Pietri and Laviera. O f these M a r t i n Espada
547
(b. 1957) should be noted; his w o r k s include The Immigrant Iceboy's

Bolero, Trumpets from the Islands of Their Eviction, and Rebellion is the
3
Circle of a Lover s Hands.
T h e w o m a n ' s perspective a m o n g poets is g r o w i n g and is best repre-
sented by Sandra M a r i a Esteves w h o s e publications include Yerba Buena,
Tropical Rains: A Bilingual Downpour, and Bluestown Mockingbird
Mambo. Esteves and other w o m e n poets belong to the tradition initiated
by Burgos, but also by the w o m e n ' s movement in the United States. T h e
w o m a n ' s perspective is different from that of the male counterpart insofar
as it challenges the dominant Hispanic male culture. Esteves a c k n o w -
ledges Burgos's importance in " A Julia y a m i " and recognizes the poet's
strengths and failures. In her best p o e m " M y N a m e is M a r i a C h r i s t i n a "
Esteves expresses pride in being a Puerto Rican w o m a n from El Barrio.
She accepts her traditional role as provider and child-bearer and her n e w
one as creator of different values; she rejects the denigrating aspects of her
culture. A s a female Christ (Cristina), she is origin and strength, elements
necessary for the survival of Puerto R i c a n identity. Nevertheless, L u z
M a r i a Umpierre (b. 1947), a recognized poet w i t h w o r k s such as En el pats
de las maravillas, Una puertorriqueña en Penna, y otras Desgracias And
Other Misfortunes, and The Margarita Poems, has been critical of
Esteves's view of w o m e n , believing that she did not g o far enough.
Umpierre counters Esteves's " M y N a m e is M a r i a C h r i s t i n a " w i t h her
o w n "In R e s p o n s e , " a p o e m in w h i c h the poetic voice denies being M a r i a
Cristina and, unlike her, is a totally liberated w o m a n . T h o u g h Esteves's
and Umpierre's poems pertain to Puerto R i c a n culture, the poets'
awareness comes from the N o r t h A m e r i c a n environment, in general, and
the w o m e n ' s movement, in particular.
Puerto R i c a n identity is certainly important, but some of the poets are
beginning to g o b e y o n d the familiar themes and include wider concerns.
In the case of Laviera, he finds c o m m o n ground w i t h other C a r i b b e a n
groups like Jamaicans, but also C h i c a n o s . T h e attempt to enter the
mainstream is exemplified by M i g u e l Algarin w h o has published Mongo
Affair, On Call, Body Bee Calling From the 21st Century, and Time's
Now. A l g a r i n begins to branch out and l o o k for c o m m o n ground a m o n g
the different cultures as early as his second b o o k w h i c h includes his p o e m s
" B u d d h a " and " B a l a n c e , " representing aspects of Asian culture and
religion. His next b o o k is more concerned with sex and the last one w i t h
love.
A m o n g the Puerto R i c a n writers living and writing in the United States,
the w o r k of Judith O r t i z Cofer (b. 1952) is of particular interest. She is a
poet and novelist and w i t h M o h r , one of the few w o m e n narrators writing
in English. She has published three b o o k s of p o e m s , Latin Women Pray,
Peregrina, and Terms of Survival, one b o o k of memoirs, Silent Dancing,
548
and one novel, The Line of the Sun. O r t i z Cofer w a s born in Puerto R i c o
and raised in the United States; after her father joined the N a v y , the family
m o v e d often and lived in different cities. Her w o r k touches upon some of
the themes of other N u y o r i c a n writers but she expresses them from a less
marginal perspective, in a language that is more polished and mainstream.
Unlike the other writers, O r t i z Cofer is not concerned about the linguistic
phenomenon caused by the c o m i n g together of Spanish and English nor
about the clashing of the t w o cultures. M a n y of her poems are of a
personal nature, often describing her innermost thoughts, vivid exper
iences, and members of her family. Poems such as " H o u s e p a i n t e r , "
" M o o n l i g h t Performance," " W o m a n W a t c h i n g Sunset," and " T h e
M u l e " are written w i t h a keen insight of the subject and are c o m p o s e d
with much thought and mastery over her expression, but s h o w no trace of
her Puerto R i c a n or ethnic b a c k g r o u n d . T h e r e are other poems such as
" V i s i t i n g L a A b u e l a , " " T h e G u s a n o of Puerto R i c o , " and " L a t i n W o m e n
P r a y " w h i c h suggest a certain Hispanic thematics but although they
contain Hispanic names and references to the island, they are written in
standard English. O n l y in a handful of poems does she venture a w a y from
English and incorporate a few w o r d s of standard Spanish such as " l a
l e c h e " in " P u e b l o W a k i n g " and the vendor's call "frutas hoy, y v i a n d a s "
in " T h e Fruit V e n d o r . " Even though she chooses not to use her Spanish,
O r t i z Cofer is certainly a w a r e of her parents' language, w h i c h the poetic
voice will teach others as she reveals in " L e s s o n O n e : I W o u l d S i n g : "
In Spanish, "cantaría" means I would sing,

Cantaría bajo la luna,
I would sing under the moon.
Cantaría cerca de tu tumba,
By your grave I would sing,
Cantaría de una vida perdida,
O f a wasted life I would sing,
If I may, if I could, I would sing
In Spanish the conditional tense is the tense of dreamers,
of philosophers, fools, drunkards,
of w i d o w s , new mothers, small children,
of old people, cripples, saints, and poets.
It is the grammar of expectation and
the formula for hope: cantaría, amaría, viviría.
Please repeat after me.
O r t i z C o f e r ' s p o e m is concerned w i t h translation and perhaps bilingua-

lism, but is certainly a w a r e of the p o w e r of Spanish verbs and tenses,
w h i c h are antithetical to their less expressive English equivalents. T h i s
p o e m is about marginal people w h o speak a language, and therefore live
in a culture, of hope.
549
O r t i z C o f e r ' s The Line of the Sun is an autobiographical novel of sorts

w h i c h narrates the story of three generations of M a r i s o l Santa L u z
Vivente's family. M a r i s o l , the granddaughter, is Puerto R i c a n by birth but
is raised in the United States after her parents migrate in the 1950s. T h e
novel is divided into t w o thematic parts: the first pertains to her Puerto
Rican village where her father and uncle g r e w up, and describes rituals
and traditions of the island and her uncle G u z m a n ' s mischievous life. T h e
second part takes place in El Building in N e w Jersey and in N e w Y o r k City
where she experiences the harsh reality of living on the mainland. A
comparison between the t w o parts s h o w s that the poverty her family
endured on the island prefigures that of the mainland. M a r i s o l suffers
from an identity crisis created by living in the village of Salud, Puerto
R i c o , and in Patterson, N e w Jersey, but also by her father's desire to
become Americanized and her mother's k n o w l e d g e of Puerto R i c o and
letters about G u z m a n . W r i t i n g takes on a therapeutic meaning: it is a w a y
of staying in touch w i t h her Puerto R i c a n heritage while living in the
United States.
Like poetry and narrative, the N u y o r i c a n theatre is rapidly gaining in
popularity, w i t h the emergence of such performing groups as T h e Puerto
R i c a n Playwrights and A c t o r s W o r k s h o p s , T e a t r o C i i a t r o , El T e a t r o
A m b u l a n t e , and A q u a r i u s Theater. T h i s genre is particularly important
to the contemporary Puerto R i c a n and Hispanic communities because it
recreates life in the United States, one all t o o familiar to the Hispanic
audience, thus appealing to first-time theatre-goers and providing an
alternative for those w h o customarily take advantage of this art form.
T h e Hispanic theatre written in the United States has a long history that
dates back to the nineteenth century; but in recent times Puerto R i c a n
theatre can be traced to Esta noche juega el joker (1939) by Fernando
Sierra Berdecia, (1903-1962), a play about the cultural differences
between the island and the mainland and the adjustments Puerto Ricans
must undergo in N e w Y o r k . It received standing ovations from the public
w h e n performed at the C l u b Artistico del C a s i n o de Puerto R i c o and
outside the island. Berdecia's tradition w a s continued by M a n u e l M e n d e z
Ballester (b. 1909) w i t h Encrucijada (1958) and Jaime C a r r e r o w i t h Caja
de caudales F M (1978). H o w e v e r , N u y o r i c a n theatre is best represented
by M i g u e l Piiiero - also k n o w n as a poet - and his play Short Eyes. Like
M o h r ' s stories, Piiiero's play has met w i t h great success, receiving the
N e w Y o r k D r a m a Critics Circle A w a r d and the O b i e (Off-Broadway) for
1 9 7 3 - 1 9 7 4 , and being p r o d u c e d by Joseph Papp at the Lincoln Center,
and reviewed by magazines and newspapers such as the New York Times,
the Daily News, and Newsweek, a m o n g others. T h e play received its
strongest endorsement by H o l l y w o o d w h e n it w a s made into a full-length
motion picture w i t h the same name. Piiiero's play recalls the prison theme
55o
prevalent in T h o m a s ' s Down These Mean Streets and Seven Long Times.
T h e play reduces the tensions in society to their basic premise, to the racial
and ethnic discrimination w h i c h Blacks and Puerto Ricans in and outside
prison must endure. In prison language (which recalls that of the barrios
and ghettos), "short e y e s " refers to a child molester, the most serious
crime of all. Prison life is a mirror of society w i t h racial problems and its
o w n system of justice. H o w e v e r , it is also an inversion of society: the crime
is committed not by a Black or a Hispanic but by a W h i t e , the black and
Puerto R i c a n prisoners in their o v e r w h e l m i n g numbers are in p o w e r , and
homosexuality plays an important role in prison life. A s in society, prison
is ineffective in correcting behavior.
A s chroniclers of an ethnic culture w h i c h is Puerto R i c a n and N o r t h
A m e r i c a n , Puerto R i c a n writers in the United States have provided a
f r a m e w o r k for other Hispanic C a r i b b e a n authors w h o write about their
lives and experiences in the same N o r t h A m e r i c a n environment. A s
C u b a n s c o m e to terms w i t h the permanent nature of their condition as
exiles, many authors are writing about C u b a n A m e r i c a n themes. T h e y
describe the problems w h i c h affect the C u b a n A m e r i c a n c o m m u n i t y , even
though this c o m m u n i t y is not h o m o g e n o u s regarding its political views
toward Cuba.
It is still early to identify C u b a n A m e r i c a n figures w h o will leave a
lasting mark, but there are some literary patterns w h i c h are emerging.
C u b a n A m e r i c a n narrators write* in Spanish and in English. T h o s e w h o
use Spanish bring aspects of the contemporary Spanish A m e r i c a n novel
into their w o r k s ; those w h o use English adhere more closely to N o r t h
A m e r i c a n literary trends. T h e adopted language suggests an assimilation
of sorts, the vernacular represents an attempt to preserve C u b a n or
Hispanic identity. A l t h o u g h some authors write in Spanish, an increasing
number of them are writing in English, and even capturing the influence
one language has over the other. T h e s e writers are at the forefront of
developing a Latino intercultural literature.
In narrative, the theme of the c o m i n g together of the t w o languages and
cultures is highlighted by " N o t h i n g in O u r H a n d s But A g e " (1979) by
R a q u e l Puig Z a l d i v a r (b. 1950). In this amusing yet tragic story, Puig
Z a l d i v a r unites t w o generations of C u b a n exiles, one represented by a
teacher educated in the United States, and the other by an elderly exiled
couple w h o must return to school and learn English to revalidate their
degrees. T h e story is about freedom, pride, and perseverance. Similarly,
La vida es un special by R o b e r t o Fernandez (b. 1 9 5 1 ) , w h i c h pertains to
C u b a n exiles living in M i a m i , underscores the lack of c o m m u n i c a t i o n
between the younger generation that w a n t s to assimilate into mainstream
society, and the adults, w h o do not speak English and desire to preserve
the original culture. In language, the harsh reality is represented by the
55i
c o m i n g together of Spanish, English, and Spanglish. A l s o , Fernandez's La

montaña rusa, influenced by the Latin A m e r i c a n novel of the Boom
period, expands on the themes of La vida, depicts the life of C u b a n
Americans in M i a m i , and is critical of their sexual and anticommunist
obsessions as well as their liberal ideas. M o s t recently he published
Raining Backwards, a novel w h i c h gathers aspects of C u b a n culture
within the N o r t h A m e r i c a n environment. In Los viajes de Orlando
Cachumbambé by Elias M i g u e l M u ñ o z (b. 1954), the author uses
contemporary techniques to describe a C u b a n exile narrator-protagonist
w h o seesaws between t w o cultures as his mixture of Spanish and English
suggests. M u ñ o z moves closer to the N o r t h A m e r i c a n culture in his Crazy
Love, w h o s e title refers to a song by the A m e r i c a n p o p figure Paul A n k a .
T h e novel is written in English and highlights the c o m i n g together of the
t w o cultures. By contrast, in " E t r u s c a n s " (1981) by M a r i a del C a r m e n
Boza (b. 1952), references to C u b a and M i a m i are part of the protagonist's
past; C u b a n culture can hardly be discerned, as the protagonist visits a
farm in rural Pennsylvania. T h e story relates to school, friendship, pride,
and honesty.
C u b a n A m e r i c a n writers, like their established exile counterparts,
write about C u b a and exile. For e x a m p l e , Pablo M e d i n a (b. 1948) w h o
w r o t e Fork Rind and Cuban Songs and Arching into the Afterlife, also
published Exiled Memories: A Cuban Childhood, an autobiographical
account in w h i c h the protagonist recollects the first twelve years of his life,
w h i c h includes his experiences in pre- and post-revolutionary C u b a , and
those after his arrival in N e w Y o r k in i960. A b o v e all, the b o o k is a
collective m e m o r y of personal experiences, but also family customs and
traditions w h i c h a l l o w the protagonist to narrate events in the nineteenth
and twentieth centuries. T h e b o o k is a nostalgic account of the past and is
accompanied by illustrations of M e d i n a and his family. In " L i t a n y " by
D a m i á n Fernández (b. 1957), the protagonist w h o lives in C u b a is
marginal and does not participate in C u b a n revolutionary society. In
R o b e r t o Fernandez's " L a e n c a d e n a d a , " the characters find it difficult to
overcome their condition of exile.
T h e exile experience is also a theme a m o n g the youngest writers of the
M a r i e l Generation. Virgil Suárez (b. 1962), the author of Latin Jazz and
Welcome to the Oasis and Other Stories, also published The Cutter, a
story about Julián C a m p o s w h o is at the H a v a n a A i r p o r t w a i t i n g to leave
the island and join his family in the United States w h e n the C u b a n security
police detain him. Because of the departure of his family five years earlier
and his desire to leave the island, Julián is forced to join the Y o u n g
Pioneers and d o additional voluntary w o r k cutting sugar cane. T h e time
of the narration is 1969, one year before the completion of the failed T e n
M i l l i o n T o n Sugar Harvest. In the end, Julian's situation is desperate and
552.
he escapes from the island-prison and arrives in M i a m i . T w o other

writers of the M a r i e l Generation w o r t h noting are R o b e r t o V a l e r o (b.
1955) and M i g u e l C o r r e a (b. 1956).
T h e representation of t w o cultures, t w o languages, and t w o countries
in C u b a n A m e r i c a n narrative is also reflected in poetry. In her "Para A n a
V e l f o r t , " in Palabras juntan revolución, Lourdes C a s a l (1938-1981) is
caught between t w o w o r l d s : she refers to N e w Y o r k as her "patria c h i c a , "
although recognizing that she w a s not born there. In Cimarrón, R i c a r d o
A l o n s o (b. 1954) is disappointed with the United States but also k n o w s
that he is a stranger to the island. In Sorting Metaphors, R i c a r d o Pau-
Llosa (b. 1954) l o o k s at M i a m i with a distant critical eye.
T h e t w o most important C u b a n A m e r i c a n poets are O c t a v i o A r m a n d
(b. 1946) and José Kozer (b. 1940), w h o s e w o r k s can be understood as
responding to the problems of contemporary Latin A m e r i c a n writing.
A r m a n d ' s poetry includes Horizonte no es siempre lejanía, Cómo escribir
con erizo, and Biografía para feacios (iyyy-iyyy), and although his w o r k s
are difficult to classify, he attempts to bridge the gap between poetry and
prose, at times bordering on one or the other or even a combination of
both. His w o r k s reveal a preoccupation with the w o r d ; not satisfied w i t h
its old referents, he desires to attribute to it more than w h a t their tired
meanings offer. Other concerns of his include the physical, psychological,
and emotional estrangements in w h i c h the b o d y , his and that of the text,
plays an important role. In Biografía para feacios, A r m a n d searches for
and escapes to where he is, because there is no "other side."
Other poets g o beyond the C u b a n A m e r i c a n experience. K o z e r ' s most
recent w o r k s include La rueca de los semblantes, Jarrón de las abreviatu
ras, Bajo este cien, La garza sin sombras, El carrillón de los muertos, and
Carece de causa. T h e creativity in language noted in A r m a n d ' s poetry is
also present in K o z e r ' s w o r k s except that, in the case of the latter, it
becomes an eternal quest for answers to questions w h i c h have no
solutions. T h e p o e m becomes an unending search for identity and
meaning. H e tries to put together a puzzle in w h i c h he is just another piece:
that of a C u b a n Jew in an adopted N e w Y o r k environment. Some of
K o z e r ' s poems include Y i d d i s h w o r d s with cultural and political refer
ents, thus adding a multicultural dimension to his tropes. For example, in
" K a f k a " Koser writes about physical isolation and mental escape and
makes references to Prague and L i m a . In " J u l i o " the poetic voice describes
with nostalgia the past in w h i c h childhood and his grandmother were
central elements. In an insightful essay on K o z e r ' s w o r k s , " N o c i ó n de José
K o z e r , " the critic (and poet) G u s t a v o Pérez Firmat highlights the use of
various languages w i t h their multiple referents and studies the grammati
cal function of parentheses in the p o e m s .
T h e C u b a n A m e r i c a n theatre is beginning to make inroads in the
553
United States. O f the playwrights, D o l o r e s Prida (b. 1943) and her

Beautiful Señoritas, w h i c h w a s performed many years before it w a s
published, deserves some attention. T h e play is influenced by the w o m e n ' s
movement in the United States and is an attempt to address the issue of
C u b a n or Hispanic w o m e n within the N o r t h A m e r i c a n context.
A l t h o u g h some writers like A r m a n d and Koser are gaining in popular-
ity, other C u b a n A m e r i c a n writers are k n o w n only in small circles, mainly
within the C u b a n and Hispanic communities in the United States. Perhaps
the exception is O s c a r Hijuelos (b. 1951) and his The Mambo Kings Play
Songs of Love, w h i c h w a s published by a major publisher, Farrar Strauss
& G i r o u x , and earned him a Pulitzer Prize in 1990. Hijuelos had published
Our House in the Last World, w h i c h pertains to the experiences of his
family w h o traveled to the United States in the 1940s, but it w a s The
Mambo Kings w h i c h made him the star figure of C u b a n A m e r i c a n writers.
R e v i e w e d by all major newspapers and magazines, the novel, set in 1949,
narrates the journey of t w o C u b a n musicians, Cesar and Nestor Castillo,
w h o leave H a v a n a and w i t h hard w o r k become musical celebrities of the
m a m b o in N e w Y o r k . After his affair with M a r i a , N e s t o r devotes his life
to her m e m o r y and writes t w e n t y - t w o versions of "Beautiful M a r i a of M y
S o u l . " M u s i c makes the protagonists famous during a period in w h i c h
Latin music w a s leaving its mark in the United States; they even appear on
the "I L o v e L u c y " s h o w and play in Desi A r n a z ' s T r o p i c a n a C l u b . In the
author's w o r d s : " T h i s is a wonderful b o o k about A m e r i c a n history and
culture and its intermixing w i t h C u b a n culture." W i t h The Mambo
Kings, Hijuelos has made the transition from a C u b a n A m e r i c a n writing
to mainstream N o r t h A m e r i c a n literature.
D o m i n i c a n s are the most recent group of Hispanic C a r i b b e a n authors
to write in the United States. T h e D o m i n i c a n Republic and its writers have
been marked by t w o important events: the end of the Trujillo dictatorship
and the US invasion of the island. In the D o m i n i c a n Republic, these t w o
events motivated a D o m i n i c a n literature w h i c h is obsessed w i t h narrating
life under the dictatorship and during the U S occupation. T h e same events
opened the d o o r for a new w a v e of C a r i b b e a n immigrants to the United
States, increasing in numbers in the 1970s. O n l y in the 1980s has a
D o m i n i c a n literature written in the United States emerged.
D o m i n i c a n authors writing in the United States are mainly poets w h o s e
w o r k s resemble those of first-generation migrants writing in Spanish and
publishing in their country of origin. T h e i r presence in the United States
has given them greater freedom to continue the D o m i n i c a n literary
tradition abroad. Some writers are merging their native culture w i t h that
of their adopted country to form a synthesis of the t w o . M a g a z i n e s and
anthologies have been responsible for giving publicity to these authors
and creating an interested public. Unfortunately, some of the magazines
554
have had limited circulation; they include Letras e Imágenes (1981—1982),

Inquietudes ( 1 9 8 1 - 1 9 8 2 ) , Punto 7 Review (1985-), and Alcance (1983-).
O f the anthologies, w e should mention Franklin Gutierrez's Espiga del
siglo (1984), Niveles del imán (1983), and Voces del exilio (1986), and the
bilingual Poemas del exilio y de otras inquietudes edited by Daisy C o c e o
de Filippis and E m m a Jane Robinett.
Like other Hispanic C a r i b b e a n authors, D o m i n i c a n writers are begin
ning to s h o w the influence of N o r t h A m e r i c a n culture in their w o r k s .
Leandro M o r a l e s (b. 1957) writes about death in " C o p l a s para la muerte
de mi m a d r e " and about A r t a u d in " A n t o n i n A r t a u d , " a theme also
repeated by A l e x i s G ó m e z R o s a (b. 1950) in " C é d u l a métrica"; but in
" C i e l o p r a g m á t i c o " and " U n a y otra vez me preguntaron," G ó m e z R o s a
describes the cemeteries of N e w a r k and Central Park of N e w Y o r k ,
respectively. T h e search for an identity created by living abroad is present
in English in Homecoming by Julia A l v a r e z (b. 1951). She and C h i q u i
V i c i o s o (b. 1948) also offer a female perspective in D o m i n i c a n poetry. T h e
loss of identity is a concern of Franklin Guitiérrez (b. 1951) in his Helen,
about a w o m a n w h o s e transformation is evident in her name change from
the Spanish Helena to the English Helen. T h e reality of living in N e w Y o r k
and searching for the A m e r i c a n dream is best captured by G u i l l e r m o
Francisco Gutiérrez (b. 1958) in Condado con candado (1986). T h e
despair created by exile is present in the w o r k s of T o m á s Rivera M a r t i n e z
(b. 1956) and H é c t o r Rivera (b. 1957). T h e African A m e r i c a n awareness
of race and racism is an important influence on D o m i n i c a n authors.
N o r b e r t o James R o l l i n g (b. 1945) l o o k s at the issues of race in the
D o m i n i c a n Republic and brings into focus an A f r o - C a r i b b e a n tradition.
Chiqui V i c i o s o recognizes and defends the Haitian influence on D o m i n i
can culture.
R a c e is also the concern of M i g u e l A . V á z q u e z (b. 1942), one of the first
D o m i n i c a n narrators to write in the United States. V a z q u e z ' s Mejorar la
raza is a c o m i n g to terms w i t h the racial prejudice of Hispanic C a r i b b e a n
culture w h i c h promotes the betterment of Blacks by " w h i t e n i n g " their
skin color. A l t h o u g h the novel takes place in the D o m i n i c a n Republic, the
United States is mentioned briefly, but is more visible in the treatment of
race.
O f the D o m i n i c a n w o m e n writers, Julia A l v a r e z has already found a
place a m o n g her better-known Hispanic and Latino counterparts w i t h her
novel How the Garcia Girls Lost Their Accents, published by A l g o n q u i n
B o o k s in 1 9 9 1 . Like M o h r and O r t i z C o f e r w h o write about their family
and childhood memories, A l v a r e z also describes the dynamic relation
ships that exist between her mother, father, and their four daughters. Like
other immigrants and exiles, she t o o tries to understand her arrival in the
United States from the D o m i n i c a n Republic at the age of ten and the
555
C A M B R I D G E H I S T O R Y OF L A T I N A M E R I C A N L I T E R A T U R E
pressures to assimilate and yet to maintain her o w n identity. T h e duality is

also reflected in her writing style, in w h i c h she brings to English her
k n o w l e d g e of Spanish.
It will only be a matter of time before other D o m i n i c a n authors follow
the path outlined by Puerto R i c a n and C u b a n A m e r i c a n writers w h o use
the adopted language to write about the Hispanic experience in N e w Y o r k
and other Spanish-speaking cities. Some writers like M o r a l e s , A l v a r e z ,
Gutierrez, Rivera, and G o m e z R o s a , are already publishing in the United
States.
Hispanic C a r i b b e a n literature written in the United States forms an
integral part of a Spanish A m e r i c a n literature of exile and migration. A s
the conditions of authors living in the United States b e c o m e more
perrhanent, their literature will include more images about Hispanic life in
N o r t h A m e r i c a n cities. Similarly, as the younger authors continue to
express themselves in English, their w o r k s will b e c o m e a part of a
Hispanic A m e r i c a n ethnic literature w h i c h describes the life of the
Hispanic or Latino in the United States. Writers such as N i c h o l a s a M o h r ,
M a r i a del C a r m e n B o z a , Judith O r t i z C o f e r , and O s c a r Hijuelos are
beginning to reflect in their w o r k s the c o m i n g together of a Hispanic
C a r i b b e a n tradition in a N o r t h A m e r i c a n context. Hispanic C a r i b b e a n
literature written in the United States has an impact on both Spanish
A m e r i c a n and N o r t h A m e r i c a n literatures. Therefore, it bridges t w o
continents, t w o cultures, and t w o languages.
556

Latin American Hispanic Caribbean Literature Written in The United States

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

You might also like

Latin American Hispanic Caribbean Literature Written in The United States

Uploaded by

Document Information

Original Title

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Latin American Hispanic Caribbean Literature Written in The United States

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

[ 16 ]

Latin American (Hispanic Caribbean) literature written in the

Hispanic C a r i b b e a n literature written in the United States is a relatively

United States. T h e newly created courses were different from traditional

R i c o a territory of the United States, and in particular the Jones A c t of

M o n t e literary circle, Villaverde had produced a considerable b o d y of

Versos sencillos, a sincere expression of emotions related to his homeland,

chronicles entitled Crónicas de un mundo enfermo, about the Puerto

1959. A s a writer, N o v a s C a l v o ' s reputation w a s hindered by historical

opposed their respective governments w h e n each lived in C u b a . For their

selfishness since the building's superintendent, w h o is not of the same

Arenas's life represents an attack on the C a s t r o government. T h e

M a r c e l i n o Pérez, experiences a series of misfortunes from the moment his

N e w Y o r k City. His " L o s inocentes" and " L a c a u t i v a " describe the

experienced by the p o o r , but also the life of his counterparts; those w i t h

Labarthe's and C o l o n ' s b o o k s provide a f r a m e w o r k for understanding

Puerto R i c o . M o h r demystifies the Puerto Rican paradise and accepts

(b. 1957) should be noted; his w o r k s include The Immigrant Iceboy's

In Spanish, "cantaría" means I would sing,

O r t i z C o f e r ' s p o e m is concerned w i t h translation and perhaps bilingua-

O r t i z C o f e r ' s The Line of the Sun is an autobiographical novel of sorts

c o m i n g together of Spanish, English, and Spanglish. A l s o , Fernandez's La

he escapes from the island-prison and arrives in M i a m i . T w o other

United States. O f the playwrights, D o l o r e s Prida (b. 1943) and her

have had limited circulation; they include Letras e Imágenes (1981—1982),

pressures to assimilate and yet to maintain her o w n identity. T h e duality is

You might also like