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Optimal location and size of a grid-independent solar/hydrogen system for rural areas
using an efficient heuristic approach

Ge Zhang, Yong Shi, Akbar Maleki, Marc A. Rosen

PII: S0960-1481(20)30538-3
DOI: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.04.010
Reference: RENE 13339

To appear in: Renewable Energy

Received Date: 14 July 2019

Revised Date: 24 March 2020
Accepted Date: 1 April 2020

Please cite this article as: Zhang G, Shi Y, Maleki A, Rosen MA, Optimal location and size of a grid-
independent solar/hydrogen system for rural areas using an efficient heuristic approach, Renewable
Energy (2020), doi: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.renene.2020.04.010.

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CRediT author statement

Title: Optimal location and size of a grid-independent solar/hydrogen system for rural areas
using an efficient heuristic approach
Journal: Renewable Energy

Ge Zhang: Conceptualization, Methodology, and Editing

Yong Shi: Data curation, Writing- draft preparation.
Akbar Maleki: Supervision, Methodology,Visualization, Investigation.
Marc A. Rosen: Investigation, Writing- Reviewing and Editing
 Optimal location and size of a grid-independent

solar/hydrogen system for rural areas using an efficient

heuristic approach

Ge Zhang1, 2, Yong Shi*3, Akbar Maleki∗4, Marc A. Rosen5

1
School of Computer and Information Engineering, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, China
2
Henan Key Laboratory of Big Data Analysis and Processing, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, China
3
School of Accounting, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, Wuhan 430074, China
4
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran
5
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa,

Ontario, L1H 7K4, Canada

∗
Corresponding Authors.
E-mail addresses: akbar.maleki20@yahoo.com, a_maleki@shahroodut.ac.ir (A. Maleki); shiyong@zuel.edu.cn (Y.
Shi).
 1 Optimal location and size of a grid-independent solar/hydrogen

2 system for rural areas using an efficient heuristic approach

Ge Zhang1, 2, Yong Shi3*, Akbar Maleki∗4, Marc A. Rosen5

1
School of Computer and Information Engineering, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, China
2
Henan Key Laboratory of Big Data Analysis and Processing, Henan University, Kaifeng 475004, China
3
School of Accounting, Zhongnan University of Economics and Law, Wuhan 430074, China
3
Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Shahrood University of Technology, Shahrood, Iran
4
Faculty of Engineering and Applied Science, University of Ontario Institute of Technology, Oshawa,

Ontario, L1H 7K4, Canada

5 Abstract

6 Renewable energy resources and technologies, especially solar thermal and photovoltaic systems, can

7 provide advantageous and clean options for meeting electrical demands. The location and sizing of

8 photovoltaic systems affect the system losses significantly. Here, a new hybrid framework for the

9 optimal location and size for an off-grid solar/hydrogen energy system is proposed using an improved

10 heuristic approach: improved harmony search and geographic information system (GIS). To determine

11 the appropriate capacity and location for a grid-independent photovoltaic scheme in rural areas, a GIS

12 module is used subject to several criteria: social, economic, technical, and environmental. The life cycle

13 cost, the main objective function, is minimized and employed to assess the viability of the stand-alone

14 photovoltaic scheme with hydrogen storage accounting for the reliability of the scheme. The system

15 reliability is measured with the parameter loss of power supply probability. The proposed framework is

16 useful, and is applied here to an actual case study in Iran for illustrative purposes. To validate the

∗
Corresponding Authors.
E-mail addresses: akbar.maleki20@yahoo.com, a_maleki@shahroodut.ac.ir (A. Maleki); shiyong@zuel.edu.cn (Y. Shi).
1
17 effectiveness of the proposed algorithm, the results obtained by proposed algorithm are compared with

18 those of harmony search algorithm-based geographic information systems. The results of the simulation

19 show the advantages of utilizing the proposed framework, based on improved harmony search and

20 geographic information systems, for a grid-independent photovoltaic scheme considering both power

21 quality and cost in remote and island areas.

22 Keywords: Rural electrification; Solar energy; Hydrogen energy; Optimal location; Optimal size;

23 Efficient heuristic approach.

24

25 1. Introduction

26 Fossil fuel use poses challenges for consumers in terms of both economics and environmental impact,

27 particularly climate change [1]. The use of renewable energy resources, especially solar, is an option for

28 producing energy services in an environmentally benign manner, especially in remote and island areas

29 [2]. For a grid-independent photovoltaic (PV) system, the optimal location and sizing can enhance the

30 performance of an electrical system by reducing losses, generation capacities and construction costs,

31 while improving service quality and reliability.

32 Many hybrid energy schemes based on solar energy (SE) and wind energy (WE) have been scanned: SE

33 based on hydrogen energy storage [3], SE and WE based on hydrogen energy storage [4], SE and WE

34 based on battery energy storage [5], SE and WE with diesel generator [6], and hydrogen energy based

35 renewable energy. In these schemes, optimization poses is a non-linear and non-convex problem, in this

36 regards, a robust optimization process is required. Recently, optimization has been examined for hybrid

37 energy schemes, and indicated that many techniques are used, including mathematical programming

38 methods and heuristic optimization techniques: HOGA software [7], HOMER software [8], nonlinear

39 programming [9], simulated annealing [10], particle swarm optimization (PSO) [11], genetic algorithm

40 (GA) [12], bat algorithm [13], tabu search [14], and harmony search (HS) [15]. HS was introduced

41 recently as an effective optimization method for energy problems [16], and for finding for hybrid

42 systems the optimal size [17], the optimal placement of units [18], the optimal power flow [19], and

2
43 economics [20]. Here, an improved heuristic optimization method is introduced, based on harmony

44 search, for sizing hybrid systems. Recently, many studies have been carried out on the optimization of

45 hybrid energy systems, and details on many of these are provided in Table 1. Information presented in

46 this table includes the following: method and optimization algorithm, objective function, components

47 and type of system and region of study. Belfkira et al. [21] provided a methodology for optimally sizing

48 a grid-independent SE and WE with diesel scheme, and studied the influence on system cost of the

49 scheme. Hong and Lian [22] introduced a method, a GA-based Markov model, for the ideal design of a

50 SE and WE with diesel scheme, based on fuel costs and system reliability. Nafeh [23] presented a

51 methodology for determining the configuration of a grid-independent SE and WE scheme using a GA

52 based on minimizing life cycle cost (LCC) and accounting for system reliability. Ismail et al. [24]

53 carried out a design of a hybrid solar/diesel/battery scheme along with a techno-economic assessment.

54 They found that a hybrid solar/diesel/battery scheme is more economic than a diesel system. Bala and

55 Siddique [25] introduced a GA based method for optimally sizing a solar/diesel scheme that provides

56 electricity to an isolated area. Fathy [26] presented a method using mine blast optimization for

57 optimally sizing a grid-independent SE and WE based on hydrogen scheme for a specified load of an

58 isolated area in Egypt. Khiareddine [27] introduced a methodology based on an energy management

59 strategy for optimizing the design of a hybrid SE and WE based on energy storage for pumping in

60 Sahline, Tunisia. Triviño et al. [28] proposed a PSO-based energy management system for optimizing

61 the long-term operation of an hybrid SE and WE based on energy storage scheme. Feroldi and

62 Zumoffen [29] introduced a design methodology within an energy management strategy for the

63 optimization of a SE and WE with hydrogen scheme, using a GA. Smoui et al. [30] used an iterative

64 organization for optimally designing a hybrid SE and WE with hydrogen scheme in a remote area.

65 Maleki et al. [31] presented a methodology based on bee optimization for optimally designing in a

66 remote area a PV system. Hafeznia et al. [32] presented a framework for measuring, for utility-scale

67 installations, the potential of PV systems.

Table 1. Summary of selected recent literature on optimization of hybrid energy systems

3
Ref. Optimization Objective Region System Grid linkage Optimization
method function type
[33] TRNSYS maximum Karachi, solar-hydrogen on-grid optimal design
software efficiency Pakistan
[34] Genetic minimizing Yuxi, PV-hydrogen- electric vehicle off-grid design and sizing
algorithm loss of China batteries optimization
power
supply and
system cost
[35] Genetic cost Beijing, PV-hydrogen on-grid power
algorithm optimization China optimization

[36] PSO minimizing Brittany, Wind/tidal/PV/battery off-grid optimal design

algorithm cost France
[37] Genetic minimizing Jeju Wind/ PV/battery off-grid optimal
algorithm cost Island, capacities
South
Korea
[38] Flower minimizing Egypt PV-hydrogen off-grid optimum number
pollination cost
algorithm
[39] Hybrid minimizing Iran Wind/ PV/ hydrogen off-grid optimal size
algorithm cost
[40] Multi-criteria achieving Algeria solar photovoltaic and thermal off-grid optimal location
decision- plus-energy
making buildings
[41] Multi-criteria evaluate Algerian solar-hydrogen - site selection
decision land
making suitability
[42] GIS maps wind/solar Sistan and wind-solar-hydrogen - site selection
potentials Baluchist
for hydrogen an in Iran
production

[43] PSO minimum Iran solar-hydrogen on-grid optimal design

algorithm cost of the
system
[44] Simulated minimum Iran wind-solar-hydrogen off-grid optimal size
annealing life cycle
algorithm cost
[45] Simulink minimum Álora PV/hydrogen/battery off-grid optimal size
design cost of the (Málaga),
optimization system Spain
[46] Modelling minimum Iran solar-hydrogen off-grid optimal sizing
cost of the
system
[47] Parametric high system Algeria PV/hydrogen off-grid optimal power
sensitivity efficiency
analysis
[48] HOMER minimum Ganzi, PV/hydrogen/battery off-grid optimum design
software cost of the China
system
[49] HOMER minimum Canada; wind-solar-hydrogen off-grid optimum design
software cost of USA;
energy Australia
[50] Modelling minimum Stockhol solar-hydrogen-diesel off-grid optimal design
and cost of the m, generator
simulation system Sweden
[51] Modelling low cost of United solar-hydrogen-diesel off-grid optimal design
and energy Arab generator
simulation Emirates

4
 [52] Firefly minimum Egypt wind-solar-hydrogen off-grid optimal design
algorithm cost of the
(FA) system
68

69 Hybrid schemes based on solar and hydrogen energy can be promising for power generation. In the

70 present study, the optimal location and size of a grid-independent solar/hydrogen system for a rural area

71 is considered. Although facets of hybrid schemes for SE and WE and several corresponding

72 optimization approaches have been considered, well-organized optimization techniques are rare for

73 optimizing the location and sizing of off-grid PV schemes coupled with hydrogen energy storage. In the

74 literature, the optimization of hybrid systems has been treated based on optimal size or optimal location

75 using conventional methods. Also, the optimization of hybrid systems has been solved without

76 considering optimal location and size together. In particular, a model-based improved harmony search

77 algorithm and geographic information system has not been reported for the optimal location and size for

78 off-grid photovoltaic schemes. Here, a combined method exploiting a geographic information system

79 (GIS) and improved harmony search (IHS) methods is proposed for optimization (location and size) of

80 off-grid photovoltaic schemes in remote and island areas. An actual region in Iran is utilized here for

81 testing and as a sample application. The optimization model for the location of off-grid photovoltaic

82 schemes is described according to socio-economic, environmental, and technical factors. Additionally,

83 for optimization of stand-alone photovoltaic schemes based on hydrogen storage to satisfy the load

84 continuously, the LPSP (loss of power supply probability) is evaluated and TLCC (total LCC) is

85 decreased, subject to limitations. To validate the effectiveness of the proposed algorithm, the results

86 obtained by improved harmony search algorithm-based geographic information systems are compared

87 with those of harmony search algorithm [17]-based geographic information systems

88 The present study exhibits numerous novel facets. In particular, a hybrid optimization technique for an

89 independent photovoltaic system based on hydrogen energy storage is established for the optimal sizing

90 and location of off-grid photovoltaic schemes in remote and island areas. The spatial model is able to

91 optimize the location of photovoltaic schemes from socio-economic, environmental, technical, and real

92 viewpoints. Further, an improved optimal sizing method for an independent hybrid scheme for solar and
5
 93 hydrogen energy is proposed to continually satisfy the load, by reducing the TLCC subject to technical

94 limits and considering LPSP. Finally, a new optimization structure for determining the optimal size and

95 location for the establishment of off-grid photovoltaic schemes based on hydrogen energy storage in

96 independent areas is presented using a new hybrid method (IHS-GIS).

97 2. Methodology

98 Here, a structure for the optimization of a stand -alone hybrid schemes to satisfy the load of residential

99 applications by reducing TLCC and LPSP with relevant methodical limitations is established (Fig. 1). A

100 model is first established for optimizing the location of off-grid photovoltaic schemes using a

101 geographic information system; to optimize the site of photovoltaic schemes from environmental,

102 technical, economic and social views. Then an improved method based on an efficient heuristic

103 approach, namely improved harmony search (IHS), is proposed for optimization of stand-alone

104 solar/hydrogen systems, to satisfy nonstop the load based on different decision variables (integer and

105 continuous).

106 Fig. 1

107 2.1. Identifying the optimal location

108 In this subsection, the optimal sites of photovoltaic power plants in remote areas for the establishment

109 of the grid-independent photovoltaic schemes are identified. The research process flow diagram of this

110 study for finding optimal locations for stand-alone PV is presented in Fig. 2.

111 Fig. 2

112 2.1.1. Site selection criteria

113 In this section, the selected criteria for designing the spatial decision support system to prioritize rural

114 areas for stand-alone photovoltaic projects are explained. The criteria consist of techno-economic,

115 social, environmental and protection indicators.

116 2.1.1.1. Temperature and solar radiation

117 The technical characteristics and operation of photovoltaic systems depend on the quantity of solar

118 radiation received by the PV panels. The solar radiation for photovoltaic installations is measure in
6
119 terms of the global horizontal irradiance [53]. Parameters such as sun angle, dust, humidity, longitude

120 and latitude, and cloudiness of the area can influence the solar radiation received [54, 55]. The

121 efficiency of photovoltaic modules decreases as their operation temperature increases. Thus, accounting

122 for the average temperature as a criterion can enhance the system efficiency. The areas with higher solar

123 radiation normally receive higher priority for grid-independent photovoltaic schemes.

124 2.1.1.2. Environmental and protection indicators

125 Due to the economic dependence of local people on agricultural activities, which are dependent on such

126 parameters as vegetation coverage, orchards, and agricultural land, harming agricultural lands and

127 orchards in the establishment of PV schemes is usually deemed unreasonable for sustainable

128 development. In this study, we place a preference on and identify barren lands as sites that are

129 appropriate for PV plant deployment.

130 A protection indicator, which depends on factors such as land slope and faults, and floodways, assesses

131 the desirability of rural areas in terms of protection of solar power plants. A higher priority for PV

132 equipment is given to areas which are acceptable in terms of this indicator. It is recommended for the

133 electrification of other rural areas to utilize other methods such as using diesel generators or connecting

134 to electricity grid.

135 2.1.1.3. Distance to power network and roads

136 Lack of access to roads is considered as a parameter in the techno-economic and social index because

137 electricity network expansion to rural areas, which have no access to roads and are located in

138 impassable areas, is costly and time-consuming. Thus, rural areas farther from the road network are

139 given higher points based on this criterion. Also, the distance of transmission lines from rural areas is

140 taken to be an economic factor for prioritizing rural stand-alone PV plant implementation. Installing

141 grid-independent photovoltaic scheme in rural areas far from power lines is normally more economical.

142 2.1.1.4. Rural and urban areas

7
143 The more distant rural areas are from urban areas, the higher priority they are given relative to others for

144 the site selection of grid-independent PV schemes. The proximity of autonomous photovoltaic power

145 plants to rural areas is of great importance for reducing the cost of distribution and transmission of the

146 generated electricity. In addition, renewable power plants can reduce pollution and environmental

147 impact caused by the production of electricity from other sources, such as fossil fuels, for rural

148 settlements.

149 2.1.1.5. Demand density

150 An important aim of plans for electrification is the provision of populations with electricity access

151 quickly. For this task, priority is given to populated rural areas in the development programs

152 electrification plans. In this study, through the calculation of the spatial density of electricity demand by

153 kernel density estimation, the geographical distribution and the magnitude of the electricity demand per

154 unit area is attained for rural areas of Birjand County. This criterion roughly indicates the population

155 density in rural areas. Thus, demand density is economically and socially important. The provision of

156 power for regions with higher demand and population leads to increased levels of social welfare and

157 public satisfaction, and also facilitates business and economic activities of the local population.

158 2.1.1.6 Constraints

159 Not all rural areas are suitable for solar PV plants due to specific environmental, technical, social and

160 economic factors. The limitations of them are provided in Table 2 [31, 32].

161 Despite social and economic benefits, the development of PV systems near the rural areas has

162 limitations. Challenges to installing PV in rural areas include their physical development plans and

163 marred aesthetics. The degradation of visual aesthetics of such renewable plants are often important to

164 people and societies [56]. In this study, buffer distances of 1000 meters from towns and 100 meters

165 from villages are specified. Since PV mounting system normally are lightweight, strong able to

166 withstand earthquakes, a buffer distance from seismic faults of 500 meters is applied. Non-compliant

167 areas that were not included in the study area map.

8
168 Infrastructures are placed at safe distances from water resources so as to avoid polluting sensitive

169 ecological areas like rivers and lakes. Much less waste is associated with PV plants than most other

170 power plants. Furthermore, the minimum distance from rivers and lakes is set to 200 meters to maintain

171 PV power plant integrity during flooding. An offset distance of 3000 meters is applied for airports,

172 based on recommendations for similar situations, to maintain aircraft flight security [57]. A buffer

173 distance of 500 meters is specified from meadows, treed areas and natural parks to avoid environmental

174 degradation due to the presence of the solar systems. A 50-meter offset is applied to orchards, farmlands

175 and fish farms to reduce or avoid social tensions among local populations and the stakeholders of power

176 plants.

177 Since religious sites and cemeteries are sacred or highly sensitive to local populations and indigenous

178 people, renewable systems are kept at least 100 meters from them, as well as other cultural heritage

179 sites.

180 Table 2

181 2.1.2. Spatial data processing

182 In selecting the best locations for PV systems, one needs to assess parts of the county using site

183 selection criteria. Here, the parts of the county are valued using the fuzzy method. For this, digital maps

184 are prepared for each site selection criteria. The vector layers are then converted to raster data, with the

185 Euclidean distance tool. Based on the criteria, the raster data (data layers) pixels for each criterion are

186 valued via the fuzzy method.

187 The evaluation of optimal sites is done using a fuzzy process. It is important to combine the fuzzy data

188 layers (in the form of raster layer) in a reasonable way in order to identify optimal sites for off-grid

189 photovoltaic schemes. Fuzzy logic, introduced by Zadeh [58] in terms of fuzzy set theory, is utilized

190 here for valuing desired areas. To identify the best locations for PV systems by the fuzzy method, parts

191 of the county are evaluated based on the site selection criteria. To do so, digital maps are developed for

192 each site selection criterion. The vector layers are then converted into raster data with the Euclidean

9
193 distance method. The pixels of the data layers (raster data) are valued using the fuzzy method for each

194 criterion. In this paper, equal weights are assigned to the layers and, through the fuzzy gamma operator,

195 i.e., a blend of sum operators and fuzzy product. The mathematical model of the gamma operator is

196 adapted from [31, 32].

197 2.2. Optimum sizing of hybrid scheme

198 For supplying the load during peak periods, extra PV power generation is stored in a hydrogen storage

199 scheme. Fig. 3 shows the main scheme. Here, the hydrogen storage scheme mathematical model is

200 modified from [39].

201 Fig. 3

202 2.2.1. Photovoltaic collector

203 The electric power generated by a photovoltaic collector can be written as [59]:

PPV (t ) = R tη PV A PV (1)

204 Here, Rt is solar irradiation (in kW/m2), ηPV (in %) and APV are efficiency and area of the PV panels (in

205 m2). The latter term can be written as:

ηPV = ηr − PV η pc 1 − N T (T c −T ref )  (2)

206 Here, Tref and ηr-PV are the cell temperature (normally 25 °C) and the efficiency of the reference module,

207 respectively, and ηpc denotes the power conditioning efficiency. Also, NT denotes the efficiency

208 temperature factor of the photovoltaic collector. This term takes on a value of -3.7 × 10-3 °C–1 for poly

209 and monocrystalline silicon. Finally, Tc denotes the PV cell temperature (°C), expressible as [59, 60]:

 NOCT − 20 
Tc = T A +   R t (3)
 800

210 Here, TA denotes ambient air temperature, while NOCT denotes nominal operating cell temperature; we

211 assume the photovoltaic collectors use a maximum power point tracking system and NOCT = 43°C.

212 The photovoltaic panel life cycle cost is written as:

LCC PV = AC PV + AM PV (4)

213 where
10
 i r (1 + i r )
n

AC PV = A PV ⋅C PV ⋅ (5)
(1 + i r ) −1
n

AM PV = A PV ⋅C Mnt − PV (6)

214 where CMnt-PV, CPV, and APV are the annual maintenance cost and unit cost of each solar panel, and the

215 area for the PV schemes, respectively.

216 2.2.2. Objective function

217 The design aim is reduction of the TLCC or first cost based on LPSP and other constraints, this

218 optimization ability to minimize significantly system costs and energy usage. This can be expressed as:

M inimize TLCC ( A PV , N H 2 ) = M in . ∑
m = PV , FC , Ele , H 2, Inv
LCC m (7)

219 and the constraints are:

0 ≤ APV ≤ APV −Max (8)

0 ≤ N H 2 ≤ N H 2−Max (9)

S H min ≤ S H (t ) ≤ S Hmax (10)

LPSP * ≥ LPSP (11)

220 Here, SOCHT-max and SOCHT-min is the maximum and minimum states of charge of the hydrogen tanks

221 and NH2 and APV denote the hydrogen tank number and the PV area, and LPSP* is the maximum

222 allowable LPSP.

223 When SOCHT(t) < SOCHT-min, the storage system does not meet part of the load. Then, SOCHT(t) =

224 SOCHT-min, and the we can write the loss of power supply (LPS) as follows:

E L (t )
LPS (t ) = − E G (t ) − [SOC HT (t − 1) − SOC HT − min ]ηFC (12)
ηInv

225 The loss of power supply probability (LPSP) needs to be considered for hybrid renewable energy

226 schemes to have good reliability. LPSP ranges from 0 and 1, with LPSP = 0 implying the load always is

227 met and LPSP = 1 implying it is never met. The requirements of power reliability differ for systems

228 with different load characteristics [61]. LPSP can be considered for a quantified time, T, as follows:

11
 T

∑ LPS (t )
LPSP = t =1
T (13)
∑E
t =1
Load (t )

229 The operating strategy presented in in this study is shown in Fig. 4.

230 Fig. 4

231 2.2.3. Proposed IHS method

232 An improved harmony search (IHS) method is introduced in this subsection for solving the optimal

233 sizing of a grid-independent photovoltaic scheme. First, the harmony search method is introduced.

234 Then, the proposed IHS method is described.

235 2.2.3.1. HS algorithm

236 Harmony search (HS), an effective optimization algorithm, is premised on improvisation by musicians,

237 who aim to obtain better harmonies considering suitable adjustment of pitches and experiences [62, 63].

238 For attaining the optimal solution of a problem, HS implements two operators including harmony

239 memory consideration rate (HR) and pitch adjustment rate (PR). The primary steps in HS are shown in

240 Fig. 5. Details on this method can be found in [64].

241 Fig. 5

242 2.2.3.2. IHS algorithm

243 Numerous key factors affect convergence toward the optimum with HS: HR, PR, and bandwidth bw.

244 The harmony memory has a Nh harmonies. HR defines the selection rate from the HM of a value (from

245 0 to 1). PR is defined as follows for improved harmony search:

PR max − PR min
PR (iter ) = PR min + iter (14)
itermax

246 Here, PRmax and PRmin denote the maximum and minimum pitch adjustment rates, respectively, and bw

247 defined as:

Ln  
bw min
bw max 
bw (iter ) = bw max exp(  iter ) (15)
itermax

12
248 Here, bwmax and bwmin respectively denote maximum and minimum bandwidths.

249 3. Results and discussion

250 A case study is considered of Birjand County, in the province of South Khorasan, Iran. The population

251 is 260,000 (based 2011 census data), including 75,000 people living in rural areas and 185,000 in urban

252 areas [65] The county’s capital, Birjand City, is 1491 m above sea level and is situated at a longitude of

253 59 deg, 13 min east of the prime meridian and a latitude of 32 deg, 53 min north. The county covers a

254 land area of 4320 km2.

255 After providing the results of the optimal sites for grid-independent PV power schemes, the results of

256 the best method for the ideal result of the hybrid scheme for SE based on hydrogen energy with

257 different LPSP* values are presented, based on optimal sites. Then, results for the hybrid

258 solar/hydrogen scheme with varying values of LPSP* (0-10%) are assessed and conclusions drawn.

259 Fig. 6 illustrates hourly profiles for air temperature, solar irradiation, and load demand over 8760 hours

260 in Birjand, Iran [66]. According to the map of the limited areas in this study (Fig. 7) and the criteria for

261 site selection, the final map of ideal places for the off-grid photovoltaic system is presented in Fig. 8.

262 Model information for the mechanisms are listed in Table 3 [67-69].

263 Table 3

264 Fig. 6

265 Fig. 7

266 Fig. 8

267 Model information of the present methods (HS and IHS), which are coded in MATLAB software, are

268 offered in Table 4.

269 Simulation results for the ideal sizing of the SE with hydrogen energy scheme with numerous values of

270 LPSP* using the suggested IHS-GIS technique, as well as the HS-GIS method, are presented in Table 5.

271 Reported there are the minimum (Min.), maximum (Max.), and average TLCC values (Mean) establish

272 by the techniques (30 runs), as well as the standard deviation (STD) and the average simulation time

273 (ST) indexes.

13
274 The minimum (Min.) TLCC value over the period of 30 runs is $3,070,600 at LPSP*=0%. This value is

275 found by IHS-GIS method. After IHS-GIS method, the best performance in terms of the Min. value

276 belongs HS-GIS method. All costs are in 2014 US dollars. In this regards, the mean ST is 113.81 s and

277 114.42 s in IHS-GIS and HS-GIS method, respectively. The comparison illustrates that the TLCC of the

278 system is $3,070,600 using the suggested IHS-GIS algorithm, which achieves a $87,800 cost saving

279 with respect to the best solution reported for the HS-GIS algorithm. The summarized characteristics of

280 the proposed methods show that the IHS-GIS algorithm yields reasonable results in terms of operational

281 cost and simulation time at LPSP*=0%.

282 Considering LPSP*=1%, the minimum (Min.) TLCC value is achieved by IHS-GIS ($2,789,800),

283 which achieves a $32,300 cost saving with respect to the best solution reported for the HS-GIS

284 algorithm, and the ranking of the algorithms is as follows: IHS-GIS ($2,789,800) and HS-GIS

285 ($2,822,100). Considering the Mean index, we attain the best performance with the IHS-GIS method

286 ($3,366,080). The level of performance of the IHS-GIS method is made more evident if one considers

287 that the Max. index found by the IHS-GIS method ($4,202,100) is smaller than the Max. value with the

288 HS-GIS algorithm. A comparison of the STD values shows that the IHS-GIS method is more robust

289 than HS-GIS since it has the minimal STD value, which illustrations that the results obtained by IHS-

290 GIS with LPSP*=1% are more robust than the results obtained by the HS-GIS algorithm. In Table 5, the

291 computational costs of the algorithms are also given. As can be seen, the mean run of the IHS-GIS

292 method takes 112.76 s, which represents a 6.2% simulation time saving with respect to the simulation

293 time reported for the HS-GIS algorithm. The summarized characteristics of the proposed methods show

294 that the IHS-GIS algorithm yields reasonable results in terms of operational cost, robustness, and

295 simulation time at LPSP*=1%. At LPSP*=2%, the performance of the IHS-GIS method is made clearer

296 by considering that the Min. index found by the IHS-GIS method ($2,325,200) is smaller than the Min.

297 value found by the HS-GIS ($2,354,900) algorithm, which represents a $29,700 cost saving with respect

298 to the best solution reported for the HS-GIS algorithm. Based on the ST index, the performance of IHS-

299 GIS with LPSP*=2% is more promising than that for the HS-GIS algorithm. This means that the results

14
300 obtained by IHS-GIS with LPSP*=2% are faster than the results obtained with HS-GIS. At LPSP*=5%,

301 considering the Min index, the best performance is achieved by the IHS-GIS method ($1,399,900),

302 which is a $17,300 cost saving with respect to the best solution reported for the HS-GIS algorithm.

303 Also, the best simulation time is 113.47 s, which attained by the IHS-GIS method. At LPSP*=10%, the

304 comparison shows that the minimum TLCC of the system is found to be $892,500 using the IHS-GIS

305 method. Based on the STD index, the performance of IHS-GIS is more promising than that of the HS-

306 GIS method, which indicates that the results obtained by the proposed method are more robust than

307 those obtained by the HS-GIS algorithm. The best ST index is 114.44 at LPSP*=10%, which is found

308 IHS-GIS. The best values of the Mean. ST index for the different algorithms based on different LPSP*

309 values are shown in Fig. 9. It can be seen for various LPSP* values that IHS-GIS in has a lower Mean.

310 ST index than HS-GIS; as a result it is outperforms the HS-GIS algorithm.

311 The convergence characteristics of the IHS-GIS and HS-GIS methods for defining the ideal result of the

312 scheme for various LPSP* values (0-10%) are illustrated in Fig. 10. The suggested IHS-GIS technique

313 is seen to be able to determine the ideal result with fewer iterations, yielding a lower total life cycle

314 cost. The comparison illustrates that the suggested IHS-GIS algorithm takes advantage of both better

315 solutions in terms of convergence characteristics and operating cost. As a result, the comparison shows

316 that the proposed IHS-GIS method yields superior results to the HS-GIS method in terms of

317 operational cost, robustness, and simulation time. The best TLCC of the system for various LPSP*

318 values is shown in Fig. 11. It can be seen that, by increasing LPSP*, the total life cycle cost decreases.

319 Table 4

320 Table 5

321 Fig. 9

322 Fig. 10

323 Fig. 11

324 The results obtained by the best solution of methods for the scheme are obtainable in Table 6 for several

325 LPSP*. In this part, the IHS-GIS and HS-GIS methods is used to choose the optimal size of the PV and

15
326 hydrogen system. As in the beginning of the section, the optimization goal is the minimization of

327 overall cost of electricity. On one hand the LPSP and TLCC is calculated in various LPSP* values over

328 the years. On the other hand the optimal system size is calculated for varying LPSP* and the

329 performance is also calculated with varying LPSP* values over the years. When optimized for the

330 hybrid system in the year of commissioning in various LPSP* values, the optimal PV and hydrogen

331 system sizes vary significantly, but when optimized for changing method, the optimal system sizes are

332 rather similar.

333 The optimal values of PV surface area and number of hydrogen tanks over the period of 30 runs with

334 IHS-GIS algorithm are 344.4 m2 and 40446, respectively, in LPSP*=0%. Also, the value of TLCC, at

335 LPSP*=1%, determined by the IHS-GIS algorithm is $2,789,800. In this regards, the optimal values of

336 system (NH2 and APV) are determined to be 36,730, and 336.2 m2, respectively. In comparison with

337 LPSP*=0%, the NH2, APV, and TLCC decrease. The optimal value of the number of PV panels is

338 determined in this case to be 205. At LPSP*=2%, optimal values of system (NH2 and APV) are seen to be

339 30,579 and 326.4 m2, respectively. At LPSP* = 5%, NH2 is seen as 18335. For this case, TLCC

340 decreases to $1,399,900, and APV decreases to 296.9 m2, in contrast with the case for LPSP* = 2%. Due

341 to the (LPSP*0-10%), by increasing LPSP*, optimal values of system, and TLCC decrease. The results

342 of the optimization show that the optimal system size is an increasing function of reliability of the

343 system or loss of power supply probability.

344 Table 6

345 Sensitivity analysis

346 The effects are described here of LPSP* variations on the storage capacities of the hydrogen tanks, the

347 optimal values of PV surface area and the number of hydrogen tanks, TLCC, and LPSP, as determined

348 by the IHS-GIS and HS-GIS algorithms for the grid-independent hybrid systems.

349 Hourly profiles of storage capacities of hydrogen tanks for one year for grid-independent PV systems

350 are presented for the optimized hybrid scheme in Fig. 12, for several values of LPSP*, as evaluated with

351 the IHS-GIS and HS-GIS algorithms. It can be seen that by increasing LPSP* the storage capacities of

16
352 the hydrogen tanks decreases. The impacts of varying LPSP* on TLCC and LPSP of the optimized

353 hybrid scheme via the IHS-GIS and HS-GIS algorithms are presented in Fig. 13. It can be seen that, as

354 LPSP* increases, LPSP for the hybrid system increases, but TLCC decreases, for the optimized scheme.

355 Also, the PV surface area and number of hydrogen tanks for the optimized hybrid scheme decrease with

356 increasing the LPSP*. The effects of varying LPSP* on PV surface area and number of hydrogen tanks

357 for the optimized hybrid scheme by IHS-GIS and HS-GIS algorithms are presented in Fig. 14.

358 The effects of varying LPSP* on TLCC for the optimized hybrid scheme by IHS-GIS and HS-GIS

359 algorithms are presented in Fig. 15. The simulation results show that the value of TLCC of the

360 optimized hybrid scheme by IHS-GIS is better than the result by the HS-GIS algorithm. Also, the

361 optimal number of hydrogen tanks for the optimized hybrid system and the optimal values of PV

362 surface area by IHS-GIS and HS-GIS algorithms are presented in Figs. 16 and 17, respectively. Again,

363 it is seen that the results of optimized hybrid scheme obtained with the IHS-GIS algorithm are better

364 than those obtained with the HS-GIS algorithm.

365 Fig. 12

366 Fig. 13

367 Fig. 14

368 Fig. 15

369 Fig. 16

370 Fig. 17

371 4. Conclusions

372 A new hybrid framework for the optimal location and size for stand-alone solar energy based on

373 hydrogen energy scheme is proposed, using simulation and an improved heuristic approach: improved

374 harmony search and geographic information system. To determine the appropriate capacity and location

375 for a grid-independent photovoltaic scheme in rural areas, a geographic information system module is

376 used, incorporating social, technical, economic, and environmental criteria for minimizing the TLCC of

377 hybrid scheme based solar and hydrogen, measurement of reliability scheme based on LPSP factor,

17
378 through the improved harmony search algorithm. The suggested framework is tested for a real case

379 study. The outcomes are contrasted with a harmony search algorithm based on a geographic information

380 system. The results of the simulation show the advantages of utilizing the proposed framework based on

381 improved harmony search and geographic information system for a grid-independent photovoltaic

382 system considering both power quality and cost in remote and island areas. A comparison shows that

383 the proposed IHS-GIS method yields superior results to the HS-GIS method in terms of operational

384 cost, robustness, simulation time, convergence speed, accuracy of computation, and search power. It is

385 found that optimization of a solar energy based on hydrogen storage scheme, due to limitation, can help

386 decrease hybrid energy system prices. Further the surface area of the photovoltaics and the number of

387 hydrogen tanks as well as the TLCC of the scheme reduction with growing of LPSP. The framework

388 suggested for the optimization (sizing and location) of a solar energy based on hydrogen storage scheme

389 provides a useful reference to find the optimal size and location for off-grid hybrid energy systems.

390

391 Acknowledgements

392 This work was supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (NSFC) (Grant No.

393 61802114, 61802113), Scientific Research Foundation of the Higher Education Institutions of Henan

394 Province (Grant No.18A520021), China Scholarship Council Project (Grant No.201807900002)

395

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592

24
593 Fig. 1: Block diagram of the proposed framework
594 Fig. 2. Flow diagram of process for identification of optimal locations.
595 Fig. 3. Studied hybrid solar/hydrogen systems.
596 Fig. 4. Strategy of the system
597 Fig. 5. Steps in harmony search.
598 Fig. 6. Hourly data over one year in eastern Iran.
599 Fig. 7. Map of constraint areas in eastern Iran (Birjand).
600 Fig. 8. Optimal sites for stand-alone photovoltaics in Birjand.
601 Fig. 9. Best Mean. ST index for various algorithms as LPSP* varies
602 Fig. 10. Convergence rate of algorithms for optimum size of the solar/hydrogen system for several
603 values of LPSP*.
604 Fig. 11. Best TLCC of the system for various LPSP* values
605 Fig. 12. SOCHT over a year; a) IHS-GIS algorithm and b) HS-GIS algorithm.
606 Fig. 13: Effect of LPSP* on TLCC and LPSP of optimized hybrid scheme by a) IHS-GIS and b) HS-
607 GIS algorithms.
608 Fig. 14. Effect of LPSP* on PV surface area and number of hydrogen tanks of optimized hybrid scheme
609 by a) IHS-GIS and b) HS-GIS algorithms.
610 Fig. 15. Effect of LPSP* on TLCC of optimized hybrid scheme by IHS-GIS and HS-GIS algorithms.
611 Fig. 16. Optimal number of hydrogen tanks by IHS-GIS and HS-GIS algorithms.
612 Fig. 17. Optimal values of PV surface area by IHS-GIS and HS-GIS algorithms.
613

25
614
615 Table 2: Site selection constraints
616 Table 3: Simulation parameters in the study
617 Table 4: Parameters and values for heuristic methods
618 Table 5: Comparison of results of considered approaches for the scheme
619 Table 6: Results obtained by the algorithms for the scheme.
620

26
Table 2: Site selection constraints

Constraint Village City Seismic River Lake Airport Cultural Religious Natural areas (nature
fault heritage institution park, meadow and
site treed areas)

Buffer 100 1000 500 200 200 2000 100 100 150
distance to
PV system
(m)

1
2

1
 3
Table 3: Simulation parameters in the study
Interest rate (j) 10%
Project lifetime (n) 20 years
PV panel cost (CPV) 285.3 $/m2
Annual maintenance costs of PV (CMnt-PV) 0.03 × CPV $/m2/year
PV efficiency (ηPV) 15.8%
PV lifetime 20 years
Nominal converter/inverter power 3 kW
Converter/inverter efficiency (ηInv) 95%
Converter/inverter lifetime 10 years
Converter/inverter price CConv/Inv $1583
Nominal FC power 3 kW
FC efficiency (ηFC) 50%
FC lifetime 5 years
FC cost (CFC) $6000
Replacement cost of FC $700
Nominal electrolyser power 3 kW
Electrolyser efficiency (ηEle) 74%
Electrolyser lifetime 5 years
Electrolyser cost (CEle) $4500
Replacement cost of electrolyser $700
Reservoir tanks cost (CH2) $600
Nominal capacity of hydrogen tank 0.3 kWh
Hydrogen tank lifetime 20 years
Annual maintenance costs of hydrogen tank (CMnt-H2) 5 $/year
4
5

2
 6
Table 4: Parameters and values for heuristic methods
Algorithm Parameter
IHS Nrun Itermax HR PRmax PRmin bwmax bwmin
30 1000 0.9 1 0.1 1 0.01
HS Nrun Itermax HR PR bw
30 1000 0.9 0.3 0.03
7
8

3
 9
Table 5: Comparison of results of considered approaches for the scheme.
Algorithm LPSP* (%) TLCC ($) Mean ST (sec)
Min. Mean Max. STD Mean
IHS-GIS 3,070,600 4,115,720 5,993,200 688,408 113.81
HS-GIS 3,158,400 3,866,820 5,239,200 528,531 114.42
0
[17]

IHS-GIS 2,789,800 3,366,080 4,202,100 371,586 112.76

HS-GIS 2,822,100 3,775,050 5,609,700 696,204 120.15
1
[17]

IHS-GIS 2,325,200 2,922,180 4,236,400 459,589 113.95

HS-GIS 2,354,900 3,142,370 4,744,900 556,214 130.79
2
[17]

IHS-GIS 1,399,900 2,141,550 4,885,800 764,876 113.47

HS-GIS 1,417,200 2,128,650 3,485,200 596,246 133.94
5
[17]

IHS-GIS 892,500 1,788,340 4,922,200 761,285 114.44

HS-GIS 10 911,600 1,678,360 4,474,300 762,732 132.04
[17]
10
11

4
 12
Table 6: Results obtained by the algorithms for the scheme.
Algorithm LPSP* APV (m2) NH2 TLCC ($) LPSP (%)
(%)
IHS-GIS 344.4 40446 3,070,600 0
HS-GIS 344.4 41609 3,158,400 0
0
[17]

IHS-GIS 336.2 36730 2,789,800 0.8356

HS-GIS 334.6 37159 2,822,100 0.8683
1
[17]

IHS-GIS 326.4 30579 2,325,200 1.9612

HS-GIS 328 30972 2,354,900 1.8377
2
[17]

IHS-GIS 296.9 18335 1,399,900 4.6335

HS-GIS 298.5 18563 1,417,200 4.5267
5
[17]

IHS-GIS 270.6 11627 892,500 9.7537

HS-GIS 10 272.3 11879 911,600 9.3084
[17]
13

5
 Start

Basic information and

spatial data

Geographical information system

(GIS)

Improved harmony search (IHS)

Power and location

Power flow simulation

No

Operating strategy

Yes

End

Fig. 1: Block diagram of the proposed framework

Fig. 2. Flow diagram of process for identification of optimal locations.
 Hydrogen Tanks

DC/AC Electrolyser

DC/DC

DC/DC Fuel Cell

PV Panel
DC Bus

Fig. 3. Studied hybrid solar/hydrogen systems.

 Start

Identifying the optimal location in case study

Historical data

Sizing of the hybrid energy system by

Initial conditions
improved algorithm

Simulation of the hybrid energy system

Send power to dump load
during each hour

Yes

Yes
Over production? Reservoir tanks full?

No No

Hydrogen production with electrolyser

No
Reservoir tanks energy > 0 LPS (t)

No
No
Yes

Yes
Fuel cell on to met the load demand Load demand satisfied ? Fitness function satisfied ?

Yes

End Optimal sizing successful

Fig. 4. Strategy of the system

 1. Initializing the algorithm parameters

2. Initializing the harmony memory (HM)

3. Improvising a new harmony

4.Updating the new harmony

5. Checking the termination criterion

Fig. 5. Steps in harmony search.

 10

Load demand (kW)

8

2
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Time (h)
(a) Load demand
1200
Solar irradiation (W/m 2)

1000

800

600

400

200

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Time (h)
(b) Solar irradiation
50

40
Temperature (C)

30

20

10

-10

-20
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Time (h)
(c) Ambient temperature
Fig. 6. Hourly data over one year in eastern Iran.
Fig. 7. Map of constraint areas in eastern Iran (Birjand).
Fig. 8. Optimal sites for stand-alone photovoltaics in Birjand.
Fig. 9. Best Mean. ST index for various algorithms as LPSP* varies
 x 10
6 LPSP*=0%
16
IHS-GIS
14 HS-GIS

TLCC ($) 12

10

2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Iteration

x 10
6 LPSP*=1%
14
IHS-GIS
12 HS-GIS

10
TLCC ($)

2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Iteration
x 10
6 LPSP*=2%
9
IHS-GIS
8 HS-GIS

7
TLCC ($)

2
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Iteration
x 10
6 LPSP*=5%
14
IHS-GIS
12 HS-GIS

10
TLCC ($)

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Iteration
 x 10
7 LPSP*=10%
2
IHS-GIS
HS-GIS
1.5

TLCC ($)
1

0.5

0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000
Iteration
Fig. 10. Convergence rate of algorithms for optimum size of the solar/hydrogen
system for several values of LPSP*.
Fig. 11. Best TLCC of the system for various LPSP* values
 IHS-GIS
a 14000
LPSP*=0%
12000 LPSP*=1%
LPSP*=2%
SOC-HT (kWh)

10000
LPSP*=5%
8000 LPSP*=10%

6000

4000

2000

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Time (h)

HS-GIS
b 14000
LPSP*=0%
12000 LPSP*=1%
LPSP*=2%
SOC-HT (kWh)

10000
LPSP*=5%
8000 LPSP*=10%

6000

4000

2000

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000
Time (h)

Fig. 12. SOCHT over a year; a) IHS-GIS algorithm and b) HS-GIS algorithm..
a

Fig. 13: Effect of LPSP* on TLCC and LPSP of optimized hybrid scheme by a) IHS-
GIS and b) HS-GIS algorithms.
a

Fig. 14. Effect of LPSP* on PV surface area and number of hydrogen tanks of
optimized hybrid scheme by a) IHS-GIS and b) HS-GIS algorithms.
Fig. 15. Effect of LPSP* on TLCC of optimized hybrid scheme by IHS-GIS and HS-
GIS algorithms.

Fig. 16. Optimal number of hydrogen tanks by IHS-GIS and HS-GIS algorithms.
Fig. 17. Optimal values of PV surface area by IHS-GIS and HS-GIS algorithms.
Highlights

• A hybrid framework is developed for the optimal size and location for a grid-independent

solar/hydrogen scheme in rural areas.

• A GIS module is presented for optimal sites for off-grid PV systems.

• An improved heuristic approach is developed for size optimization.

• Results are compared for the improved harmony search and the harmony search algorithms.
Declaration of interests

☒ x The authors declare that they have no known competing financial interests or personal
relationships that could have appeared to influence the work reported in this paper.

☐The authors declare the following financial interests/personal relationships which may be
considered as potential competing interests: