Professional Documents
Culture Documents
Psyemp 2016
Psyemp 2016
New generation, psychological empowerment: can empowerment lead to career competencies and
career satisfaction?
Haiyan Kong Ning Sun Qi Yan
Article information:
To cite this document:
Haiyan Kong Ning Sun Qi Yan , (2016),"New generation, psychological empowerment: can empowerment lead to career
competencies and career satisfaction?", International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management, Vol. 28 Iss 11 pp. -
Permanent link to this document:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJCHM-05-2014-0222
Downloaded on: 01 October 2016, At: 08:05 (PT)
References: this document contains references to 0 other documents.
To copy this document: permissions@emeraldinsight.com
The fulltext of this document has been downloaded 5 times since 2016*
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Access to this document was granted through an Emerald subscription provided by emerald-srm:184635 []
For Authors
If you would like to write for this, or any other Emerald publication, then please use our Emerald for Authors service
information about how to choose which publication to write for and submission guidelines are available for all. Please
visit www.emeraldinsight.com/authors for more information.
About Emerald www.emeraldinsight.com
Emerald is a global publisher linking research and practice to the benefit of society. The company manages a portfolio of
more than 290 journals and over 2,350 books and book series volumes, as well as providing an extensive range of online
products and additional customer resources and services.
Emerald is both COUNTER 4 and TRANSFER compliant. The organization is a partner of the Committee on Publication
Ethics (COPE) and also works with Portico and the LOCKSS initiative for digital archive preservation.
1
1. Introduction
employees. Generation Y indicates those who were born from 1981-2000 (Gursoy et
al., 2013). These individuals are also known as Millennials, Nexters, and Echo
Boomers (Parry and Urwin, 2011). These young employees own distinctive
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
generational characteristics and values (Chen and Choi, 2008; Park and Gursoy, 2012),
which influence the requirements for all human resource management aspects, such as
Most generation Y employees received high education, they are ambitious and
attach importance to career development (Dinnell, 2007; Josiam et al., 2010). They
concerned more on work-life balance, equity in the workplace, and individual career
development than previous generations (Broadlbride et al., 2007; Kong, 2013; Kong
fulfilled and balanced life, appears to motivate Generation Y more than money alone
directions and expect autonomy to accomplish the job via empowerment (Morton,
stimulator that enables to complete their tasks (Spreitzer, 1995). This type of
2
empowerment is an internal motivation to promote the organizational citizenship
factors for Generation Y, and career development and empowerment theories may
serve as a theoretical foundation for this study. Although previous studies (Parry and
Urwin, 2011); Gursoy et al., 2013) have explored the generational differences of
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Generation Y, empirical studies remain scarce (Parry and Urwin, 2011). As regards the
(Chow et al., 2006; Niehoff et al., 2001), however limited attention has been directed
toward the relationship between empowerment and career issues. Therefore, this study,
2. Literature review
3
1990). Meaning indicates the fit between values and job, competence refers to
Arthur et al., (1995) suggest that personal competencies reflect different forms of
knowing, and the intelligent careers reflect the application of these forms of knowing.
personality, career insight, and openness to experience (Eby et al., 2003). Given that
of employees (Conger and Kanungo, 1988; Kim et al., 2012), it may help to enhance
their career competencies. For example, psychological empowerment has been proved
1996), to help them realize their full potential (Klagge, 1998), and set up realistic
career goals (Kong et al., 2012). Thus, psychological empowerment may enhance
careers (DeFillippi and Arthur, 1994). Psychological empowerment not only affects
job performance, but also influences the working environment, and communication
skills of employees (McMillan et al., 2011; Spreitzer, 1995). Empirical study showed
4
of care and trust (Corsun and Enz, 1999). The feeling of empowerment increases as
relationships of employees with one another tend to be people oriented and based on
sharing (Koberg et al., 1999). When employees are trusted and empowered, they feel
a sense of pride in their job and feel confident to communicate with others (McMillan
et al., 2011), and also would be likely to provide better service to customers (Chow et
al., 2006). All these indicated that psychological empowerment may help to enhance
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
The ‘knowing how’ competency reflects skills and knowledge relating to careers
( DeFillippi and Arthur, 1994). It comprises two components, career identity and
innovation, and hard work (Gecas, 1989), as well as skill development of employees
(McMillan et al., 2011; Wellins et al., 1991). The perception of empowerment may
help employees cooperate toward common goals, and to overcome obstacles with
employees are empowered, they may have sufficient confidence to perform activities
Career satisfaction indicates the satisfaction that individuals derive from the
5
intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of their careers, which include developmental
opportunities, pay, and advancement (Greenhaus et al., 1990). People with high
knowing-why career competencies may identify the jobs that they are interested in
and further clarify their career objectives (Suutari and Makela, 2007). They tend to
seek career development opportunities, carry out realistic activities, and finally lead to
competency may enhance the career satisfaction by setting up good networks inside
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
and outside the organization, (Kong et al., 2012). Furthermore, an individual with a
and obtain portable skills (Suutari and Makela, 2007). Given the dynamic
employment situation and the need to be constantly aware of ways by which to build
meaning of their jobs, their ability to complete their tasks, their sense of
self-determination, and their impact on influence the work outcomes (Boonyarit et al.,
resolve the work problems, they feel a sense of trust and pride in their jobs (Chow et
6
Namasivayam et al., 2014; Pelit et al., 2011). Hospitality research also confirmed the
positive relationship between empowerment and job satisfaction (Chiang and Jang,
2008; Gazzoli et al., 2010; Jung and Yoon, (2015);Salazar et al., 2006). Hence, the
et al., 1997), work performance (Sigler and Pearson, 2000), and skill development
(Wellins et al., 1991). All these factors enhance career competencies of employees.
satisfaction (Kong et al., 2011; 2012). That is, empowerment increased intrinsic
satisfaction.
3. Research methodology
The target population of this study comprises young employees working in four
or five-star hotels in China, because Generation Y has become the main workforce of
7
the hospitality industry in the country. Participants were asked to evaluate their
satisfaction. A seven-point Likert-type scale was used to measure all the questions.
(1995). This measurement tool was selected because of its high levels of reliability
and validity, given that it has been validated in the Asia setting (Li et al., 2006).
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Career competencies were measured using items developed by Kong (2010). The
measurement of career competencies has been used and proved to be valid in many
previous studies (Kong et al., 2012; 2013). Career satisfaction was measured by five
best measurement available in the literature (Oberfield, 1993), and has been widely
used by researchers in different fields (Judge et al., 1995; Kong et al., 2012).
four or five star hotels in main tourist cities in China, including Beijing, Guangdong,
Shanghai, Shandong, and so on. The researcher approached 12 of the surveyed hotels.
For the three hotels in Guangdong, which were far from the work institution of the
researcher, the questionnaire was sent to the human resource manager by email. A key
person in each hotel, such as the human resource manager or marketing manager was
contacted to ensure the recruitment of participants and the success of the survey
process. The researcher first explained the age requirements and the research
8
objectives of the survey in detail. With the help of the hotel managers, the survey was
conducted among Generation Y employees in the hotel. The researcher distributed the
questionnaires and incentive gifts to participants. To ensure the high quality of the
data, the researcher explained the importance of completing the questionnaire, and
checked each questionnaire quickly whiling collecting the data to avoid missing data.
Finally, of the 500 distributed questionnaires 458 valid data were collected, providing
Structural equation modelling (SEM), with the use of AMOS software, was
applied for data analysis. SEM enables the identification of structural relationships,
limitations of factor analysis and path analysis. It is therefore a useful statistical tool
The analysis procedure was conducted in the following steps: (a) testing each
test, (b) randomly dividing all the questionnaires into two equal sections for
exploratory factor analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), (c) testing
the overall measurement model with all data, and (d) conducting SEM with all data to
In accordance with previous studies (Judge et al., 1995; McDonald and Hite,
9
2008; Parry and Urwin, 2011), gender, age, and education were controlled because
may vary based on individual job tenure. This variable was thus treated as control
4. Results
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
35 years old. About 41.9% of the respondents were male, and 58.1% of them were
female. Approximately 67.2% of the respondents were aged between 20 and 30.
About 41% of the respondents graduated from professional schools, whereas more
than 48% have received college and university education. Approximately 23% of the
employees surveyed had working experience of from one to three years, whereas
23.8% worked for three to six years, and the remaining 29.5% had working
experience from six to the years. In terms of the position, more than 57.9% of the
respondents were working as staff members, 25.9% were working as foreman and
manager or deputy general manager. Table 1 presents the profile of the respondents.
EFA was first conducted to purify the measurement scales. Several criteria were
considered for factor extraction. First, one of the most common criteria to address the
10
number of factors is to retain factors with eigenvalues above 1 (Kaiser, 1960). Second,
a factor loading below 0.40 was used as the cut-off point for factor interpretation
(Stevens, 1992). Third, although factor loadings are useful, it is not the only way for
factor selection. Communality and screen plots should also be used for factor
extraction. For a sample size more than 250, the average communality should exceed
0.60 (Kaiser, 1974). Fourth, Cronbach’s alpha was calculated to measure the scale
internal consistency for the factors identified, with 0.70 as the minimum acceptable
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
value. The varimax rotation method was selected because the method has a good
general approach to simplify the interpretation of factors (Field, 2005). Based on the
criteria listed for EFA, an iterative process was conducted to obtain the acceptable
factors.
test of sphericity was significant and KMO was 0.84, indicating that the patterns of
correlation were relatively compact and the factors identified were distinct and
reliable. Cronbach’s alpha of the total construct was 0.90, the scale reliability of each
dimension ranged from 0.77 to 0.90, above 0.70, the minimum standard for reliability
(Nunnally, 1978). Therefore, the items were internally consistent, stable, and
reliable.
11
Bartlett’s Test of Sphericity: Chi-square=272.74, degree of freedom (df)=13, p<0.00.
The Eigen-value was 2.13, and all items explained 71.01% of the total variance.
Cronbach’s alpha, the most common measure of scale reliability was 0.79. All of the
were distinct and reliable. Five items of career satisfaction explained 73.50% of the
overall variance, with eigenvalue of 3.68. The Cronbach's alpha of the construct was
=17, CFI =0.90, GFI =0.91, RMSEA =0.08); (3) career satisfaction model (x2 =53.16,
df = 5, CFI = 0.95, GFI = 0.94, RMSEA = 0.08.). The values indicated that the model
The critical ratio (C. R.) was used to test statistics in this study. It ratio operated
as a z-statistic to test whether the estimate was statistically different from zero. The
absolute value of the statistics should be greater than 1.96 (Byrne, 2001). The C.R.
career competencies and career satisfaction ranged from 10.02 to 10.35, and 13.11 to
12
14.53. All C.R. values were higher than 1.96, and standardized loading estimate
and construct validity (Hair et al., 2009). Construct validity may be explained by two
extracted (AVE) was used to test both convergent validity and discriminant validity.
As shown in Table 2, the AVE values of the construct of the three constructs exceeded
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
0.50, confirming the convergent validity. The AVE value of each construct was greater
measurement model was examined and found to be reliable and valid. The fit indices
(x2=420.08, df=155, CFI=0.93, GFI=0.90, RMSEA=0.07) suggested that the model fit
the sample data fairly well. As shown in Table 3, the reliability of each construct was
above 0.70, ranging from 0.77 to 0.91. Hence, the overall measurement model proved
After the measurement model was found to be acceptable, the structural model
was evaluated using all the sample data. The model fit indices (x2 =129.95, df=50,
CFI=0.96, GFI=0.94, and RMSEA=0.07) indicated that the model represented a fairly
13
good fit to the data.
explored the influence of the four factors on career competencies and career
satisfaction, to help determine the different contributions of each factor. The model fit
indices of the final structural model were as follows: x2 =628.23, df=157, CFI=0.91,
GFI=0.90, and RMSEA=0.08. The results reflected a good fit between the final
structural model and the data. Figure 2 shows the final structural model as well as the
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Once all the models were found to fit the data fairly well, hypothesis testing was
conducted by evaluating the path coefficient and significance levels. The statistic
significant level used here was the critical ratio (C.R.), which indicated whether the
parameter estimate is statistically different from zero (Byrne, 2001). The value of C.R.
career competencies. This hypothesis was tested by examining the path coefficient
variable career competencies. The results were presented in Table 4. The path
whereas C.R. was 8.83 (above 1.96). The path coefficient value and significance level
14
competencies was both positive and significant; thus the hypothesis 1 was supported.
satisfaction. The path coefficient between career competencies and career satisfaction
was supported.
career satisfaction. The hypothesis was tested by examining the path coefficient
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
career satisfaction was 0.19, and C.R. value was 2.32 (greater than 1.96). Thus,
The mediation hypotheses were assessed using Sobel Test. Following the
formula proposed by MacKinnon et al. (1995), the indirect effect was calculated as
the exogenous variable and the mediator, whereas b is the path coefficient for the
association between the mediator and the outcome). Significance level was calculated
15
effect coefficient = 0.42, t-value = 3.22, and p-value = 0.00. Given that the indirect
effect coefficient was positive and significant (p < 0.05), hypothesis 4 was supported.
Using the same method, the mediating effects of career competencies on the
5.1 Conclusions
career competencies, and career satisfaction. The findings indicated that perceived
also positive predictors of career competencies and career satisfaction. The results
16
and career satisfaction. On the basis of organizational career management on the
careers of employees (Kong et al., 2012; 2013), this study extended the research to
empowerment issues. The findings of this study have the potential to help researchers
This study enriched the knowledge on career systems by exploring the mediating
effect of career competencies. The findings indicated that apart from the direct effect
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
exploring the function of its four factors. The results distinguished the contributions
satisfaction. The different functions may stimulate researchers to further explore the
The findings of this study may provide useful guidance for the management and
employees. Apart from influencing job roles and performance (Liden et al., 2000;
17
positively to career competencies and career satisfaction. For example, Generation Y
employees prefer more autonomy in their jobs and trust their ability to complete
work-related tasks via empowerment (Morton, 2002). The hotel managers may
provide challenging jobs and empower young employees to work together and finish
the task. Thus, the results of this study may help hotel managers to better understand
young employees and motivate them to enhance the level of job and career
satisfaction.
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Second, this study may provide guidance in the recruitment and retention of
qualified staff. White-collar Generation Y employees were the most frequent job
employees in the workforce have experienced changing jobs (Zhao, 2008). Generation
generational conflict with the older generation, and the lack of appreciation from
leaders. Generation Y employees were frustrated with the gap between the reality and
ideal. They aspire for respect and achieve strong self-realization in the workplace.
When employees trust their ability to complete work-related tasks, they are likely to
perform better. Thus, to show respect to the personal value of Generation Y and to
them. The findings of this study indicated that career competencies are important
18
satisfaction. To recruit the talents and make them happy, hotel managers should
enhance the career competences of employees, and in turn achieve the goal of career
satisfaction. For example, managers may draw a clear picture of career development
based on the evaluation of the potential abilities of qualified young employees. A clear
career ladder may motivate employees and increase their career satisfaction, and
organizational commitment.
The limitation of this study is related to the sampling method. The convenience
sampling method was used to select the participants according to their accessibility,
which may influence the generability of the sample. Future studies should collect a
the cross-sectional study, which may not reflect on the causal nature of data. Collect
As this study focused on Generation Y, the results are appropriate for young
explore which generation need more empowerment. The comparative study may
19
Acknowledgement: The authors would like to thank the support of Shandong Social
20
Reference
Vol.14No.2, pp.103-118.
Boonyarit, I., Chomphupart, S., and Arin N. (2010). “Leadership, empowerment, and
Broadlbride, A. M., Maxwell, G. A., and Ogden, S. M.(2007). “Students’ view of retail
pp.117.
pp.58-67.
21
Caudron, S. (1995). “Create an empowering environment”, Personal Journal, Vol.74,
pp.28-36.
Chen, P.J. and Choi, Y. (2008) "Generational differences in work values: a study of
Chow, I.H.S., Lo, T.W.C., Sha, Z., Hong, J. (2006). “The impact of developmental
Conger, J.A., and Kanungo, R.N. (1988). “The Empowerment Process Integrating
pp.471- 482.
22
factor or a passing fad?” Public Personnel Management, Vol.36 No.4,
pp.349–69.
No.4, pp.307-324.
pp.14-15.
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Eby, L. T., Butts, M., and Lockwood, A. (2003). “Predictors of success in the era of
pp.689-708.
Gazzoli, G., Hancer, M.and Park, Y.(2010). “The role and effect of job satisfaction
pp.56-77.
23
Greenhaus, J. H., Parasuraman, S., and Wormley, W. M. (1990). “Effects of race on
Gursoy, D., Chi, C.G., and Karadag, E. (2013). “Generational differences in work
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., and Anderson, R. E. (2009). Multivariate Data
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Josiam, B. M., Devine, F. G., Baum, T., Crutsinger, C., and Reynolds, J.S. (2010).
Judge, T. A., Cable, D. M., Boudreau, J. W., and Jr, R.D. (1995). An empirical system
Jung, H.S. and Yoon, H.H. (2015),"The impact of employees’ positive psychological
24
Kaiser, H. F. (1960). “The application of electronic computers to factor analysis”,
Karatepe, O.M. and Karadas, G.(2015). “Do psychological capital and work
Kim, B., Lee, G., Murrmann, S.K. and George, T.R. (2012), “Motivational effects of
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
pp. 10-19.
pp.548–59.
Koberg, C.S., Boss, R.W., Senjem, J.C., and Goodman, E.A.(1999). “Antecedents and
pp.71–92.
hotel managers in China.” PhD thesis of the School of Hotel and Tourism
25
Kong, H., Cheung, C., and Song, H. (2012). “Determinants and outcome of career
Kong, H., Cheung, C., and Song, H. (2012). “From hotel career management to
pp.76-85.
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Li, C., Li, X., Shi, K., and Chen, X.(2006). “Psychological empowerment:
Liden, R.., Wayne, S.,and Sparrowe, R. (2000). “An examination of the mediating
Locke, E. A., & Latham, G. P. (1990). “Work motivation and satisfaction: Light at the
McDonald, K. and Hite, L.(2008). The next generation of career success: implications
McMillan, C., O’Gorman, K.D., and MacLaren, A.C.(2011). “A vhicle for the
26
sustainable empowerment of Nepali women”, International Journal of
No.4, pp.493–512.
No.2, pp.46–48.
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Namasivayam, K., Guchait, P., and Lei, P. (2014). “The influence of leader
Niehoff, B.P., Moorman, R.H., Blakely, G., and Fuller, J.(2001). “The influence of
Park, J. and Gursoy, D. (2012). “Generation effects on work engagement among U.S.
pp.1195-1202.
27
pp.79-96.
Rahmatollan, A., Behzadshahbazi, Mirkamali, S.M., and Kharazi, K., (2011). “Survey
pp.1549-1554.
Pelit, E., Ozturk, Y., and Arslanturk, Y.(2011). “The effects of employee
Salazar, J., Pfaffenberg, C. and Salazar, L. (2006). “Locus of control vs. employee
pp.1-15.
Segars, A. H., and Grover, V. (1993). “Re-examining perceived ease of use and
pp.517-525.
28
pp.1442– 1465.
Spreitzer, G.M., Kizilos, M.A. and Nason, S.W. (1997). “A dimensional analysis of
Stevens, J. P. (1992). Applied Multivariate Statistics For The Social Sciences (2nd
Suutari, V., and Makela, K. (2007). “The career capital of managers with global
29
Table 1 Profile of Respondents
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Gender
Age
Below 20 54 11.8
31-35 96 21.0
Marital Status
Others 97 21.2
30
Educational Level
Postgraduate 41 0.9
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Position
Supervisor 73 15.9
Foreman 46 10.0
31
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
32
Table 2. Correlations (Squared Correlation), Reliability, AVE, and Mean
Constructs SD IP CC CS
MN CP
1.00
MN
CP 0.40 1.00
(0.16)
(0.20)
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
(0.09) (0.22)
(0.22) (0.21)
competencies, CS=Career satisfaction. Note: All are significant at the 0.01 level.
33
Table 3 Results of Structural Model and Hypotheses Testing
competencies.
satisfaction.
d
4) Impact-> Career satisfaction 0.11 2.04**
Supporte
34
H4: Career competency may mediate the 0.42 3.22** Supported
satisfaction
at p<0.01
35
Career
competencies
H2
H1
Psychological H3 Career
empowerment Satisfaction
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
36
Career
Competencies
0.4
0.
26
Meaning
77
0.
5
0.21
0 .1
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
Comptence
9
0.3
0.05
Career
Satisfaction
0.03
Self-Determination
0.11
Impact
37
Appendix 1
Meaning
Competence
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
(Competence 2).
Self-Determination
(Self-determination 3).
Impact
1. I have a great deal of control over what happens in my department (Impact 1).
38
Downloaded by Kansas State University At 08:05 01 October 2016 (PT)
39