3.3.

3 Verbal report data

Verbal reports are reports which gain answer for what is going through in somebody’s
mind while performing a task.

2 types of verbal reports:

-Recalls:

 Recalls are conducted following an activity.

 Recalls can be done with some stimulus (e.g., audio/video report or written text)

-Think-aloud:

 Think-aloud are conducted during the activity.

 Think-aloud involves reporting on the event as it is occurring.

3.3.4 Measuring non-linguistic information

There are some techniques to measure non-linguistic information

 Questionnaires
Questionnaires are commonly used to gain information about attitudes a learner
may have toward language learning, either generally or toward the learning of a
specific language (Dornyei, 2003).
 Interviews
Interviews are generally conducted orally and one-to-one.
 Diaries
Diaries are journals that a learner keeps (can be their initiative or given by teacher).

3.3.5 Measuring general proficiency: standardized language tests

Standardized language tests are not often used as a source for second language data
primarily because the most common type of standardized test is objective and does not
result productive data that can be easily analyzed. Standardized language tests are often
used as indicators for measuring proficiency levels. For example, in a given research study,
advanced learners may be those who have a TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language)
score above a certain level.
 3.4 Replication

“The essence of the scientific method involves observations that can be repeated and
verified by others” (American Psychological Association, 1994, p. 2).

Much of SLA research is empirical and such research is in need of replication. SLA research
deals with human behavior and thus is often inconsistent. This is complicated by two
additional factors:
(a) The few of participants in many studies
Since the research only conducts few of participants, so it will different between person to
others.
(b) The nature of second language knowledge
Because the knowledge between person to others is different, it will more difficult to
conduct exact data, like the example below:
 I am here since yesterday. (Second language learner’s knowledge)
 I have been here since yesterday. (the correct sentence)

Polio and Gass (1997) have argued for the importance of replication while at the same time
acknowledging that “exact replication” is impossible given that a replication study includes
different individuals. Replication studies are an ideal way for those who are new to the field
to get their hands dirty with actual data.

3.5 Issues in data analysis

The focus is on the type of information that is relevant to analyses of second language data.
The first issue we consider relates to the determination of development. There is no easy
way of determining whether a given learner is more or less proficient than another. Thus,
one cannot determine where on a developmental scale a given individual can be placed.
This is partly so because of the nature of second language learning.
Why?
Because learners do not have a uniform starting point. From the beginning, their utterances
vary in the degree of syntactic sophistication.

Another way of determining development is through categorization of individuals

according to their placement scores for specific language programs (e.g., a beginning class,
an advanced class, satisfaction of a university language requirement). However, these are
only very rough measures at best.
 3.6 What is acquisition?

How one defines acquisition depends on what one is looking at. This might range from
linguistic knowledge to the ability to use that knowledge in speech and the ability to
process language in real time. Researchers use a variety of criteria to determine when
acquisition has taken place.

3.7 Conclusion

In this chapter we have presented a means for data analysis and have reviewed different
methodologies for data elicitation and data analysis. Throughout the remainder of the
book, the reader will be able to put this knowledge to use in doing additional problem sets
and in determining what the strengths and/or shortcomings are of current research in SLA.