Engineering mechanics lab

Experiment # 03
Experiment title: To determine forces developed in various elements of a Redundant Truss

Apparatus used: Redundant truss apparatus

Objectives:

To measure the forces in a truss before & after redundant member is present.

Introduction

In this experiment, we will learn the construction and working of Redundant truss which cannot be
solved using equilibrium conditions. We will also find the resultant force in each member of truss due to
various combinations of weight

Theory

A truss is a structure compromising one or more triangular units which are constructed with straight
slender members whose ends are connected at joints. A plane truss is one where all the members and
joints lies within a 2-dimensional plane, while a space truss has member sand joints extending into 3
dimensions. In structural engineering, a structural member usually fabricated from straight pieces of
metal or timber from a series of triangles lying in a single plane. A truss gives a stable form capable of
supporting considerable external load overa large span with the component parts stressed primarily in
axial tension or compression. The individual pieces intersect at truss joints, or panel points. The connect
pieces forming the top and bottom of the truss are referred to respectively as the top and bottom
chords.

A truss that is assumed to compromise members that are connected by means of pins joints, and which
is supported at both ends by means of hinged joints or rollers, is described as being statically
determinate. Trusses that are supported at more than two positions are said to be statically
indeterminate, and the application of Newton's Laws alone is not sufficient to determine the member
forces. In order for a truss with pin-connected members to be stable, it must be entirely composed of
triangles. In mathematical terms, we have the following required condition for stability:

M+R ≥ 2j

M= total number of truss members

R= number of reactions

j = total number of joints

M=(2j-R) for perfect truss

M>(2j-R) truss is redundant

M< (2j-R) truss is deficient

When M=2j-3, and given certain number of joints this is the minimum number of members, if any
member is taken out (or fails), then the entire truss would be considered as fail. Some structures are
built with more than this minimum number of truss members. Those structures may survive even when
some of the members fail. They are called statically indeterminate structures, because their member
forces depend on the relative stiffness of the members, in addition to the equilibrium condition
described. In a statically indeterminate truss, static equilibrium alone cannot be used to calculated
member force. If we were to try, we would find that there would be too many “unknowns” and we
would not be able to complete the calculations. Instead we will use a method known as the flexibility
method, which uses an idea know as strain energy. The values for both are combined to calculate the
force in the redundant member and remaining members. The redundant member load in given by:

fnl
P=∑
n2l
The remaining member forces are then given by:
Member force = Pn + f
P = Redundant member load (N)

L = Length of members (as ratio of the shortest)

n = Load in each member due to unit load in place of redundant member (N)

F = Force in each member when the frame is “release” (N)

Experimental setup

The 45° two bay truss consists of seven members with pinned joints, cantilevered from the vertical
member of the Universal Frame and Stand using an upper springing and supported by a roller bearing on
a vertical track at the lower springing. An extra diagonal member with its length adjustable by a simple
mechanism is provided to make the first bay of the truss redundant.

Each truss member incorporates a strain gauge bridge arrangement for direct measurement of strain.
Load is applied to the truss by a screw jack mechanism with integral load cell. The strain and force
signals are fed directly into the Interface. A dial gauge measures the deflection of the joints and can be
located around the truss from the Universal Frame and Stand.

Procedure

1. The thumbwheel on the ‘redundant’ member up to the boss was wind and hand–tighten it. Any tools
to tighten the thumbwheel are not used.
2. The pre-load of 100N downward was applied, re-zero the load cell and carefully zero the digital
indicator.
3. A load of 250N was carefully applied and checked whether the frame was stable and secure.
4. The load to zero (leaving the 100N preload) was returning. Rechecked and re-zero the digital indicator
been done. Loads greater than those specified on the equipment never apply.
5.5 A load in the increment shown in table 1 was applied, the strain readings and the digital indicator
readings was recorded.
5.6 Subtracted the initial (zero) strain reading (be careful with your signs) and completed table 2

5.7 Calculated the equipment member force at 250 N and entered them into table 3.
5.8 A graph of Load vs Deflection was plotted from Table 1 on the same axis as Load vs
deflection when the redundant ‘removed’.
5.9 The calculation for redundant truss is made much simpler and easier if the tabular method
is used to sum up all of the “Fnl” and “n2l” terms.
5.10 Referred to table 4 and entered in the values and carefully calculated the other terms as
required.
5.11 Entered result into Table 3.
Results and data analysis

Load Strain readings Digital

(N) indicator
readings(mm)
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
50
100
150
200
250
Table 1: Strain readings and frame deflections

Load Strain readings

(N) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
0
50
100
150
200
250
Table 2 : true stain readings

Member Experimental force (N) Theoretical force (N)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Table 3: Measured and Theoretical in the Redundant Cantilever Truss

Member Length F n Fnl n2 l Pn Pn+f

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
Total =
Table 4: table for calculating the force in redundant truss

fnl
P=∑
n2l
Data:
Rod diameter = 6 mm

E (steel) = 2.10 ×105 N/mm

Experimental force:
Using the Young’s Modulus relationship, we can calculate the equivalent member force,
complete the experimental force in Table 3.
σ
E=
ε
Where ,

E = Young’s Modulus (N/m2)

σ = Stress in the member (N/m2)

ε = Displayed strain

F
and, σ=
A
where,

F = Force in member (N)

A = Cross section area of the member (m2 )
To calculate the experimental force, we use the formula
F EAε
 π d2
A=
4
Calculation for experimental force
Member 1: Put εvalues from table 2 in the following equation.
F EAε

Experiment # 06
Experiment title: To determine deflection of simply supported and cantilever beams with different
spans and loading profiles by using Deflection of Frames apparatus

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

1. To determine the maximum deflection at mid span for a beam subjected to an

increasing point load and a uniform distributed load
2. To examine the relationship between deflection and cube of beam span
3. To study the relationship between deflection and load applied to simply supported
beam.

Introduction

The axis of the beam deflects from its initial position under action of applied forces. Accurate values for
these beams deflections are sought in many practical case: elements of machines must be sufficiently
rigid to prevent misalignment and to maintain dimensional accuracy under load; in buildings ,floor
beams
cannot deflect excessively to avoid the undesirable mental effect of flexible floors on occupants
and to minimize or prevent distress in brittle-finish materials; likewise, information on deformation
characteristics of members is essential in the study of vibrations of machines as well as of stationary and
flight structures. In this experiment the students will be studying and understanding the different types
of beams and effect of different factors in deflection of beam.

Theory

Beams are the most common structural element which carries load and transmit them to adjacent
columns of support. Beams work by developing shear forces and bending moment along their length. A
simply supported beam is a beam with roller and pin support. Bridge girders and gangways are good
examples of simply supported beams. When loads is applied to beam, the deflection of beam will occur.
Excessive deflection would cause cracking of brittle materials within or attached to the beam.

A structural element which is used to support heavy loads in different structures is called beam. Beam in
any structure bears huge load which tries to bend the beam and beam support the structure by resisting
the bending produce by the load. Ability of the beam to resist the load depends on the type of beam,
material of beam and shape of beam. There are many different type of beam and each one of these
beams can be of any material and can of many different shapes. Some different types of beam are
describe below

Simple supported beam

Simple supported beam is one which has support at its both ends but does not face any moving
resistance

Fixed beam

Like simple supported beam fixed also has support at its both ends but fixed beam has moving
resistance

Over hanging beam

Over hanging beam also have support at both of its ends like simple supported beam but one of its ends
is free and extended further from the end support

Double over hanging beam

Double over hanging beam is just like overhanging beam, the only difference is that its both ends are
extended beyond the end support

Continuous beam

Continuous beam is one which has large length and it is supported by more than two supports.

Cantilever beam

Cantilever beam is one which has its one end fixed and other end is free to vibrate.

Trussed beam

Trussed beam is a special type of beam which has increased strength due to additional rods and cables
in beam.

The maximum deflection of a simply supported beam subjected to point load at mid span is given by:

W L3
Maximum deflection, ∆ =
48 E I
Where

W = Load (N)

L = Span or length of beam

E = Young’s modulus of beam ( Nm-2 )

I =Second moment of area of the beam ( m 2 )

For rectangular section I = bd3 , where b and d are the width and depth respectively

Methodology
Apparatus

1. Structural Test Frame

2. Aluminium, brass, steel test beam
3. Digital dial or LVDT
4. Vernier gauge
5. Load hanger
6. A set of weight

Procedure

1. The width (b) and depth (d) of the aluminium, brass and steel test beams had been measured by
used Vernier gauge.

2. The value next to the result table had been recorded for each material to calculate the second
moment of area, I.

3. Clamps and knife edges from the backboard had been removed. One of the cantilevers had been
set up.

4. The digital dial test indicator was slide to the position on the beam and was locked by used
thumbnut at the rear. Knife-edge hanger had been slide to the position required.

5. The digital dial test had been set up to zero by used the ‘origin’ button.

6. Masses had been applied to the knife-edge hanger. The frame was tapped lightly each time
masses were added. The digital dial test indicator reading had been recorded for each increment of
mass.

7. The procedure was repeated by used different type of material.

Observation and calculations:

Material Aluminium Steel Brass

Length (m) 0.576 0.630 0.630

Width (m) 0.1905 0.1913 0.1333

Height (m) 0.0359 0.0322 0.0308

 Deflection of simply supported beam

Experimental deflection Average Theoretical

Applied load (N)
Reading 1 Reading 2 deflection deflection
Mm mm (mm) (mm)
STEEL

1
2
3
4
5
Experimental deflection Average Theoretical
Applied load (N)
Reading 1 Reading 2 deflection deflection
Mm mm (mm) (mm)
BRASS

1
2
3
4
5
Experimental deflection Average Theoretical
Applied load (N)
Reading 1 Reading 2 deflection deflection
ALUMINIUM

Mm mm (mm) (mm)`
1
2
3
4
5

Second moment of area

b d3
I steel = 12
=

b d3
I brass = 12
=

b d3
I aluminium = 12
=
Deflection for STEEL
E steel = 200GPa
w 1×( L , steel )3
∆= (48) × ( 200× 109 ) × I steel
=

w 2 ×( L , steel )3
∆= =
(48) × ( 200× 109 ) × I steel

w 3 ×( L , steel )3
∆= (48) × ( 200× 109 ) × I steel
=

w 4 ×(L , steel)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 200× 109 ) × I steel

w 5 ×( L , steel )3
∆= (48) × ( 200× 109 ) × I steel
=

Deflection for BRASS

E brass = 105GPa
w 1×(L , brass)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 105 × 109 ) × I brass

w 2×(L , brass)3
∆= (48) × ( 105 × 109 ) × I brass
=

w 3 ×(L , brass)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 105 × 109 ) × I brass

w 4 ×(L ,brass)3
∆= (48) × ( 105 × 109 ) × I brass
=
 w 5 ×(L , brass)3
∆= (48) × ( 105 × 109 ) × I brass
=

Deflection for ALUMINIUM.

E aluminium = 65GPa
w 1×(L , aluminum)3
∆= ( 48 ) × ( 65 × 109 ) × I aluminium

w 2×(L , aluminum)3
∆= ¿ =
(48) × ( 65× 109 ) × I aluminium ¿

w 3 ×(L ,aluminum)3
∆= (48) × ( 65× 109 ) × I aluminium
=

w 4 ×(L , aluminum)3
∆= =
(48) × ( 65× 109 ) × I aluminium

w 5 ×(L ,aluminum)3
∆= (48) × ( 65× 109 ) × I aluminium
=

Results:
Graph of displacement vs load and comparison of theoretical and experimental
results for Steel
Graph of displacement vs load and comparison of theoretical and experimental
results for Brass

Graph of displacement vs load and comparison of theoretical and experimental

results for Aluminum
Precautions
1. Apply the loads without any jerk.
2. Perform the experiment at a location, which is away from external
disturbance.
3. Ensure that the supports are rigid.
4. Gently tap the dial gauge before observing the readings.
5. The loads applied should be within the allowed limits for the apparatus.
Experiment # 07
Experiment title: To investigate the fundamentals of equilibrium of moments by
using two-arms lever
Apparatus used:

Objectives:

 To investigate the fundamentals of the equilibrium of moments

 To prove the action of forces dependent on the lever arm.
 To compare experimentally obtained results with theoretical calculations.

Introduction
This lab deals with equilibrium of moments and its verification through
experimentation. It is intended to compare the calculated moments or theoretical
moments obtained from a case with measured or experimental moments.

Theory
Equilibrium

A lever reaches equilibrium when the forces applied to each of its arms, in respect to its fulcrum, are the
same. As a rule, the closer one force is to the fulcrum, the less force the lever needs at the other end to
achieve equilibrium. Furthermore, a lever's power can be amplified or diminished by either changing the
forces or by changing the position of the fulcrum, thereby lengthening one load arm and shortening
another.

Principle of moments

The principle of moment’s states that when in equilibrium the total sum of the anti-clockwise moment is
equal to the total sum of the clockwise moment. When a system is stable or balance it is said to be in
equilibrium as all the forces acting on the system cancel each other out. In equilibrium;

Total clock wise moments = total anti-clock moments

A lever is a simple machine made of three parts: two load arms and a fulcrum. Sometimes the two arms
are referred to as the force arm and the load arm, to distinguish which arm is initiating movement.
Levers come in three classes.

Position of Fulcrum

Class-1

Levers have the fulcrum situated between the load and the force. A playground teeter-totter is an
example of a class-1 lever.

Class-2

Levers have the load situated between the force and the fulcrum. A wheelbarrow is a common example
of a class-2 lever, with the fulcrum at the wheel, the force at the handles and the load in the barrow
between.

Class-3
Levers have the force situated between the fulcrum and the load arm. Fishing rods are a good example
of a class-3 lever, with the fisherman's elbow as the fulcrum, the fisherman's hand as the force, and the
lure the fisherman casts as the load.

The moment action on both sides of the lever is equal and can be expressed as

Fe  de  = Fl  dl                                (1)

where

Fe  = effort force (N, lb)

Fl  = load force (N, lb)

dl  = distance from load force to fulcrum (m, ft)

de  = distance from effort force to fulcrum (m, ft)

The effort force can be calculated by modifying (1) to

Fe  = Fl  dl  / de             

     = m ag  dl / de                          (1b)

where
 m = mass (kg,  slugs)

Methodology
Apparatus

 Meter stick
 Knife edge
 Known masses of varying values
 Unknown mass
 Balance
 Slide

Theoretical procedure:

Free body diagram:

The experimental setup is shown as figure below. The unit consists of a carefully supported, symmetrical
lever and displaceable supported slides with the sets of weights. The lever is supported by vertical
column. A reliable base plate guarantees its stability.

Draw free body diagram here:

Derive the Equations and calculate the lever arms c if lever arm a, and b is given in the table 1.

F1 *a +F2*b = F3*c
 F 1∗a+ F 2∗b
C=
F3

Report the data using table 1. Start the load F1 and F2 with 10N. Then hang the F3 with 15 N.

Repeat these steps with different lever arm a and lever arm b.
Observation and calculations:

F1(N) F2(N) F3(N) Lever arm (a) Lever arm (b) Lever arm (c)

280 140

250 125

200 100

100 50

Table 1: theoretical data

Experimental procedure:

1. Balance the meter stick on the knife edge. The point at which the stick balances is the center of gravity of
the meter stick.
2. Select two 10N weights and one 15N weight.
3. Refer to figure 1, Place two hangers at marks, with distances a and b to the left of the center of gravity and
place weights 10N on it.
4. Place another hanger at the mark, a distance b to the right of the center of gravity and place a weight of 15N
on it.
5. Enter these values in Data Table 2.
6.
F1(N) F2(N) F3(N) Calculated lever Measured lever Error (%)
arm (c) arm (c)
Safety precautions
1. Clamp the retort stand to the bench with the g-clamp to it doesn’t fall and hurt
someone or fall on their feet.
2. Place an obstacle, such as a stool, to keep feet from beneath the metre rule, to make
sure the mass hangers don’t fall on someone’s foot.
3. Safety glasses should be worn in case the meter rule swings and hits someone in the
eye.
Experiment # 08
Experiment title: To determine mechanical advantage of toggle joint mechanism experimentally using
toggle joint apparatus

Objectives:

1. Determination of Mechanical Advantage of Toggle Joint Apparatus experimentally and

theoretically.
2. Comparison of experimental and theoretical results

Theory

Toggle joint mechanism

Toggle mechanism, combination of solid, usually metallic links (bars), connected by pin (hinge) joints
that are so arranged that a small force applied at one point can create a much larger force at another
point. In the Figure, showing a toggle mechanism at work in a rock-crushing machine, the numbered
links are pin-connected at A, B, C, D, and E. Rotation of link 1 about the fixed pivot A causes the block to
slide back and forth. The relation between the force in link 2 acting at C and the force W exerted on the
block at D, and thus on the rock, depends on the angle symbolized by the Greek letter theta, θ; the
smaller the angle, the greater is W in terms of F. For θ equal to one degree, W is nearly 29 times F.
Toggle mechanisms are used to obtain large force amplification in such applications as sheet metal
punching and forming machines.

Mechanical advantage of toggle mechanism

Applications of toggle joint

Methodology
Apparatus

Frame Structure apparatus

• Loads

• Hangers

• Measuring tape

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:
Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:
Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus
Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:
Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:
Experiment # 06
Experiment title:

Apparatus used:

Objectives:

Introduction

Theory

Methodology
Apparatus

Procedure

Observation and calculations:

Results:

Cantilever Beam :
 For the cantilever beam shown in the figure below theoretical beam deflections are given by;

P
y= ¿)
6 EI

Experimental Procedure for cantilever beam:

1.Firstly, the least count of deflection gauge was calculated by the formula, Least Count =
Smallestdivision on main scale / No. of divisions on other scale = 0.2/200 mm = 0.001mm
2.The beam was clamped in a support. Three different points were marked on the beam and the gauge
was fixed at one point at the middle of the width of the beam.
3.The initial value of deflection with hanger hanging on the beam was measured.
4.1N of load was applied in the hanger and the value on gauge was noted. The difference of first value and
this value was deflection.
5.An increment of 1N was applied and the value of deflection was noted at each load.
6.The experiment was repeated at different marked values of x (placing gauge at different distances
from the load point).
7.The dimensions of the cantilever beam was measured using a Vernier caliper.
8.Repeat the experiment for the Brass and Aluminium material.

Observations and calculations:

For stainless steel:

b d3
I steel = 12
=

X1=
X2=
X3=
L=
 Exp# P(N) y (x1) (mm) y (x2) (mm) y(x3) (mm)

Exp Theory %err Exp Theory %err Exp Theory %err

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5

For brass

b d3
I brass = 12
=

X1=
X2=
X3=
L=

Exp# P(N) y (x1) (mm) y (x2) (mm) y(x3) (mm)

Exp Theory %err Exp Theory %err Exp Theory %err

1 1
2 2
3 3
 4 4
5 5

For aluminium

b d3
I aluminium = 12
=

X1=
X2=
X3=
L=

Exp# P(N) y (x1) (mm) y (x2) (mm) y(x3) (mm)

Exp Theory %err Exp Theory %err Exp Theory %err

1 1
2 2
3 3
4 4
5 5
Graph of displacement vs load and comparison of theoretical and experimental
results for Steel
Graph of displacement vs load and comparison of theoretical and experimental
results for Brass

Graph of displacement vs load and comparison of theoretical and experimental

results for Aluminum

Conclusions: