DIMENSIONS OF CULTURE -II

Chathuri De Silva
NATIONAL CULTURE

 Professor Geert Hofstede conducted one of the most

comprehensive studies of how values in the workplace are
influenced by culture. He defines culture as “the collective
programming of the mind distinguishing the members of
one group or category of people from others”.
 The six dimensions of national culture are based on
extensive research done by Professor Geert Hofstede, Gert
Jan Hofstede, Michael Minkov and their research teams.

 https://www.hofstede-insights.com/product/compare-
countries/
 Large-Scale Dimensional Models

1. Minkov: 3 dimensions
2. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner: 7 dimensions
3. Hofstede: 6 dimensions of national culture
4. Schwartz: 7 value types or motivational domains
5. GLOBE:9 dimensions
Note: Hofstede and Schwartz most used for marketing
 Large-Scale Dimensional
Models
Minkov: 3 dimensions
◦ Indulgence v. restraint
◦ Monumentalism v. flexumility
◦ Exclusionism v. universalism
Indulgence v. restraint

 Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free

gratification of basic and natural human drives related to
enjoying life and having fun.
 Example: western countries
 Restraint stands for a society that suppresses gratification of
needs and regulates it by means of strict social norms.
 Example: Arab countries
 Monumentalism v. flexumility
 “Monumentalism” Refers to status which are created to reflect pride
in person, event or things, and once erected are relatively
unchangeable.
Example: Arab nations where many people are strongly attached to
their time-honoured values and beliefs and view any change of
cultural or religious identity as treason.
experience problems in their relationship with some aspects of
modernity, including Western education. On the bright side, they
have the lowest suicide rates in the world: pride and self-stability seem
to act as a societal suicide deterrent

 “Flexumility” is combination of the word self flexible and humilityas well as

adaptability, and imitation.
Example: East Asian nations, where adoption of Western names, rituals,
customs and other practices is rather fashionable.
facilitates school success in mathematics and modern science.
Hence, it may boost economic growth. On the downside, it is coupled
with high suicide rates
 Exclusionism v. universalism

 “Exclusionism” means that some people are more equal than

others. If you need friends or relationships in the
government bureaucracy in order to get your imports
cleared or your license extended, then that means
particularism.

 “Universalism” means that everybody is treated as subject to

the same rules.
Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997) – 7
dimensions
 7 Dimensions of Culture Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 1997
Universalism - People place a high importance on laws,
rules, values, and obligations. They try to deal fairly with
people based on these rules, but rules come before
relationships. Eg: Scandinavian countries, USA, UK, Australia
and Canada.

Particularism - People believe that each circumstance, and

each relationship, dictates the rules that they live by. Their
response to a situation may change, based on what's
happening in the moment, and who's involved. Eg: Russia,
China and Latin America.
 7 Dimensions of Culture Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 1997
Individualism - People believe in personal freedom
and achievement. They believe that you make
your own decisions, and that you must take care of
yourself. Scandinavian countries, USA, UK, Australia
and Canada.

Communitarianism - People believe that the group

is more important than the individual. The group
provides help and safety, in exchange for loyalty.
The group always comes before the individual. Eg:
Latin America, Africa and Japan.
 7 Dimensions of Culture Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 1997
Specific - People keep work and personal lives separate. As a result,
they believe that relationships don't have much of an impact on work
objectives, and, although good relationships are important, they
believe that people can work together without having a good
relationship. Eg: Scandinavian countries, USA, UK, Australia and
Canada.

Diffuse - People see an overlap between their work and personal life.
They believe that good relationships are vital to meeting business
objectives, and that their relationships with others will be the same,
whether they are at work or meeting socially. People spend time
outside work hours with colleagues and clients. Eg: Argentina, Spain,
Russia, India, and China
 7 Dimensions of Culture Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 1997

Neutral - People make a great effort to control their

emotions. Reason influences their actions far more than
their feelings. People don't reveal what they're thinking
or how they're feeling. Eg: Sweden, the Netherlands,
Finland, and Germany.

Emotional - People want to find ways to express their

emotions, even spontaneously, at work. In these
cultures, it's welcome and accepted to show emotion.
Eg: Italy, France, Spain, and countries in Latin-America.
 7 Dimensions of Culture Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 1997

Achievement - People believe that you are what you

do, and they base your worth accordingly. These
cultures value performance, no matter who you are.
Eg: the U.S., Canada, Australia, and Scandinavia.

Ascription - People believe that you should be valued

for who you are. Power, title, and position matter in
these cultures, and these roles define behavior. Eg:
France, Italy, Japan, and Saudi Arabia.
 7 Dimensions of Culture Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 1997

Sequential time - People like events to happen in order.

They place a high value on punctuality, planning (and
sticking to your plans), and staying on schedule. In this
culture, "time is money," and people don't appreciate it
when their schedule is thrown off. Eg: Germany, the
U.K., and the U.S.

Synchronous time - People see the past, present, and

future as interwoven periods. They often work on
several projects at once, and view plans and
commitments as flexible. Eg: Japan, Argentina, and
Mexico.
 7 Dimensions of Culture Trompenaars and
Hampden-Turner, 1997
Internal Direction- People believe that they can control
nature or their environment to achieve goals. This
includes how they work with teams and within
organizations. Eg: Israel, the U.S., Australia, New
Zealand, and the U.K.

Outer Direction- People believe that nature, or their

environment, controls them; they must work with their
environment to achieve goals. At work or in
relationships, they focus their actions on others, and
they avoid conflict where possible. People often need
reassurance that they're doing a good job. Eg: China,
Russia, and Saudi Arabia.
 Schwartz culturalModel
HIERARCHY
Social power
MASTERY authority
humble
Successful, ambitious
independent, capable EMBEDDEDNESS
choosing own goals
Social order, politeness, obedient
preserving public image
wisdom, respect tradition

Enjoying life
exciting life
Honest
pleasure
freedom
AFFECTIVE quality World of beauty,
AUTONOMY responsible unity with nature
Curious
social justice protect environment
creativity
broadminded
HARMONY
INTELLECTUAL EGALITARIANISM
AUTONOMY
 Schwartz culturalModel
Embeddedness VS Autonomy
Embeddedness - emphasizes maintenance of status
quo, propriety and restraint of anything that might
disrupt the group or the traditional order.

Intellectual Autonomy – emphasizes pursuing their own

ideas and independent direction.
Affective Autonomy – emphasizes pursuing affectively
positive experiences.
 Schwartz culturalModel
Hierarchy VS Egalitarianism
Hierarchy - emphasizes unequal distribution of power, roles
and resources.
Egalitarianism – emphasizes the welfare of others. Everyone
is considered to be equal and expected to show concern
for others.

Mastery VS Harmony
Mastery – In this culture individual seek success through
personal actions. It may benefit to the people in the group
or sometimes at the expense of them.
Harmony – In this culture, people are happy to accept their
place in the world rather than seeking for self-improvement.
Great emphasis on groups than on individuals.
 Cultural Map of World Regions
HARMONY EMBEDDEDNESS
order, obedience
fitting in, no change

East-Central & Muslim

EGALITARIANISM Baltic Europe Middle
justice Prot/Cath South
West & East &
South Sub-
Latin East Saharan
Europe America Asia
Africa
INTELLECTUAL
AUTONOMY curiosity
English HIERARCHY
Speaking authority
AFFECTIVE
AUTONOMY MASTERY
pleasure ambition, change
 Hofstede’s Dimensions ofNational
Culture
1. Power Distance
2. Individualism-Collectivism
3. Masculinity-Femininity
4. Uncertainty Avoidance
5. Long-Term vs Short-Term orientation
6. Indulgence vs Restraint
 Country scores for 73 countries
 Explain most of variation of consumer behavior Questionnaire
 sampled from IBM employees
 Hofstede’s Dimensions ofNational
Culture
1. Power Distance Index (PDI)
A high PDI score indicates that a society accepts
an unequal, hierarchical distribution of power,
and that people understand "their place" in the
system. A low PDI score means that power is
shared and is widely dispersed, and that society
members do not accept situations where power
is distributed unequally. Eg: China, Saudi Arabia
and Japan
 Hofstede’s Dimensions ofNational Culture
2. Individualism Versus Collectivism (IDV)
This refers to the strength of the ties that people have to
others within their community.

A high IDV score indicates weak interpersonal connection

among those who are not part of a core "family." Here,
people take less responsibility for others' actions and
outcomes.

In a collectivist society, however, people are supposed to

be loyal to the group to which they belong, and, in
exchange, the group will defend their interests. The group
itself is normally larger, and people take responsibility for
one another's well-being. Eg: Latin America, Africa and
Japan VS the USA and Scandinavian.
 Hofstede’s Dimensions ofNational Culture
3. Masculinity Versus Femininity (MAS)
This refers to the distribution of roles between men and
women. In masculine societies, the roles of men and
women overlap less, and men are expected to behave
assertively. Demonstrating your success, and being strong
and fast, are seen as positive characteristics.

In feminine societies, however, there is a great deal of

overlap between male and female roles, and modesty is
perceived as a virtue. Greater importance is placed on
good relationships with your direct supervisors, or working
with people who cooperate well with one another.
Eg: Mexico, Italy, Japan and Australia (M) VS
Scandinavian
 Hofstede’s Dimensions ofNational Culture
4. Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)
This dimension describes how well people can cope with
anxiety.
In societies that score highly for Uncertainty Avoidance,
people attempt to make life as predictable and
controllable as possible. If they find that they can't control
their own lives, they may be tempted to stop trying.
People in low UAI-scoring countries are more relaxed,
open or inclusive.

Note: This is not about the ability take risk.

Eg: Greece, France (high) VS Singapore, India (low)
 Hofstede’s Dimensions ofNational Culture
5. LONG TERM ORIENTATION VERSUS SHORT TERM
NORMATIVE ORIENTATION (LTO)
Societies who score low on this dimension, for example,
prefer to maintain time-honoured traditions and norms
while viewing societal change with suspicion.

Those with a culture which scores high, on the other hand,

take a more pragmatic approach: they encourage thrift
and efforts in modern education as a way to prepare for
the future.

Eg: East Asian countries (high) VS Kenya and Norway

 Hofstede’s Dimensions ofNational Culture
6. Indulgence Versus Restraint (IVR)
Indulgence stands for a society that allows relatively free
gratification of basic and natural human drives related to
enjoying life and having fun. Restraint stands for a society
that suppresses gratification of needs and regulates it by
means of strict social norms.

Middle East, East Europe and Asia (Rest) VS West Europe

and the USA (Indu)

Visit https://www.hofstede-insights.com for Sri Lanka

 GLOBE Model: 9Dimensions
1. Institutional Collectivism
2. Ingroup collectivism
3. Uncertainty avoidance
Note: The dimensions
4. Power distance
which have not
5. Gender egalitarianism already been
6. Assertiveness discussed will be
7. Future orientation discussed.
8. Performance orientation
9. Humane orientation
 GLOBE Model: 9Dimensions

Performance Orientation- Performance orientation is the

degree to which innovation, high standards, and
excellent performance are encouraged and rewarded.
Countries with high performance orientation value
materialism and competitiveness, and they expect to
invest in training to promote performance improvements.
The United States and European countries have high
performance orientations; Argentina, Russia, and Greece
have low performance orientations.
 GLOBE Model: 9Dimensions

Assertiveness- Assertiveness is the degree to which

individuals are forceful, confrontational, and aggressive,
as opposed to cooperative and compassionate. In high
assertiveness countries such as the United States,
Germany, and Mexico, communication is direct and
unambiguous. Individual initiative is encouraged, and
relationships are likely to be competitive. Countries with
low assertiveness rankings are Switzerland and New
Zealand. Managers in these countries are more likely to
look for consensus and cooperative decision making.
 GLOBE Model: 9Dimensions

Future Orientation- The degree to which delayed

gratification and planning for the future are valued over
short-term gains is called future orientation. Countries with
high future orientation encourage investments for future
payoffs over immediate consumption. It is similar to the
ability of individuals to delay gratification. Canada,
Switzerland, and Malaysia have high future orientation;
Poland, Argentina, and Russia have low future orientation.
 GLOBE Model: 9Dimensions

Humane Orientation- The degree to which fairness,

altruism, generosity, and kindness are encouraged and
valued is a measure of a country’s humane orientation. In
nations with high humane orientation, individuals are
responsible for promoting the well-being of others as
opposed to the state providing social and economic
support. The Philippines, Ireland, and Egypt have high
humane orientation; France, Germany, and Singapore
have low humane orientation.
 GLOBE Model: 9Dimensions
Institutional Collectivism- Institutional collectivism is the
degree to which organizational and societal institutions
encourage individuals to be integrated into groups and
organizations. In high institutional collectivism countries,
collective distribution of resources and collective action
are encouraged. Group loyalty is encouraged, even if it
undermines the pursuit of individual goals. Sweden,
Japan, and Singapore are examples of countries that
have high institutional collectivism; Germany, Argentina,
and Italy have low institutional collectivism. In the United
States, low institutional collectivism has resulted in
debates on appropriate work-life balance.
 GLOBE Model: 9Dimensions

In-Group Collectivism- In-group collectivism is the degree

to which individuals express pride, loyalty, and
cohesiveness in their organizations or families. In countries
with high ingroup collectivism, individuals identify with
their families or organizations and duties and obligations
determine behaviors. A strong distinction is made
between individuals who are in a group and those who
are not. India, Egypt, and China are examples of
countries that have high ingroup collectivism; Sweden,
New Zealand, and Finland have low ingroup collectivism.
 GLOBE Model: 9Dimensions

Gender Egalitarianism- The degree to which male and

female equality is actualized is called gender
egalitarianism. Countries with high gender egalitarianism
provide more opportunities for women and have more
women in positions of power. Sweden, Poland, and Costa
Rica, New Zealand have high gender egalitarianism.
Japan, Italy, and Egypt have low gender egalitarianism.
In these countries, women generally have lower status at
work and in the culture.
 Global Research

Data from 62 countries into regional clusters:

◦ Anglo
◦ Latin Europe/Nordic Europe/Germanic Europe/Eastern Europe
◦ Latin America
◦ Middle East
◦ Sub-Saharan Africa
◦ Southern Asia/ Confucian Asia.
Clusters
◦ Analyse similarities and differences between cultural groups
◦ Make meaningful generalizations about culture and leadership
◦ Clusters were found to be unique regional representing 10 distinct groups
(Northouse, 2007, p.308):
◦ GLOBE research analyzed data on each of the regions using the
dimensions of culture. Results found regional clusters that were
significantly higher or lower on particular dimensions (Northouse, 2007).
 Summary - Comparing 3 Models

Hofstede measures behavioral preferences, country scores

available at www.geerthofstede.nl; sample of matched groups
of employees in one global company at all levels. Many
replications by other researchers worldwide.
Schwartz asks questions of the desirable: “desirable goals that
serve as guiding principles in people’s life”. Sample teachers and
students. Limited number of countries, scattered publications;
data difficult to find.
GLOBE asks for ideological abstractions, about society as it is and
as it should be. Sample was middle managers in various industries.
Data available in House et al. 2004.
 Reading
Conceptualizing and measuring cultures and
their consequences: a comparative review of
GLOBE’s and Hofstede’s approaches

Hofstede, Inglehart and beyond. New directions in

empirical global value research.

Dimensions and Dynamics of National Culture:

Synthesizing Hofstede With Inglehart