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Chapter 3 - Invertebrates
Chapter 3 - Invertebrates
Mark A. Mitchell
C H A P T E R 3
INVERTEBRATES
Invertebrates represent the largest group of animals on Earth, dynamic. Because of the large numbers of invertebrate taxa, it
with approximately 1 million species characterized to date. is not possible to review all groups in this chapter. Instead, this
Additional species are being discovered all of the time, and it chapter reviews those groups important to the captive pet trade
has been estimated that as many as 30 million invertebrates may or aquaculture.
reside on planet Earth. The diversity among invertebrates is
enormous, with over 30 different phyla and myriads of sub-
sequent taxa. Differences between the groups are so great that
Cnidarians
the only common feature among them is that, as their name There are approximately 10,000 different species of cnidarians,
implies, they do not possess a true vertebral column. and the majority of these animals are found in the marine envi-
Though it is easy to overlook, invertebrates are vital not ronment. Cnidarians are classified either as polyps or medusae.
only to the natural world but also to the lives of humans. Many The polyps include the corals (Figure 3-1), hydrae, and anemones
invertebrates play important roles in the fields of agriculture, (Figure 3-2). The medusae include the true jellyfish and the box
ecology, biology, medicine, and commercial and industrial jellyfish. Cnidarians can be found as individuals or colonies,
trades, to name just a few. Invertebrates have also become depending on the group. Most are carnivorous, subduing and
increasingly popular as pets and display animals in zoological killing their prey with specialized cells called cnidocytes (see
collections. There are numerous reasons for this trend, includ- Anatomy and Physiology). Jellyfish are one species with cnido-
ing the “awe factor,” relative inexpense of the animals, and cytes, which also are venomous to humans.
their low-maintenance husbandry requirements. Because of
their importance and increasing popularity, it is expected that
invertebrate species will be presented to veterinarians with Gastropods
increased frequency. Unfortunately, like many other exotic pet There are approximately 60,000 different species of gastro-
species, little is known about the medical needs of these pods, and these animals are primarily aquatic, although ter-
animals. To date, only a limited amount of research in this field restrial forms exist. Among the aquatic gastropods, the major-
has been published, and there is a strong need to expand the ity of animals are found in benthic habitats. Gastropods are
current knowledge base of invertebrate medicine. This chapter the most numerous and diverse class within the phylum
serves as an introduction to the biology and medicine of captive Mollusca and are the only group to have members that have
invertebrates. evolved a terrestrial lifestyle (the Pulmonata). The gastro-
pods are primarily represented by the snails (Figure 3-3) and
COMMON SPECIES KEPT slugs.
IN CAPTIVITY
The only unifying feature common to all invertebrates is an
Arachnids
absence of a vertebral column. Both because of this fact, and There are approximately 70,000 different species of arachnids,
the diversity of species, the taxonomy of invertebrates is and more than 80% of the animals in this group are spiders
11
Figure 3-1 Maze brain coral (Platygyra sp.). These stony corals Figure 3-3 Turbo snail (Turbo sp.). These marine gastropods
are popular in the aquarium hobby. (Photo by Trevor are commonly recommended for marine aquaria. In this image,
Zachariah.) note the dextral twist of the shell, the extended antennae, the
oral opening between them, and the large foot. (Photo by Trevor
Zachariah.)
Myriapods Insects
There are approximately 13,000 different species of myria- The insects represent the largest group of invertebrates, with
pods, all of which are terrestrial. Centipedes (≈3000 species) over 900,000 described species. It is estimated that more than
are from the order Chilopoda, and most of these animals are 75% of the animal species on Earth are insects. The greatest
nocturnal predators. These invertebrates possess fangs, which diversity among any group of living animals is seen with the
they use to envenomate their prey or potential predators. Mil- insects. Most are terrestrial, but some have also developed the
lipedes (≈10,000 species) are from the order Diplopoda, and ability to fly. Some species of insects have developed parasitic
Figure 3-5 A fire millipede (Aphistogoniulus sp.). Millipedes of Figure 3-6 A common sea star found in the marine trade.
a variety of colors and sizes are available to hobbyists. (Photo These echinoderms remain quite popular with hobbyists. (Photo
by Trevor Zachariah.) by Trevor Zachariah.)
Crustaceans
There are approximately 42,000 different species of crusta-
ceans, most of which are aquatic. The taxon is a diverse group,
with many of the inconspicuous species playing a central role
in ecologic webs. Some of the larger species are important to
aquaculture.
propel a hollow tube with great force out of the cell toward The process of torsion also causes a reduction or absence of
prey or predators. The tube can be used to physically subdue some of the organs—ctenidia, osphradium, kidney, heart
or inject venom into prey. The venom used in cnidae can be auricle—on the side corresponding to the direction of the
quite potent and may also be used for defense. Each cnida can torsion (e.g., left side for sinistral and right side for dextral).
be used only once, after which the cnidocyte must secrete a The space within the body whorl created by the torsion
new one. process is known as the mantle cavity. As the name implies, the
The nervous system is comprised of a web of neurons, and mantle cavity is lined with the tissue known as the mantle,
attached to it are sensory systems that belie the simplicity of which secretes the shell. In the terrestrial species, the mantle
this web. Statocysts assist with balance, ocelli sense light, and cavity is modified into a sac-like structure with increased
sensory lappets register tactile stimuli. Box jellies take this one vasculature and an opening called the pneumostome. Thus
step further and have complex eyes that may be capable of equipped, the mantle cavity functions as a primitive lung. In
forming images. the aquatic species, the mantle cavity contains the ctenidia, or
The muscles of cnidarians are comprised of epitheliomus- gills, adjacent to which is the osphradium, an organ specialized
cular cells. Cnidarian muscles serve two purposes: (1) contrac- for chemoreception. The heart lies within the pericardial sac
tile functions to assist with locomotion, and (2) intracellular and is located within the mantle cavity. The heart is a single
food digestion. The muscles are arranged in longitudinal and ventricle and supplies hemolymph to an open circulatory
circular arrangements, allowing for a variety of types of move- system. Some species possess an elongated siphon for intake of
ment. The most common locomotive movement for jellyfish water into the mantle cavity.
is jet propulsion, and that is accomplished by contracting Gastropods have a tubular digestive system that begins
and releasing the body against the mesoglea, which acts as a with a mouth and ends with an anus. The basic organs of the
spring. digestive tract include a buccal cavity, esophagus, stomach,
The mouth opens into the coelenteron, a cavity that is lined intestine, and rectum. There are many variations on this theme,
with the gastrodermis. The coelenteron may be partitioned including a crop as part of the esophagus, a crystalline style, a
into pouches or canals to increase the surface area of the gas- gizzard, and a cecum. The crystalline style is found in the
trodermis and distribute nutrients throughout the animal. stomach of herbivorous species and provides mechanical
Many species also harbor mutualistic algae, known as zooxan- and enzymatic assistance with digestion. The nudibranchs,
thellae, which provide another source of nutrition. or sea slugs, have a highly branched digestive tract. They prey
Cnidarians have an amazing ability to heal and regenerate. upon cnidarians, and the digestive tract delivers undigested
This is also reflected in the fact that asexual reproduction by cnidocytes to the many tentacles that sprout from their
budding or fission is common to cnidarians. Sexual reproduc- bodies.
tion also occurs, and most cnidarians are gonochoric. Fertiliza- Some gastropod species possess a proboscis within which
tion is external and is followed by the development of a ciliated, the buccal cavity resides. Within the buccal cavity is a special-
planktonic, nonfeeding larva, known as the planula. ized feeding organ known as the radula. The radula is a layer
of chitinous teeth that lie over a mass of cartilage and muscle
known as the odontophore. The odontophore supports and
Gastropods moves the radula, which has evolved into many different forms.
Many gastropod species are characterized by the presence of a In some species, the radula serves as a harpoon, whereas in
shell. The shell of most species is coiled in a dextral manner others, it serves as a rasp. The function of the radula is based
(e.g., right-handed), whereas a few species possess sinistral on the feeding mode of the gastropod. The teeth of the radula
shells (e.g., left-handed). The central axis of the shell is the vary in number and are continually worn and replaced.
columella, and the opening at the base of the shell is the aper- Gastropods sense the world through a variety of organs.
ture. The first revolution of the shell is known as the body Most gastropods have two eyes, which can be found on eye-
whorl, and this is where most of the visceral mass of the animal stalks or at the base of the cephalic tentacles. In a few species,
resides. The remaining whorls are collectively known as the the eyes may be capable of forming images; however, the
spire, which culminates at the peak, or apex, of the shell. There majority of gastropods are able only to sense light through their
are also many species with reduced or nonexistent shells. eyes. Tentacles primarily serve chemoreceptive and mechano-
Gastropods are connected to their shells by a columellar receptive purposes. The osphradium serves a chemoreceptive
muscle, which extends into the foot and to the operculum, if purpose. A pair of statocysts can be found in the foot and
present. The foot is a mass of muscles and connective tissues, provide a sense of orientation. Also, a few species of gastropod
and it functions as the locomotory organ of the animal. Some appear to have magnetoreceptors.
species possess an operculum on the foot, which is a rigid disc Almost all gastropods reproduce sexually. Primitive gastro-
that acts as a door to the aperture when the animal is retracted pods are gonochoric and perform external fertilization. More
into its shell. evolved species, including those that are terrestrial, are her-
The internal anatomy of gastropods is determined by their maphroditic and rely on internal fertilization. The planktonic
development, which includes a 180-degree torsion of the body. larval stage of gastropods is called a veliger, and it is character-
This leaves the majority of the mass of the body (and the shell, ized by a large, ciliated organ known as the velum. The velum
in those species which possess one) atop the head and foot. is used for locomotion, food collection, and gas exchange.
Arachnids
The body plan of the arachnids has two major components:
the prosoma and the opisthosoma (Figure 3-8). The prosoma pairs of spinnerets. The spinnerets are variously modified to
is comprised of a fused head and thorax that is covered dorsally meet the needs of each species. Any of the appendages of
by a carapace and ventrally by a sternal plate. The pleurae join arachnids may be autotomized, or voluntarily detached, and
the two and are flexible, which allows them to move relative regenerated after several molts.
to each other. The opisthosoma, or abdomen, contains the The external openings to the arachnid respiratory organs
majority of the internal organs. In spiders, the prosoma and are found on the abdomen. In spiders, the small openings, or
opisthosoma are joined by a narrow bridge called the pedicel. spiracles, allow air to enter the multilayered, internal book
In scorpions, the two body segments are fused, and the opist- lung, so called because hemolymph and air spaces interdigitate
hosoma is segmented and divided into two parts: the anterior and look like the pages of a book in cross-section. Scorpions
mesosoma and the posterior metasoma, or tail. The metasoma have four pairs of book lungs, one for each anterior opistho-
is comprised of five to seven segments and, at its terminus, has somal segment. Primitive spiders, like the giant spiders, or
a telson with a stinger. tarantulas, have two pairs of book lungs. More evolved spiders
Most of the appendages originate on the prosoma. The have branching, tubular tracheae, which perform gas exchange
most cranial pair of appendages are called the chelicerae. The directly with the tissues. The book lungs are the site of gas
chelicerae help to grasp and tear prey and bear the fangs in exchange. Hemolymph is circulated throughout the body of
those species that have them (Figure 3-9). After the chelicerae, arachnids by an open circulatory system. The heart is located
the next pair of appendages are called the pedipalps. The pedi- on the dorsal midline of the opisthosoma, surrounded by a
palps come in a variety of forms and can serve different func- pericardium, and connected to an open-ended arterial system.
tions. In spiders, the pedipalps are similar to the legs but lack The movement of hemolymph throughout the body is achieved
the metatarsal segment, whereas in scorpions, they terminate by a combination of pressure and suction from the heart and
with pincers. In both groups of arachnids, the pedipalps are its sac. Hemolymph is light blue in color due to the oxygen-
used to grasp prey and assist with copulation. The remaining carrying molecule hemocyanin, which contains two copper
prosomal appendages are the walking legs, of which there are atoms rather than iron as in the hemoglobin of mammals.
four pairs. Each leg has seven segments, including (proximal The opisthosoma also contains the majority of the digestive
to distal) the coxa, trochanter, femur, patella, tibia, metatarsus, system. This includes the extensive diverticula of the midgut
and tarsus. The distal end of each leg bears a tarsal claw and, where most of digestion takes place. Also in the opisthosoma
in many species, scopulae, dense tufts of hair that allow the are the Malpighian tubules and stercoral pocket, which are
arachnid to climb. The last set of spider appendages originate involved in excretory processes. The gonads and silk glands are
on the posterior end of the opisthosoma and include the three also present in the abdomen.
species, the spiracles cannot be closed, which greatly hampers number of Malpighian tubules (e.g., 2 to 250, depending on
water conservation and results in the necessity of maintaining the taxon) are attached to the anterior end of the hindgut.3
a humid, moist environment. The spiracles are located ven- The hindgut serves as the major excretory center in the insect
trally in millipedes and laterally in centipedes. body and resorbs most of the water from the digestive
Sensory structures in myriapods consist mainly of the system.
eyespots and antennae. The eyespots consist of a varying The circulatory system of insects is open, and the tubular,
number of ommatidia (individual sensory units), depending on ostiate heart is found in the dorsal abdomen. The aorta extends
the species. In most myriapod taxa, the ommatidia are not cranially from the heart and is the only hemolymph vessel. An
clustered in densities high enough to form a true compound accessory heart is present at the base of most appendages, and
eye, such as is found in insects.3 Myriapods are not believed to facilitates the delivery of hemolymph to the tissues.
be capable of forming images. Instead, it has been suggested Oxygen is delivered directly to the tissues by tubular trachae,
that these animals are limited to sensing light and movement.3 in a fashion that is similar to that of myriapods and some
The antennae are able to sense both tactile and chemical arachnids. Spiracles are found on the thorax and abdomen, but
stimuli. not on the head.3 Unlike the spiracles of myriapods, those of
Myriapods are gonochoric and practice internal fertiliza- most insects can be closed to prevent loss of moisture or
tion. In general, female centipedes are protective of their egg water.
masses until the young hatch and disperse.3 Centipedes gen- In insects, the perception of multiple types of sensory
erally have a life span of 4 to 6 years; millipedes live for 1 to stimuli is performed by sensilla, or hair-like receptors. These
10 years.3 structures are found all over the body, although the majority
are found on the appendages.3 Chemical, tactile, temperature,
and humidity receptors are found on the antennae and tarsi.
Insects The abdominal cerci contain tactile and seismic receptors. The
The diversity of insect morphological forms is astonishing. ocelli are used to detect changes in light intensity and aid in
However, all the forms are derived from modifications of a orientation.3 Visual stimuli are detected by the compound eye,
basic plan. For purposes of brevity, those important to captive and each of the ommatidia has its own lens. Thus, contrary to
insects will be presented. popular misconception, the insect brain, similar to the brain
The insect body is divided into three body sections: the of vertebrates, integrates the information from each omma-
head, thorax, and abdomen. The head bears a single pair of tidium to form a mosaic image.3 Many insects also have
dorsal antennae, a variable number of ocelli, a single pair of tympanic organs for the detection of sound.
compound eyes, and the ventral mouthparts. The mouthparts Insects are gonochoric and practice internal fertilization.
are modified to reflect the feeding strategy of the taxa. For There are three types of development among the insects.
example, sucking mouthparts are found on moths and Hemimetabolous development involves juveniles called
butterflies (order Lepidoptera); piercing and sucking mouth- nymphs, which are dissimilar from adults, are aquatic, and grow
parts on aphids, cicadas, and assassin bugs (order Hemiptera); and molt until reaching a final molt into the adult form. Pau-
cutting and sponging mouthparts on flies (order Diptera); and rometabolous development involves juveniles that are also
chewing and sucking mouthparts on bees and wasps (order called nymphs; however, these are similar to adults and grow
Hymenoptera).3 and molt into the adult form. Holometabolous development
The insect thorax bears three pairs of legs and one or two (e.g., metamorphosis) involves juveniles called larvae, which
pairs of wings. The legs each have six segments, including the grow and molt until forming a pupa, from which the adult
coxae, trochanter, femur, tibia, tarsus, and pretarsus. Each leg form emerges. Holometabolous development is a successful life
ends in a pair of tarsal claws. The wings of an insect can be strategy, as approximately 80% of insects (e.g., approximately
modified, even into different structures. Two extreme exam- 740,000 species) utilize it.3
ples of this include the beetles (order Coleoptera), in which
the cranial pair are hardened elytra (e.g., wing covers), and the
flies (order Diptera), in which the caudal pair are reduced to
Crustaceans
gyroscopic halteres to aid in flight. The crustaceans, like the insects, represent a diverse group
The abdomen of insects is segmented and relatively devoid of animals, with variable body forms. One of the most com-
of appendages. A terminal pair of cerci are usually present as monly recognized forms, the order Decapoda (e.g., crabs,
are, in some species, external genitalia.3 The abdomen is often lobsters, crayfish, and shrimps), will be described here
the largest of the three basic body segments and houses the (Figure 3-11).
majority of the viscera. The crustacean body is comprised of two sections: the head
The digestive system of insects is divided into three regions: and trunk. The head is small relative to the trunk and, along
the foregut, midgut, and hindgut. The foregut consists of the with the anterior of the trunk, is covered by a carapace. Five
mouth, pharynx, esophagus, crop, and proventriculus. The pairs of appendages adorn the head: two pairs of antennae, a
midgut is the primary site for food digestion. Attached to the pair of mandibles, and two pairs of maxillae. The maxillae
anterior end of the midgut are two to six ceca.3 The hindgut assist with feeding. The head also bears one pair of compound
is comprised of the intestine, rectum, and anus. A variable eyes that are located on movable stalks.
Figure 3-11 Louisiana red swamp crawfish (Procambarus Figure 3-12 Bubble tip brittle star (Ophiarachna sp.). This is a
clarkii ). This species is a typical decapod crustacean. P. clarkii view of the oral side of the central disc of a brittle star. In the
are farmed extensively for human consumption. (Photo by Trevor center of the image is the opening of the mouth. (Photo by
Zachariah.) Trevor Zachariah.)
Arachnids
The size of an enclosure for a giant spider does not need to be
expansive, as most species are not large in size or extremely
active. Also, they should not be kept communally, because
cannibalism is possible. A 35.6 cm × 25.4 cm × 25.4 cm
(14″ × 10″ × 10″) glass container can be used as a basic enclo-
sure and provides ample space for all but the adults of the
largest species of giant spiders (e.g., Theraphosa blondi, Lasio- Figure 3-14 Basic arboreal spider habitat. Note the large
dora parahybana, Pseudotheraphosa apophysis). In addition to vertical-to-horizontal ratio. (Photo by Trevor Zachariah.)
glass tanks, plastic storage containers, large plastic or glass
bottles, and glass or plastic fish bowls can be used. A distinc-
tion can be made between arboreal and terrestrial species of constructed for them. The lid should be safe for the animal
giant spiders. With terrestrial species, care must be taken to contained within the enclosure (e.g., giant spiders can injure
keep the height of the enclosure to a minimum. All spiders are themselves by catching their claws in the wire junctions of
capable of climbing vertical glass and plastic surfaces and can woven screen mesh).
suffer life-threatening injuries from short falls (see Common Temperature and humidity are important factors to con-
Disease Presentations). Arboreal species, however, should be sider in caring for giant spiders. Again, some knowledge of the
provided an enclosure with a high vertical-to-horizontal ratio animals’ natural habitat is important. Enclosures should be
(e.g., 3 : 1) (Figure 3-14). monitored with a thermometer and hygrometer on a regular
In many cases, the size of the enclosure should be com- basis. Optimal temperature ranges vary; however, most fall
mensurate with the size of the animal. This is especially true between 21.1° and 32.2° C (70°-90° F). Therefore, most
for young animals (e.g., breeders often sell spiderlings of species can be maintained at ambient room temperature, with
approximately 1 cm in length), which could easily become lost few exceptions. Most direct heating methods (e.g., under-tank
in a large terrarium. If an enclosure is capable of accommodat- heaters and heat lamps) are not needed and can reduce humid-
ing substrate and the appropriate accessories, then it should be ity levels to life-threatening levels.
adequate in size. For giant spiders, humidity must be closely regulated, even
Whatever type of enclosure is used, a secure lid is essential more so than temperature. Excessive humidity can lead to
to prevent escape. A missing spider of considerable size can potentially harmful fungal and pest infestations within an
prove to be an uncomfortable situation! Many of the glass enclosure. Insufficient humidity can lead to desiccation and
tanks and plastic containers made specifically for pets have dehydration. There are several ways to regulate humidity:
appropriate lids and locking mechanisms. Other types of change (1) the moisture in the substrate (e.g., higher water-to-
enclosures need to have their lids weighted down or specifically substrate ratio), (2) the size of the water dish, or (3) the
amount of ventilation of the enclosure. To increase humidity, Live plants are not essential components to making a
the substrate moisture and the water dish size should be vivarium. Although they add a decorative touch, they are not
increased, while the amount of ventilation is decreased. needed to properly maintain most species. Plastic plants can
To reduce the humidity within an enclosure, the opposite be used and are easier than live plants to disinfect. Live plants
should be done. Lightly misting the enclosure with lukewarm used in a giant spider vivarium must be relatively small in
water (24.4°-26.7° C, 76°-80° F) can also be done to increase size and able to tolerate low light levels. Cacti, or plants with
humidity. For large vivaria, live plants can be used to increase spines or sharp edges, should be avoided because they can be
humidity. For giant spiders, a general rule is that tropical injurious to the spider.9 Marshall11 recommends snake plants
species require 70% to 100% humidity, desert species 40% (Sansevieria spp.), bromeliads (Cryptanthus spp.), peperomias
to 60% humidity, and temperate species 50% to 70% (Peperomia spp.), and climbing plants (e.g., philodendrons
humidity.9,10 (Philodendron spp.) or pothos (Epipremnum spp.) for giant
Giant spiders can vary in their daily periods of activity, and spider enclosures.
no broad generalizations can be made for this group. For most Giant spider enclosures need to be cleaned and disinfected
species of giant spider it is not known whether the animal is on a regular basis. The frequency of cleaning will depend on
diurnal, nocturnal, or crepuscular; however, it is known that the amount of waste produced by the animal, the quantity of
all species appear to be extremely averse to bright light.10 For leftover prey, and the type of substrate used. Remaining food
this reason, giant spiders should not be kept under a direct items should be removed after each feeding. A thorough clean-
light source. Also, as stated earlier, direct light sources (e.g., ing is recommended if there is a visual buildup of waste mate-
incandescent bulbs) can desiccate an enclosure and its resident. rial or whenever an animal molts. Dilute dishwashing detergent
Direct sunlight has the same effect and should be avoided. Low or bleach (0.2%-0.5%) can be used to disinfect an enclosure.
or ambient lighting works well for most species, and a 10- to The enclosure and all accessories should be thoroughly cleaned
12-hour photoperiod is recommended. and rinsed before replacing the spider.
There are a variety of substrates available, either commer- Crickets are the most common prey item offered to giant
cially or naturally, for use in giant spider enclosures. Organic spiders.11 Although crickets do not provide a balanced diet for
materials are usually preferred. Examples include topsoil, vertebrates (e.g., inadequate calcium), they appear adequate for
potting soil, peat moss, sphagnum mass, bark or mulch (except invertebrates. However, a varied diet comprised of different
pine or cedar), ground coconut hull, and leaf litter. All of these invertebrate and vertebrate prey species is still considered more
substrates are good at enhancing humidity levels in an enclo- appropriate.9 Cockroaches, grasshoppers, mealworms, super-
sure, but they are also prone to supporting fungal and pest worms, kingworms, wax moth larvae, earthworms, and neona-
infestations.9-11 To reduce the likelihood of opportunistic infes- tal mice may be used to vary the diet.8,12 Small lizards, crayfish,
tations, the material should be dry or only slightly damp. goldfish, and raw meat have also been given to giant spiders
Nonorganic materials are also popular substrates for giant but are less common and generally not recommended.10
spiders. Examples include vermiculite, aquarium gravel, artifi- Captive-reared prey is preferred over wild-caught prey. Wild-
cial turf, and sand. Compared to organic substrates, these caught prey can serve as a source of toxin exposure or infectious
materials are not as efficient at maintaining humidity. Sand disease.13 All prey items should be offered a high-quality diet
and aquarium gravel are not recommended, as they can abrade before being offered to the spider. If the prey items are not
the exoskeleton of a giant spider and provide unstable footing. promptly fed to the spider, they will be of limited nutritional
Many of these nonorganic substrates can be mixed in various value.
ratios to provide an appropriate environment. For burrowing Many giant spider species are stimulated by movement of
species, the substrate should be packed well and be coarse their prey, so it is usually best to feed live prey items when
enough that the risk of burrow collapse is minimized. For giant appropriate. Exceptions to this include vertebrate prey that
spiders, Marshall9 recommends a substrate depth of 8 to 20 cm may injure the spiders. When live prey items are offered, they
for terrestrial species and 2.5 cm for arboreal species. Sub- should be monitored carefully to ensure that they do not harm
strates that are strongly contraindicated include cat litter (too the spider. This is especially true during the molting process,
dusty), carpet (potential injury from snagging), newspaper when the exoskeleton is more fragile; a giant spider should
(pest and fungal problems), and wood chips (pest and fungal never be fed during a molt. Prey of appropriate size should be
problems, pine and cedar toxicity).10,11 offered. A good rule of thumb to follow for spiders is that the
Accessories added to a giant spider enclosure can be essen- prey should be no larger that the spider’s opisthosoma,10 or
tial for mimicking the animal’s natural habitat and thus behav- one third to one fourth the length of its body.12 If any prey is
ior, or can be used for decorative purposes. An essential left uneaten after 24 hours, it should be removed. The quantity
addition for most species is a shelter of some kind. Types of of food offered to a giant spider should be based on the dietary
materials that make good shelters include a flower pot on its habits of the particular species, its life stage, and the environ-
side, a flat rock, a sturdy piece of driftwood, cork bark, a real mental conditions. For example, adult giant spiders should be
or plastic log, a paper towel tube, an egg crate, or a plastic or fed on a weekly9,12 or, at a minimum, monthly basis,10 whereas
live plant. Arboreal species need materials upon which they spiderlings should be fed every 2 days.12
can climb. Terrestrial species will often dig their own shelter Water should always be made available to giant spiders, as
or adopt and modify materials to suit their needs. they will actively drink water. Open water dishes should be
Figure 3-17 Pincushion sea urchin (Lytechinus sp.). The sea Figure 3-18 Giant African black millipede (Archispirostreptus
urchin is in the center of the image, slightly camouflaged by gigas). Note that proper restraint of this animal includes a
multiple pieces of debris stuck to its spines. Note the large gentle but firm grip and support of its full length. (Photo by
amount of space in the aquarium in which the animal may roam. Trevor Zachariah.)
(Photo by Trevor Zachariah.)
Figure 3-19 Mexican redknee spider (Brachypelma smithi). Figure 3-20 Simple anesthetic chamber made from a 3-L
Example of the pinching method for restraint of a giant spider. plastic food storage container. (Photo by Trevor Zachariah.)
Note that the thumb and first finger are on either side of the
animal, placed between the second and third pairs of legs. A
gentle but firm grip is sufficient. Note also that the weight
of the animal is supported from below. (Photo by Trevor For aquatic invertebrates, gaseous anesthetics have been
Zachariah.) suggested, although they are difficult to regulate and control.
The authors prefer MS-222 for aquatic invertebrates. The
induction dose may vary from 100 to 250 mg/L. Iso-osmotic
7.5% wt/vol magnesium chloride (MgCl2-6H2O) and eugenol
plastic wrap, slinging the animal in gauze, or capturing it in an (the active ingredient in clove oil) can also be used. These
aquarium fish net.17 compounds can be slowly added to the water until the desired
Chemical restraint for arachnids is accomplished using effects (e.g., loss of locomotion and righting reflex) are
inhalant anesthetic agents.17 This technique is preferred because achieved.19 The actual amount of anesthetic needed will vary
it provides the anesthetist with the most control over the according to the conditions of the situation and the species
patient. The authors have used isoflurane exclusively for anes- being anesthetized.
thetizing invertebrates. Halothane and sevoflurane can also be Hypothermia has been recommended and employed by
used, but we have no experience with them. Carbon dioxide some veterinarians as a method of restraint.18,20-22 Lowering an
may also be used, but it has a narrower margin of safety than animal’s environmental temperature leads to a reduced meta-
the inhalant anesthetics.17 For terrestrial invertebrates, the bolic rate and level of activity. However, these animals often
animals are placed into a sealed container that is filled with remain responsive to noxious stimuli. Historically, hypother-
inhalant anesthetic and oxygen. The container should be sealed mia also has been recommended as a method of restraint for
to prevent leakage and unnecessary exposure for the individu- lower vertebrates (e.g., amphibians and reptiles) but now is
als working with the invertebrates. Applebee and Cooper18 considered inhumane.
describe the construction of an elaborate anesthetic chamber, Anesthetic monitoring of invertebrates is in its infancy.
while the authors have had good success using a 3-L plastic Generally, the presence or absence of movement and a righting
food storage container (Figure 3-20). The authors generally reflex are measured. Monitoring respiration in terrestrial species
induce the animals at 5% isoflurane (0.5-1.0 L oxygen) and is difficult because these animals respire through openings in
maintain them at 2% to 3% isoflurane. Induction may take their exoskeleton or body wall, and there is no body movement
several minutes, and recovery several hours, but this is variable as is observed in vertebrates. The authors have been unsuccess-
according to species, the animal’s condition, and the ambient ful in identifying spider heart rates using a Doppler ultra-
temperature.17 sound, although this has been accomplished in an Achatina
Terrestrial molluscs cannot be anesthetized with inhalant snail.23 More invasive techniques to monitor heart rate have
compounds; however, they can be anesthetized with a water- been employed24 but are not practical. More research is needed
bath anesthetic solution. Tricaine methanesulfonate (MS-222) to develop clinically relevant methods to monitor
(100 mg/L), benzocaine (dissolved in acetone) (100 mg/L of anesthetic events in invertebrates.
water), and carbon dioxide dissolved in water have all been Recovery from an anesthetic event can be achieved by dis-
recommended.17 The authors prefer MS-222. The animal must continuing the anesthetic agent and providing pure oxygen or
not be submerged in the anesthetic solution. The depth of the room air and clean water. In some lower vertebrates (e.g., rep-
solution should be below the level of the head when it is tiles), recovery is faster in animals provided room air versus
extended. Repeated doses may be needed to achieve an appro- pure oxygen. This difference is related to the stimulus for
priate level of anesthesia. respiration in these animals. Whereas higher vertebrates (e.g.,
Cnidarians
Any species of cnidarian is susceptible to trauma, and appro-
priate treatment (e.g., sharp debridement and prophylactic
treatment) in captive situations can prevent secondary infec-
tions.7 Jellyfish are particularly prone to trauma when they
collide with any firm object, including the enclosure walls and
life support equipment. Proper water circulation can prevent
such collisions. Anemones are prone to serious, often fatal,
trauma from tank accessories as well, including being pulled
through mesh placed over pump intake pipes and thermal
trauma from submersible heaters.7 These items should be
removed from the animal’s environment or modified to protect
the animal (e.g., foam baffles over intake pipes).7
Copper toxicity is a potential problem for corals. As little
as 30 ppb (μg/L copper) can cause pathology.7 Copper and
other heavy metals, such as zinc and lead, may have deleterious
Figure 3-23 Dorsoventral radiograph of a Chilean rose spider
effects on other cnidarian species too. Routine screening of
(Grammostola rosea). Survey radiographs of invertebrates are
aquatic systems can minimize the likelihood of problems.
often not useful for assessing internal structures. (Photo by
Trevor Zachariah.) When cnidarians are housed in mixed exhibits with fish, it is
important to remove invertebrates from the system if copper
is used as a parasiticide for the fish.
tions. See Berzins and Smolowitz19 for detailed information on Cnidarians are susceptible to a large number of infectious
fixatives, sample handling, and sample preparation. and noninfectious diseases in the wild. The most famous, or
An invertebrate disease investigation may include sacrificing infamous, are the coral bleaching events. Coral bleaching is a
animals from an affected population. Both diseased and healthy complex problem involving interactions of multiple etiologies,
animals should be sacrificed so that a comparison of tissues can including light levels, water temperatures, commensal zooxan-
be made. Euthanizing invertebrates and determining that an thellae, and bacterial infections. Stoskopf 7 provides a concise
animal has expired can be difficult with these species. Murray27 review of cnidarian diseases.
gives a concise list of the different methods considered accept-
able for euthanizing and confirming the death of different
invertebrate taxa. Although extreme hypothermia or hyper-
Gastropods
thermia is recommended by some veterinarians,the authors do Gastropods are susceptible to a number of parasitic diseases,
not recommend this practice. Although the presence of pain including sporozoan, ciliate, turbellarian, trematode, annelid,
perception in invertebrates is debated,28 it has been demon- and copepod infestations.30 Bacteria can also pose a potential
strated that invertebrates possess neuropeptides that are similar problem, though few specific diseases have been described.
to those that are involved in pain responses in vertebrate Terrestrial species are susceptible to desiccation if they are
species.29 Invertebrates are also able to respond to stimuli in not maintained in a humid, moist environment. Supportive
manners that are similar to pain responses in vertebrate care measures aimed at rehydration (e.g., placing the animal
species.19 A conservative approach is best when the possibility in a dish of very shallow water or misting the animal) may be
of inflicting pain exists, as care must be taken to prevent tried in mild cases, but moderate to severe cases carry a grave
unnecessary suffering in any animal species. prognosis.
Trauma is a problem most commonly associated with
species that possess a shell. Defects in the shell can serve as a
COMMON DISEASE route for opportunistic bacterial or fungal infections. Proper
care should be provided to avoid such infections and the shell
PRESENTATIONS repaired (see Surgery).
The problems for which an invertebrate specimen is presented
to a veterinarian can range from the simple (e.g., trauma) to
the complex (e.g., poor water quality and bacterial overgrowth).
Arachnids
In most cases, diseases of invertebrates are not well described, Arachnids are susceptible to opportunistic bacterial infections.
and a thorough investigation is needed. Diagnostic procedures In many cases, animals are presented for acute death, and
that are commonly known to the veterinary profession should necropsy confirms the diagnosis. Clinical signs for animals that
present alive may include lethargy, anorexia, loss of body mass, of Old and New World giant spiders.31 These infestations
open exoskeleton lesions, and drainage or discharge from a have been associated with secondary bacterial infections, are
lesion or an orifice. Both Gram-negative and Gram-positive unresponsive to treatment (e.g., benzimidazoles and fluoro-
bacteria can serve as opportunistic pathogens in giant spiders. quinolones), and appear to spread easily in collections.
One of the difficulties with diagnosing bacterial infections in Quarantine and/or euthanasia of affected individuals is
giant spiders, or any animal for that matter, is interpreting the recommended.31
culture results to distinguish indigenous flora from pathogens. Mites have long been considered an important parasite of
Several authors have published the results of studies character- giant spiders; however, there is some debate as to whether these
izing the microflora of giant spiders,13,25,26 and a review of these organisms truly affect giant spiders.20 It is known that larvae
lists suggest that many of them could serve as pathogens. To from the genera Leptus, Trombidium, Isothrombium, Eutrom-
truly confirm an infection, histopathology and tissue culture bicula, and Pimeliaphilus are parasites of various arachnid
are needed. Because this is not possible in most cases (ante- species.32 The mites generally occur when there are unhygienic
mortem), the authors generally refer to the growth on the conditions in an enclosure.13 A damp swab26 or fine artist’s
plate. If a single type of isolate is found in pure culture, then brush13,20 can be used to remove the mites from an anesthetized
it is pursued as a pathogen. animal. Insecticides or pesticides should not be used to elimi-
Bacterial infections should always be considered a differen- nate the mites, as they may also kill the host. Another method
tial diagnosis anytime there is evidence of pathology. A hemo- of removing the mites is to introduce a Hypoaspis species of
lymph sample should be collected and submitted for culture predatory mite into the enclosure. These mites will consume
when a bacterial infection is suspected in a spider or scorpion.21 the larval stages of the parasitic mites and then generally die
Ideally, postmortem hemolymph samples are collected from out when the food source is eliminated.20 Only one virus has
the most distal leg joints, as these are affected last by postmor- been isolated from a spider. A baculovirus has been found that
tem invasion of intestinal flora.13 invades the hepatopancreas of Pisaura mirabilis, often leading
As with bacteria, it can be difficult to differentiate patho- to the demise of the spider.13,26 Two viruses have been isolated
genic versus indigenous fungi. Fungi from the Deuteromycetes from a scorpion, Buthus occitanus, and one, an icosohedral
(such as Beauvaria bassiana, which can affect over 500 species virus, was found to be pathogenic to the hepatopancreas.26
of insect), Ascomycetes (such as Cordyceps and Gibellula Anorexia is a common presentation for arachnids. This can
species), and others (such as Hyphomycetes, Aspergillus, and be due to a disease process (e.g., parasitism, bacterial infection,
Fusarium species), can cause pathology in invertebrates.25 trauma, toxicosis), incorrect husbandry (e.g., improper food
However, fungal spores can be found on many healthy arach- items, high or low temperatures and humidity), or the result
nids and cause no apparent harm.25 Fungal infections of the of normal circumstances (e.g., imminent molt, egg laying).21
exoskeletons of giant spiders and other invertebrates are com- For example, the authors have observed spiders in their collec-
monly encountered, and if left untreated, these infections can tion to remain anorectic for 4 to 6 weeks before an imminent
breech the exoskeleton, become systemic, and lead to the molt. Indeed, giant spiders are able to endure long periods of
demise of the animal. Inadequate husbandry, such as excessive starvation without apparent detriment because of their low rate
humidity and poor hygiene, is often associated with fatal of metabolism.33 A good physical exam and/or correction of
fungal cases, and these inadequacies must be corrected. Because husbandry issues is recommended whenever an abnormal
fungal spores can be persistent in the environment, there is period of anorexia is noted.
potential for recurrence.13 Dehydration and hypovolemia are commonly encountered
There are several groups of arachnid parasites that are of in wild-caught animals that are deprived of a water source
interest. The first is the parasitic insects, including flies of the during holding and shipping, after a significant loss of hemo-
family Acroceridae and wasps of the family Pompilidae. Acro- lymph (e.g., post trauma), or in captive situations where
cerid larvae infect giant spiders via the book lungs, enter a humidity is low and water is not provided.10 As mentioned
resting phase (which has been known to last up to 10 years), previously, animals should always have access to water. In
grow in size, and emerge from the host causing its death. Up spiders, severe dehydration or hypovolemia is characterized
to 14 larvae have been recorded to emerge from one host.15 by a shriveled opisthosoma, general poor condition, and an
The pompilid wasps or “tarantula hawk wasps” are a well- inability to move.22
known parasite of giant spiders.10 The adult wasp stings and Dorsal opisthosomal alopecia is one of the most common
paralyzes a giant spider, transports it to a burrow, and lays an presentations for New World giant spiders.When these spiders
egg on it. The dead spider serves as the primary food source are disturbed or stressed, they can actively release urticating
for the hatching larva.15 These wasps have also been known to hairs from the dorsum of their opisthosoma as a defense mech-
parasitize sun spiders.8 Breene20 has successfully treated several anism. This presentation should not be mistaken for a patho-
infested spiders using supportive care (e.g., fluids) and mini- logical lesion but instead be an indicator of an unacceptable
mizing stress. These parasitic insects are not of great concern amount of stress in the animal’s environment.34 Urticating
to captive animals but are mentioned here because of the hairs are replaced when the spider molts.
serious harm they are able to inflict. Dysecdysis is a common problem in captive arachnids,
Nematodes from the family Panagrolaimidae have been especially giant spiders. Schultz and Schultz10 have suggested
reported to parasitize the oral cavity of various species that there are three primary reasons for this, including physical
weakness due to old age or disease, previous injury and scar harmless commensal organisms. Some may even benefit the
tissue, and mature males attempting a postultimate molt. millipedes in indirect ways.14 There have been reports of pos-
Insufficient humidity has also been postulated.13,34 Whatever sible harmful mites on millipedes. The presence of ectopara-
the reason, if an animal has not been able to shed its entire sites on centipedes is considered harmful.14 Steps should be
exoskeleton within 24 hours, outside intervention is probably taken to remove the parasites without harming the host (see
needed.20 The relative humidity in the animal’s environment Therapeutics).
can be raised by misting or adding a larger water dish.12,16 Myriapods are susceptible to problems with the exoskele-
Gentle traction on the retained piece of exoskeleton may be ton. In young millipedes, wrinkling of the exoskeleton has
attempted, but excessive force should not be applied or damage been reported. The cause of this condition is not known, but
to the underlying exoskeleton may occur. Glycerin applied to may be associated with abnormalities in the chitin or the cal-
the affected area may help to lubricate or soften the shedding cification of the exoskeleton.14 Dysecdysis can also pose a sig-
exoskeleton and facilitate removal.10,20,21 In giant spiders, an nificant problem for millipedes. Animals that are not treated
amputation may have to be performed (see Surgery) if there is can die. Dysecdysis may occur as a result of inappropriate
significant damage to the affected appendage(s).10,13,20,33 environmental conditions, ectoparasites, infectious disease, or
Toxicities in arachnids can occur as a result of the direct lesions resulting from trauma.
application of pesticide or insecticide on the animal or from Traumatic injuries to myriapods generally occur from falls
feeding prey or other items that are exposed to these toxins.13,21 or dropping cage equipment on an animal. Injuries of the
Nicotine poisoning has been reported anecdotally, and it has exoskeleton can lead to hemolymph loss. Severe injuries with
been recommended that smoking be prohibited around these the loss of a large volume of hemolymph can prove fatal.
animals and that heavy smokers with nicotine-stained hands Attempts to repair the injury with cyanoacrylate glue can be
avoid handling spiders.13,21 There are no known specific thera- made; however, the prognosis for these cases is often grave.
pies for invertebrate toxicities. General supportive care should Minor injuries to appendages may be successfully treated.14
be instituted, including cleaning the environment,21 optimiz-
ing temperature and humidity, maintaining adequate hydra-
tion, and feeding the animal by hand.13 Neurologic disease is
Insects
occasionally reported in giant spiders. The most common Insects are susceptible to many of the same diseases as other
clinical signs include twitching, ataxia, and incoordination. invertebrates, including bacteria, fungi, protozoa, parasites,
Toxicity, infectious disease, and old age have been associated and environmental factors. Environmental factors are particu-
with neurologic deficits in spiders.21 Treatment must be focused larly important when dealing with captive animals. Husbandry
on providing supportive care and attempting to determine an conditions (e.g., temperature, humidity, nutrition, stress) are
underlying cause. often specific or inhabit a narrow optimal range and, if not
Traumatic injuries in arachnids occur most commonly adequately provided, can lead to problems. Diagnosing
as a result of falling, being attacked by prey, and experiencing diseases in insects should follow the same basic diagnostic
difficulties during ecdysis.26 When startled, many species protocols as for other invertebrates. Unfortunately, antemor-
can run at fast speeds and fall off of a hand, table, or the tem diagnostics are often limited for insects, and necropsy is
side of a container. Even a fall from a short height (e.g., 30 cm) required for diagnosis. Cooper36 provides a good overview of
can be disastrous for a giant spider.13 The most common the common infectious diseases of captive insects.
problems that occur as a result of traumatic injury are Neoplasia has been described in insects and can be found
rupture of the exoskeleton and loss of hemolymph. Treat- catalogued by the Registry of Tumors in Lower Animals.36
ment should be focused on hemolymph stasis and the Although these diseases are not considered clinically significant
replenishment of lost fluids. The loss of a volume of hemo- in the insects, they may be able to shed light on research into
lymph greater than 1% of body weight is considered severe oncogenesis.36
and can be fatal.15,35 There are several methods that can be used Traumatic injuries represent the most common reason
to provide hemostasis and repair the injury to the exoskeleton insects are presented to veterinarians. These injuries can be
(see Surgery). devastating to the insect, as their rigid exoskeleton can fracture.
Fractures in the exoskeleton can lead to loss of hemolymph
and a route of infection for opportunity pathogens. It is imper-
Myriapods ative that these injuries are repaired immediately. (See Thera-
Bacterial and fungal infections are common among the myr- peutics for a discussion of possible treatments.)
iapods and are usually opportunistic secondary invaders from Most pesticides are developed for the sole purpose of killing
the environment or gut flora of the animal.14 Signs associated insects, so toxicities are a common occurrence with even low
with such infections include discoloration of the exoskeleton, dose exposure. Any chemicals with the potential to harm an
lethargy, and decreased feeding.14 insect should not be used within the immediate vicinity of the
Frye8 reported finding rhabditiform nematodes and proto- animal. This is especially important for aerosolized poisons.
zoa in the feces of healthy millipedes. However, it was not Products that are used for flea and tick control on dogs and
determined whether those organisms were parasitic. It is cats are also harmful to insects, even from treated hairs that
common to find mites on millipedes, and they are most likely are shed by the animal into an insect’s environment. Once a
toxic episode ensues, death almost always occurs, despite Multiple types of parasites affect echinoderms, including
supportive medical care. apicomplexans, amoebans, ciliates, algals, mesozoans, hel-
minths, gastropods, and annelids.37 Lesions resembling neo-
plastic growths have been reported in one species of brittle
Crustaceans star (Ophiocomina nigra) and one species of sea cucumber
Few diseases specific to hermit crabs have been described. (Holothuria leucospilata).37 See Jangoux39 for a complete
Proper husbandry is always important, especially when dealing review of echinoderm infectious diseases.
with marine species. As with other aquatic species, it is impera- Evisceration is a defense mechanism practiced by some
tive to optimize water quality. species and is a natural response to changing environmental
Noga, Hancock, and Bullis37 mention just two infectious conditions or a sequela to a pathological condition. Sea cucum-
diseases associated with hermit crabs. A fatal mycotic infection bers are capable of forcefully discharging adhesive, sometimes
of the gills has been reported in marine hermit crabs (Pagurus toxic, Cuvierian tubules from their anus to entangle predators
sp.) in a laboratory setting due to Fusarium solani. Also, or intruders.3 Many sea cucumber species are also able to dis-
injury to the cecum of hermit crabs has been attributed to charge parts of their digestive tract in response to stress or as
the plerocercoids of the dogfish cestode (Calliobothrium a natural seasonal process.3 The Cuvierian tubules and diges-
verticillatum). tive tract can be regenerated. Evisceration also occurs in severe
Many more diseases have been described for crayfish, and cases of ulceration in sun stars (Solaster sp.). Sun star ulcers
this is only because of the widespread use of these animals in can also be much milder and are an idiopathic condition of
aquaculture. See Edgerton et al.38 for a thorough overview of captive individuals.5
crayfish diseases. Noga et al.37 note that some of the more General trauma occurs in echinoderms and will often lead
serious diseases are systemic infections of Gram-negative bac- to secondary infections. Regeneration is possible, even from
teria, fungal (e.g., Fusarium sp.) infections, shell disease, and severe injuries, although permanent defects may be present
microsporidian infections. One of the most important crayfish after healing.
diseases is crayfish plague, which is caused by a water mold,
Aphanomyces astaci. Spores of this mold infect the crayfish shell
and deeper tissues, causing 100% mortalities in susceptible THERAPEUTICS
species.37 Most of the European crayfish are susceptible to this
water mold, whereas the North American species are resistant.
Cnidarians
Resistant species can serve as carriers of A. astaci.37 It is believed Treating cnidarians with chemical compounds can be a risky
that A. astaci can only survive on live crayfish, thus depopula- venture, as the accumulated knowledge and scientific research
tion and disinfection of affected captive environments may in this area are lacking. Whenever a treatment is attempted, it
eliminate the organism. should be conducted, whenever possible, in a separate tank
Gas-bubble disease, which occurs when the water is super- from the animal’s main environment and the animal moni-
saturated with atmospheric gases, has been reported in crusta- tored carefully. Methods of drug removal or dilution (e.g.,
ceans. Air emboli enter the gills, leading to the death of the activated carbon filtration, conditioned replacement water)
animal.37 The animal should be removed from the system and should be on hand in case of problems and the animal must
placed into a “gas-free” aquarium. Air pockets can also form be rinsed off before being returned to the main enclosure.7
in the gills after a crustacean has been removed from and then Antibacterial treatments appear to be well tolerated by
replaced into water. In most cases, the crab can “burp” the air many cnidarian species.7 In many species 5% Lugol’s iodine
out, but if it can’t, it can be fatal.37 Traumatic injuries can also solution (5-10 drops/L, 10-20 minute bath per day) can be
occur in crustaceans. Injuries to their rigid exoskeleton can lead used to provide broad-spectrum antisepsis and cauterize
to hemolymph loss and opportunities for secondary infections. damaged tissues, but this should be evaluated on a species by
If left untreated, these conditions can prove fatal. species level, as some coral species do not tolerate Lugol’s
iodine well.7 Tetracycline baths (10 mg/L) are safe for many
corals; however, this antibiotic can be chelated by calcium in
Echinoderms the water, lowering the effective dose.7 In cases where the hard-
Systemic bacterial infections have been reported in echino- ness of the water is high, the veterinarian may consider a higher
derms. Traumatic injuries and poor water quality can provide dose of tetracycline. Chloramphenicol baths (10-50 mg/L)
bacteria an opportunity to invade the normally sterile coelomic have been used with success.7 The dosing frequency reported
fluid.5 A similar circumstance occurs when Vibrio anguillarum can be highly variable (24-72 hours). Chloramphenicol baths
and Aeromonas salmonicida invade traumatized tissue of sea may be used in conjunction with a pretreatment or post-
urchins. The resulting surface lesions form a ring of swelling treatment Lugol’s iodine bath.7 Stoskopf 7 recommends
and discoloration around a necrotic region where spines and inactivating chloramphenicol by adding 60 ml of chlorine
tube feet have been lost, hence the name of bald sea urchin bleach to every 20 L of treatment water several hours before
disease.37 Recovery via sloughing and regeneration is possible discarding it.
if the lesions do not involve a large surface area (e.g., Cnidarians can also be medically managed with topical
>30%).37 therapeutics. Lugol’s iodine (5%) can be applied topically with
swabs to cauterize and disinfect wounds. Topical application oxfendazole (10-200 mg/kg PO q24h to biweekly) have been
should not be for longer than 20 to 30 seconds.7 Pastes created used safely in giant spiders, but they did not eliminate oral
from antibiotics, such as neomycin and kanamycin, or water- nematode infections.4 When medicating arachnids, the drug
resistant compounding bases used by dentists have been used.7 may be delivered orally with a syringe or injected into a prey
As with any topical therapy, only a small quantity of the thera- item before it is offered to the spider. Again, injecting the
peutic should be applied initially to determine if a reaction compound into the prey species may result in less than optimal
may occur. dosing.
Antiparasitic treatments against flatworms, protozoa, and Mites are a common finding in imported arachnids. Most
metazoa generally follow similar plans for fish. Placing salt- of the miticides used in veterinary medicine are toxic to
water species in freshwater (1-3 minute bath) can be done with all invertebrates, including arachnids. Although tedious, the
relative ease. Monitor the invertebrates closely for any obvious method of removing mites with mineral oil on a cotton-tipped
changes (e.g., color change), and remove immediately if they applicator is safe.
appear to be reacting negatively to the freshwater. Levamisole, Treatment recommendations for fungal infections in arach-
an antiparasitic used regularly in vertebrates, can also be used nids are limited.4,13 Pizzi has recommended the topical applica-
as a bath treatment for cnidarians. Stoskopf 7 recommends an tion of povidone-iodine (0.75% water-based solution) for
extended (8 mg/L, 24-hour) bath for cnidarians. Different giant spiders. Topical chlorhexidine can also be used to manage
species may react differently to these treatments, and the fungi on arachnids. The chlorhexidine or iodine can be placed
animals should be monitored closely during any treatment on a cotton-tipped applicator and applied directly on the
procedure. affected area of the exoskeleton. Other topical and parenteral
When considering treatment plans for aquatic animals, it medications may also prove effective, but further research
is important to think outside the box. Medicating a feed that needs to be performed to determine the efficacy of these
is being offered to a patient is a common practice, although treatments.
these foods are often commercially prepared. Instilling a medi- Invertebrates that are dehydrated or suffering from hypo-
cation into a live prey item, such as brine shrimp, may be more volemia (e.g., trauma with loss of hemolymph) should be given
difficult. One of the most common methods for medicating fluids to replace any losses. Many arachnids will consume water
difficult-to-treat live prey is to use osmosis. Placing brine offered directly from a syringe.35 Animals that are active can
shrimp, a salt-loving species, into freshwater will lead to the be placed into a dish of shallow water and allowed to imbibe
movement of water into these organisms. If a medication is on their own will. It is important that the water not be too
placed in the freshwater, it will move into the brine shrimp, deep, as arachnids can drown if the water enters their respira-
too. One potential drawback of this technique is that it is dif- tory openings.10,13,35
ficult to ensure the quantity of medication in these prey species. Giant spiders can be given parenteral fluids via the distal
More research is needed to elucidate this information. leg joint,13 heart and pericardial sac,22 and the opisthosoma.10
When considering rehydrating a spider, veterinarians should
base the selection of a fluid on the type of dehydration. The
Gastropods majority of cases presented to veterinarians will be associated
Delivery of antibiotics to gastropods can be achieved through with a hypertonic dehydration. Only one study has attempted
several methods. Due to the porosity of the epithelium and to determine the osmolarity and electrolyte balance of giant
gills of aquatic species, bath treatments are possible. The tech- spider hemolymph.40 Based on that study, a “tarantula Ringer’s
niques described earlier will also work for these animals. Intra- solution” was recommended. Interestingly, the osmolarity of
muscular injections via the foot, injection via the hemocoel in the solution was rather hypotonic (201 mOsm/L). Physiologic
some species (e.g., opisthobranchs), and adding medication to (0.9%) saline (273 mOsm/L) has been recommended as an
the feed are other alternatives that can be used.30 alternative fluid for rehydrating giant spiders,13 and we have
been successful using this method. Pizzi4 also reports the suc-
cessful use of lactated Ringer’s and Hartmann’s solutions for
Arachnids fluid therapy. An alternative to replenishing hypovolemic
Systematic analytical studies on the use of antibiotics in arach- spiders with commercial fluids is to use a transfusion of hemo-
nids have not been attempted to the authors’ knowledge. lymph from a donor spider using a small-gauge catheter, as
There are anecdotal reports, but most have varying results and described by Visigalli16; however, the effects this procedure
are based on cases without a definitive diagnosis. Cooper 21 would have on the transfused spider are not known.
suggests the use of tetracycline solutions (e.g., 50 mg tetracy- The amount of injectable fluid that can be safely adminis-
cline in 25 ml fluid) for irrigating external lesions. Other tered to a giant spider has not been clearly defined, but Stewart
preparations, primarily those used in the aquarium trade, have and Martin24 were able to safely administer 0.5 ml (4% body
been used orally.4 Enrofloxacin has been used in giant spiders weight) of fluid into a 12-g spider. Johnson-Delaney22 has
at doses of 10 to 20 mg/kg PO q24h without apparent toxicity suggested that the fluid rate used for reptiles would be appro-
to the animal.4 Trimethoprim-sulfonamides may be used topi- priate also for giant spiders. In a recent study by the authors,
cally or systemically,4 but little is known about their effect or Grammostola rosea were given a single injection of physiologic
correct dosages. Both fenbendazole (10-200 mg/kg PO) and saline into the opisthosoma representing up to 6% of their
body weights, without any observed negative side effect. Addi- tined for human consumption, such as pets or institutional
tional research is required to determine the maximum volume specimens, may be treated with medications in an extra-label
and rate that fluids can be replenished in giant spiders and manner.37 Table 3-2 provides a list of therapeutic agents and
other arachnid species. dosages used to manage penaeid shrimp. This formulary may
be extrapolated for use in other crustaceans as well.
Myriapods
The information available for therapeutic use in myriapods is
Echinoderms
severely lacking. There is anecdotal evidence that fluid therapy Treatment of echinoderms, like other invertebrates, is in its
and oral antimicrobials have been attempted. For millipedes, infancy. Harms5 has suggested that these animals can be treated
fluids may be replenished by placing the animal in a shallow with antibiotics via a bath or intracoelomic injection. He also
dish of lukewarm water. This will only work for active, alert suggested that chitin synthesis inhibiting parasiticides (e.g.,
animals. For centipedes, placing them in an enclosure with a lufenuron) might be applicable to these animals, although the
high humidity has been recommended.14 This can be achieved dosing protocols, safety, and effectiveness of these compounds
by using dampened paper towels or moistened bedding. have not been described for these species.
Injecting oral antibiotics into prey items is an appropriate
method for dosing both millipedes and centipedes.14 Parenteral
administration may also be attempted. Injection of water-
SURGERY
soluble drugs into the hemolymph through the arthrodial Cnidarians
membranes can be done, but dosing rates are empirical. The
Surgical procedures of cnidarians are generally limited to
effect of parenteral antibiotics on the microbial flora of
debridement of lesions and fragmentation for propagation.7
millipedes is unknown, but should be considered prior to
When treating cnidarians, veterinarians should use sharp dis-
administration.14
section to remove damaged tissue(s). Debridement should take
place ideally in an enclosure separate from the animal’s primary
Insects enclosure to avoid contaminating the water system with
debrided tissue, as this tissue can be infectious.7
As with the myriapods, there is little information available
There is a great deal of debate as to how to manage a defect
regarding the use of therapeutics in insects. The most studied
that is created in a coral after debridement. Some veterinarians
species is the honeybee (Apis mellifera), and Cooper36 presents
close the defect, whereas others manage the defect by second
a limited formulary for insects in general (Table 3-1).
intention. Anecdotally, various substances have been used to
fill defects with some success, including plasticine clay (with
Crustaceans or without antibiotic impregnation), plaster of Paris, hydraulic
cement, and specialized plastering compounds.7 In addition to
Because most crustacean species are aquatic and most captive
these products, Stoskopf 7 has also recommended several other
species are cultured for human consumption, the compounds
substances that deserve investigation, such as dental com-
used for these species in the United States are regulated by the
pounding bases, methacrylates, cyanoacrylate gels, and under-
Food and Drug Administration.37 Animals that are not des-
water epoxies. For an overview of coral fragmentation, see
Stoskopf.7
Modified from Noga EJ, Hancock AL, Bullis RA: Crustaceans. In Lewbart GA, editor: Invertebrate Medicine, Ames, Iowa, 2006, Blackwell, p 192.
PO, per os.
spiders, without complication, by Reichling and Tabaka.41 manner similar to that described for arachnids. Large defects
Though this procedure was developed for research purposes, in centipedes may also benefit from closure with 5-0 to 8-0
it may prove to have clinical application in the future. synthetic suture.14 Damaged appendages may be removed by
Most surgical procedures performed on arachnids arise as a sharp dissection and may be sealed with adhesive.
result of traumatic injury. Arachnids can naturally lose a limb
through autotomy. When an arachnid suffers an injury to an
appendage as a result of trauma or dysecdysis, the limb can be Insects
removed by the veterinarian with little damage, as the process Although there are a number of surgical procedures described
is a natural response for the host.13,35 It is important to remove for insects, most of these are experimental in nature and not
injured limbs, as they can lead to excessive loss of hemolymph. conducive to clinical medicine.36 However, Cooper36 does
To remove an injured leg or pedipalp, the appendage should suggest that attempts at limb amputation, lesion removal
be grasped with hemostats at the level of the femur and sepa- and debridement, and wound repair (including suturing) be
rated with a sharp upward tug on the leg. Several authors attempted in cases when deemed appropriate by the
suggest that because autotomy is a voluntary act, arachnids veterinarian.
should not be anesthetized during the procedure.13,20 However,
the process does result in tissue damage, which initially should
mimic a noxious stimulus or aversion behavior. Some veteri- Crustaceans
narians take a similar approach with vertebrates (e.g., iguana
tail autotomy, salamander limb autotomy). As with many of the taxa discussed in this chapter, little infor-
Trauma to the exoskeleton of an arachnid requires immedi- mation exists regarding surgical procedures in crustaceans.
ate medical attention, as a significant loss of hemolymph is However, this should not preclude attempts at minor surgical
likely to be fatal. If not extensive, traumatic or iatrogenic procedures such as amputation and wound repair. Presumably,
(e.g., hemolymph collection, surgery, induced autotomy) exo- these would be performed in a manner similar to what has
skeleton defects can be repaired. There are various methods for been described for other arthropod species, with concern taken
doing this, including the application of cyanomethacrylate for the unique aspects of crustacean anatomy and physiology.
(e.g., surgical tissue adhesive), cyanoacrylate (e.g., super glue), For example, the autotomy reflex of decapod crustaceans, with
or nail hardener.4,13,20,35 Multiple applications may be needed a fracture plane between the basis and ischium segments, may
depending on the extent of the lesion. Larger exoskeleton serve as a method of amputating limbs.
defects may be closed with 5-0 or 6-0 synthetic suture,22
although Pizzi4 discourages this practice as ineffective.
Echinoderms
No surgical procedures have been described for echinoderms.
Myriapods Ophiuroids have an amazing ability to autotomize appendages,
The only described surgical procedures for myriapods are and this, along with their impressive regenerative capabilities,
wound repair and appendage removal. For both millipedes and could be considered in cases where the animal suffers an
centipedes, the application of adhesives may be done in a injury.5
HUMAN HEALTH HAZARDS than New World species.43,44 Most individuals envenomated
by giant spiders develop mild to severe local pain, itching and
Cnidarians tenderness, edema, erythema, joint stiffness and swollen limbs,
The cnidarians include some of the most venomous species of burning feelings, muscle cramps, and temporary paralysis.43
animals in the world. Certain species of box jellies, in particu- Schultz and Schultz10 reported on the symptoms associated
lar, maintain highly potent nematocysts that are capable of with the bites of various species of giant spider and found that
inflicting extreme pain and even death in humans. The most all of them were mild and short-lived. Rather than toxicity,
notorious cnidarians are Chironex fleckeri (e.g., Australia’s “sea the real significance of giant spider bites may be the potential
wasp”), which is responsible for an average of two deaths each for mechanical injury. Fangs can be large, with those of adult
year, and Chiropsalmus quadrumanus (southeastern United Theraphosa blondi reaching up to 3 cm in length.31
States), which is responsible for at least one human fatality As with any insult that compromises the skin, injuries from
annually.3 Other species of cnidarians are also capable of arachnid bites or stings have the potential to lead to secondary
inflicting intense pain on humans; however, most are harmless. infections. Opportunistic pathogens may originate from the
Although not intended to be injurious, the sharp edges of some human or from the invertebrate. The microflora of the mouth-
corals are known to cause lacerations in humans. parts of various captive giant spider species have been described,
and a range of Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria
found: Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus spp., Bacillus mega-
Gastropods terium, B. subtilis, B. cereus, Pseudomonas diminuta, P. aerugi-
nosa, P. fluorescens, P. cepacia, Pseudomonas spp., Aeromonas
Most gastropods are harmless. The family Conidae (e.g., cone hydrophilia, Acinetobacter calcoaceticus, Micrococcus varians, M.
snails), a group of carnivorous, marine snails, however, is an mucilaginosus, Coryneforms, and other Enterobacteriaceae.29,45
exception. Cone snails have a radula that is modified into a At least three of these bacteria (S. aureus, P. aeruginosa, A.
hollow harpoon that they use to envenomate prey. This weapon hydrophilia) are known human pathogens.45 Infections with
can also be used against humans. The venom of some species oral nematodes from the family Panagrolaimidae have been
is toxic to humans and has been responsible for at least a few reported in giant spiders, and some species of this family are
deaths.3 Fortunately, these snails are not common in the com- known to cause zoonotic disease.31
mercial trade. Giant spiders carry another potential risk to humans, their
urticating hairs. As mentioned previously, New World species
have urticating hairs on their opisthosomas. When alarmed,
Arachnids the spiders can brush off the hairs with their hind legs, which
Arachnids are feared the world over, and this is unfortunate allows them to become airborne. Exposure to these hairs can
considering these animals prey on many of the insects con- occur from direct contact with the spider or indirectly from
sidered to be pests or vectors for disease. One of the reasons the animal’s environment, especially when cleaning and replac-
that humans fear these animals is because of the perceived ing substrate. Each urticating hair is covered by hundreds of
concern associated with their venom. With very rare exceptions, small hooks and can cause severe itching when it makes contact
spiders possess venom. However, most are either unable to bite with the skin.33 Cooke et al.2 have shown that these hairs can
or their venom is not dangerous to humans. The World Health embed themselves to a depth of 2 mm in human skin. A severe
Organization lists four genera as exceptions: Atrax, Latrodectus, skin reaction has been observed by the authors in a colleague
Loxosceles, and Phoneutria. The most common, from the stand- working with the Theraphosa blondi colony at the Louisiana
point of their relative abundance and popularity in the United State University School of Veterinary Medicine. This individ-
States, are widow spiders (Latrodectus spp.) and recluse spiders ual was changing the substrate in the cages and had indirect
(Loxosceles spp.). Widow spiders produce a neurotoxic venom contact with the spiders. A severe, intense, pruritic cycle ensued
that can cause abdominal and leg pain, high cerebrospinal fluid that affected the hands and forearms (Figure 3-24). The reac-
pressure, nausea, muscle spasms, and respiratory paralysis.3 tion lasted for 14 days. A single case of papular dermatitis with
Death is infrequent, and signs usually resolve within 3 to 7 days edema resulting from urticating hair exposure has also been
after symptomatic treatment with or without antivenin described.46
therapy.42 Recluse spiders produce cytotoxic venom that induces Although dermatologic exposure to urticating hairs is a
a necrotic ulcer at the site of the bite. It is rare that these enven- self-limiting condition, urticating hairs can be much more
omations become systemic.42 Symptomatic treatment is usually harmful to the human eye. The hairs can penetrate the cornea
sufficient, and reports of mortalities are uncommon.42 Species and cause a multitude of symptoms, including panuveitis,
from both of these genera are relatively common in captivity, iritis, anterior synechiae, vitritis, chorioretinitis, and keratitis.
although this practice is not recommended. Less commonly A review of the literature revealed more than a dozen case
encountered, though particularly more potent in venom and reports of ophthalmia nodosa (a granulomatous disease) caused
aggressiveness, are the funnel web spiders (Atrax spp.) and the by contact with a giant spider. Ocular disease caused by urti-
South American “banana spiders” (Phoneutria spp.). cating hairs can be serious and chronic in nature. It is recom-
Giant spider bites are not considered serious. In general, mended that latex or nitrile exam gloves be worn whenever
Old World species are believed to have more potent venom handling or cleaning the enclosure of a giant spider. Eye pro-
Crustaceans
The crustaceans in general do not pose much of a threat to
humans. The most common injuries involve the pincing ability
of the orders Decapoda and Stomatopoda (e.g., “mantis
shrimps”). Such injuries may be severe when dealing with
Figure 3-24 Human dermatitis resulting from giant spider urti- crustaceans of large size (e.g., lobsters). Grasping these animals
cating hairs. This colleague came into contact with airborne at the cephalothorax can generally reduce the likelihood of
urticating hairs from a goliath birdeater spider (Theraphosa
being pinced.
blondi ). (Photo by Clare Guichard.)
Echinoderms
tection may also be indicated. During the activity, it is best to Sea urchins can inflict severe injuries to humans. The spines
avoid touching one’s face or any area of skin. Washing one’s of these animals can cause both direct cell injury and, in some
hands afterward is also strongly recommended. species, a toxin insult.3 Delayed hazards include secondary
Most scorpions produce a venom that is painful but not opportunistic bacterial infections and chronic granuloma for-
dangerous to humans. The exceptions are found in the family mation.5 Some species also possess venomous pedicellariae,
Buthidae, which includes Androctonus and Centruroides.3 Death which are meant to protect the animal from predators and can
from the neurotoxic venom is generally preceded by convul- produce a painful reaction in humans.3
sions, paralysis of the respiratory muscles, and cardiac failure.
Fortunately, some effective antivenins are available.3 Veterinar-
ians working with these species should be preemptive and have SUGGESTED READINGS
antivenins on hand. Clients should be made aware of the
potential hazards to owning these animals. Breene RG: The ATS Arthropod Medical Manual: Diagnosis and Treatment, The
American Tarantula Society.
Breene RG: Concise Care Guide for the 80 Plus Most Common Tarantulas, The
American Tarantula Society.
Myriapods Brownell P, Polis GA: Scorpion Biology and Research, Oxford University
Press.
Millipedes are generally slow, passive animals. However, many Daly HV, Doyen JT, Purcell AH: Introduction to Insect Biology and Diversity,
species are able to exude or squirt noxious substances from the Oxford University Press.
glands found on the body segments.14 These substances can Foelix RF: Biology of Spiders (ed 2), Oxford University Press.
Frye FL: Captive Invertebrates: A Guide to Their Biology and Husbandry,
affect the human skin by staining, irritating, or blistering and Krieger.
can cause potentially serious injuries if the human eye comes Hopkin SB, Read HJ: The Biology of Millipedes, Oxford University Press.
into contact with them.14 As with arachnid species, latex exam Keegan HL: Scorpions of Medical Importance, University Press of Mississippi.
Lewbart GA: Invertebrate Medicine, Blackwell.
gloves and/or eye protection is recommended when handling Polis GA: The Biology of Scorpions, Stanford University Press.
these animals. Ruppert EE, Fox RS, Barnes RD: Invertebrate Zoology: A Functional Evolution-
Large centipedes have fangs of commensurate size, and their ary Approach (ed 7), Brooks/Cole.
Schultz SA, Schultz MJ: The Tarantula Keeper’s Guide, Barron’s.
venom can be quite painful. Deaths resulting from the bite of
a centipede are difficult to authenticate, although the potential
for this may exist for Scolopendra.3 Most species have the ability
to move rapidly, so handling should be avoided if at all
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