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Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000

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Procedia Engineering 200 (2017) 365–369

3rd International Conference on Natural Fibers: Advanced Materials for a Greener World, ICNF
2017, 21-23 June 2017, Braga, Portugal

LCA of textile dyeing with Acacia Dealbata tree bark: a case study research
Teresa Linharesa, Maria Teresa Pessoa de Amorima*
a
Department of Textile Engineering (DET), University of Minho,4800-058 Guimarães, Portugal

Abstract

Textile Industry (TI), in particular textile dyeing industry, is known to be not a sustainable activity due to the high
demand of resources, such as water, energy, and excessive consumption of chemicals, contributing to the increasing
environmental degradation. TI is actually in searching for new and cleaner methodologies, in order to minimize the
use of natural resources, as well as by continually improving available techniques towards a sustainable activity,
aiming zero emissions.
Life Cycle Assessment (LCA), a tool that allow to assess the potential environmental impact of a product or
product system, was carried out in this work assessed the potential environmental impact of natural direct dyeing of
cotton fabric, obtained from Acacia Dealbata tree bark, a species considered invasive specially on Mediterranean
regions, being currently implemented some efforts to control its dissemination.
The implemented gate-to-gate study applied to the dyeing process, was performed on GaBi software, with ReCiPe
as the characterization methodology.
A medium colour was obtained with diminished environmental impact, by comparison with a similar cotton colour
dyed with synthetic reactive dyes.
The quite acceptable performance of the final fabric was tested for colour fastness to wash and wet rubbing
according to textile ISO standards.
© 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 3rd International Conference on Natural Fibers: Advanced
Materials for a Greener World.

Keywords: LCA; Sustainability; Textile dyeing; Acacia Dealbata; Natural direct dyeing

*
Corresponding author. Tel.: 00351-253510286; fax: 00351-253510293.
E-mail address: mtamorim@det.uminho.pt

1877-7058 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 3rd International Conference on Natural Fibers: Advanced Materials for a
Greener World.

1877-7058 © 2017 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Peer-review under responsibility of the scientific committee of the 3rd International Conference on Natural Fibers: Advanced
Materials for a Greener World
10.1016/j.proeng.2017.07.051
366 Maria Teresa Pessoa de Amorim et al. / Procedia Engineering 200 (2017) 365–369
Author name / Procedia Engineering 00 (2017) 000–000 2

1. Introduction

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool that allow to assess the potential environmental impact of a product or
product system by evaluating all related processes, according to the specific intended characteristics, which set the
boundaries for the study [1].
Textile dyeing industry is known to be not a sustainable activity, due to the excessive use of chemical compounds,
such as synthetic dyes, auxiliary or finishing stuff, as well as high consumption of water and energy, generating
considerable effluent emissions [2]. Textile Industry (TI) is actually in searching for cleaner and emerging
technologies, in order to minimize the use of natural resources, as well as by continually improving techniques
towards a sustainable activity, aiming zero emissions [3].
To evaluate sustainable development in TI there are some standardized indicators, the most used being “Global
Warming Potential” or “Climate Change”, that refers mainly to the energy used, “Human Toxicity Potential”, due to
the risks to health and “Water Consumption”, measuring the resource depletion [4].
As per literature, direct and reactive synthetic dyes impart the smaller environmental impact when compared to vat
or sulphur synthetic dyeing, being however, indigo natural vat dye the one that most affect ecological balance, due
mainly to the high environment impact of its agricultural production [5].
There is a search for alternatives on conventional textile dyeing due to the environmental impact of synthetic dyes,
a trend that is boosted by a new generation of consumers that rather want sustainable and environmental friendly
materials [6].
Acacia Dealbata tree is considered as invasive species, especially in meditteranean countries, and there are
currently some efforts to control its dissemination. On the other hand, aqueous solution extracted from its bark can
be used as textile dyeing.
This work intends to evaluate the potential impact of natural dyes derived from this agro-industrial wastes, namely
Acacia Dealbata tree bark (ADTB) by emphasising the ecological benefits of textile natural dyeing derived from
agro-industrial residues.

1.1. LCA Methodology

According to ISO 14040 [7], LCA methodology consists of four interdependent phases: 1) Goal and scope
definition, in which the criteria defined for the study are settled; 2) Life Cycle Inventory analysis (LCI), that consists
of the collection of data from the included processes; 3) Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA), where additional
information is provided for the evaluation of the results of the previous inventory phase; 4) the life cycle
interpretation phase, that is the final phase of the procedure, where the results of the second and third phases are
gathered, in order to conclude in accordance with the objectives and limits previously defined.

1.2. System boundaries: gate-to-gate LCA

The depth of detail of an LCA may vary to a small or large extent, depending on the goal and scope definition. The
selection of which processes are to be included in a particular study must be defined according to the product system
boundaries.
There are several study models, being cradle-to-grave LCA the most complete (encompasses all product phases
environmental impact, from raw materials acquisition processes to final disposing of a product) and gate-to-gate
LCA, that is the most restricted, since refers to a specific stage of the product phases.
International Organization for Standardization (ISO) advocates that the highest resolution achievable in an LCA
study results from the differentiation between the individual unit processes [8], being such the methodology adopted
in this work, restricted to the dyeing process, by excluding the pretreatment process that has to be carried out before
dyeing, as well as the bath obtainment process.

2. Materials and Methods

ADTB coloured solution extraction was previously reported [9], and being a mordant dye, cotton dyeing was
carried out at pH extraction, approximately pH 4.5.
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Dyeing and rinsing processes were performed in Datacolour Ahiba IR™ machine, with dyeing pots of 150 mL.
Dyeing and rinsing liquor ratio was 1:10, meaning 1 g of substrate for 10 mL of treatment solution volume.
The substrate used for all dyeing experiments was desized plain weaved woven cotton, with 125 g/m2. Due to the
limitations of the laboratory equipment, fabrics had to be cut in small pieces, which might led to the release of yarns
fragments and lose fibres. In order to avoid that kind of contamination of residual baths, fabric specimens were
stitched to encapsulate all raw edges: this procedure tends to immolate industrial conditions, where the large areas of
substrate have selvedge that secure yarns in place.
Analysis on residual baths were performed analysis according to Standard Methods of Examination of Wastewater
[10].
Colour coordinates of the dyed samples were computed at commercial spectrophotometer Datacolor SF 600 Plus
CT. Three measurements were made on each sample according to CIELAB parameters L*a*b*, at standard
conditions (standard illuminant D 65 and 10° observer).
Life Cycle Impact Assessment (LCIA) was carried out by GaBi software, using the database platform “Education
database 2014”, and ReCiPe 1:08 (H) characterization methodology, which considers a time frame of 100 years.
Functional unit was defined at 1 kg of cotton fabric at system's entry.

2.1. Dye experiment performed

Direct dyeing process involves a neutral or slightly alkaline bath, with electrolyte addition [11]. As above
aforementioned, the original bath’s pH was slightly acidic, and being a mordant natural dye, it was assessed the dye
up-take on cotton in function of electrolyte addition. Cotton dyeing was performed without electrolyte and with
NaCl, at 5 g/L.
It was realized that after dyeing, the residual bath still exhibited an high saturated colour, which suggested that
perhaps that might be used for a new dyeing. In fact, this has been done, with quite surprising results in terms of
colour shade.
Exhaust dyeing processes were carried out at 95 ºC, for 60 minutes, and two subsequent rinsing, due to the
medium colour yielded.

3. Results and Conclusions

Following are presented the dyed fabrics appearance and potential environmental impact of related processes.

3.1. Dyed cotton: colour coordinates and shade appearance

Colour coordinates of dyed cotton with and without electrolyte are shown on table 1, as well as shade appearance
according to RGB 0÷255. There is also presented L, a, b, values of dyed cotton mentioned on literature [12],
concerning a similar colour obtained with reactive dyes.

Table 1 Colour coordinates and shade of dyed cotton

ADTB natural direct cotton dyeing Synthetic reactive cotton dyeing
with 5g/L NaCl without electolyte
L 62.05 63.88 62.30(1)
a 9.95 9.39 5.10(1)
b 13.67 12.78 5.02(1)
Shade (RGB 0÷255)
(1)
[12]

Cotton colour exhibits a slightly darker shade due to the electrolyte addition, being in accordance with
conventional direct dyeing process. For this reason, the last experiment (dyeing and reuse the residual bath for a new
dyeing) was carried out with NaCl. Achieved colours are presented on table 2, as well as colour coordinates of
desized cotton.
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Table 2 Colour coordinates and shades of desized cotton, dyed and re-dyed
Desized cotton ADTB natural direct cotton dyeing
First dyeing Second dyeing
L 89,47 64,35 63,32
a 0,99 8,33 8,37
b 8,37 10,08 13,28
Shade (RGB 0÷255)

The colour cotton re-dyed with residual bath had a slightly lighter shade, but quite acceptable when compared to
the apparel made with organic naturally coloured cotton, in which shade variations within a garment are understood
and accepted, sometimes even being each garment considered as unique.

3.2. Dyed fabric performance: colour fastness to wash and wet rubbing

Colour fastness were evaluated according to standards ISO 6330:2012 (Domestic washing and drying procedures
for textile testing) and ISO 105-X12: 2003 (Colour fastness to rubbing). Wash tests were carried out at 40 ºC, A2S
technique. There were no visible contamination on the test fibres, and a degree 5 was attributed to all fibres, (scale
ranging from 1 to 5, being 5 is the best result). Colour change was classified as degree 4.
Colous fastness results to wet rubbing was classified at degree 5.

3.3. LCIA results

LCIA results derived from computing all inputs (water volume, energy consumption, mass of fabric and dyeing
stuff) and outputs (namely the mass of dyed fabric and the quantification of the detrimental effects of wastewater).
Gaseous emissions were not account for this study and energy consumption was estimated according to available
literature [13]

Fig.1 ADTB natural dyeing LCIA results (2)

WD: water depletion; CC: climate change; TA: terrestrial acidification; FE: freshwater eutrophication; OD: ozone depletion;
(2)

FET: freshwater eco-toxicity; MET: marine eco-toxicity; TET: terrestrial eco-toxicity; HT: human toxicity; POF: photochemical
oxidant formation.

The potential environmental impact on the most commonly impact categories applied to Textile Industry are
shown in Fig. 1.

According to the results of this work, dyeing 1kg of cotton with natural direct dyes represents approximately 0,7
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kg of CO2 eq in Climate Change; literature reports [12] that for a similar colour dyed cotton with synthetic reactive
dyes 12,4 kg of CO2 eq are released.
A medium colour was obtained with diminished environmental impact, by comparison with a similar cotton
colour, due to the synthetic reactive dyeing.
The main conclusion of this work relays in the adding value to agro industrial wastes derived from control
dissemination of an invasive species, Acacia Dealbata, can contribute to improve textile-dyeing sustainability, by
offering a natural product that perhaps can be considered unique.

Acknowledgements

This work is financed by FEDER funds through the Competitivity Factors Operational Programme - COMPETE and
by national funds through FCT – Foundation for Science and Technology within the scope of the project POCI-01-
0145-FEDER-007136.

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