NAME: ………………………………………..

…………………………………………

SCHOOL: ……………………….………………………………………………………

CLASS: …………………………..……… YEAR: ………………………………

O-LEVEL BIOLOGY
PRACTICAL

FIRST EDITION

BY; MR. DANIEL ONGOM

Professional Teacher from

KYAMBOGO UNIVERSITY

(Biological Science)

0789806804/0758806804

Email danielkumar413@gmail.com

1|P a g e
 TABLE OF CONTENT

Preface and acknowledgement.........................................................................05

General information……………………………………………………………………….06
2.0 CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING
THINGS.................................................................................................10

Exercise on classification of living things..........................................................16

ANIMAL ANATOMY...........................................................................................21
2.1: ARTHROPODS........................................................................................21
Class Crustacea...............................................................................................21
Class Arachnida...............................................................................................22
Class chilopoda……………………………………………………………………………….24
Class Diplopoda (millipedes).........................................................................25
Class Insecta....................................................................................................26
Table 3 showing the common structural features of some orders of insects..........26
THE AMERICAN COCKROACH-Periplaneta americana......................................29
THE HOUSEFLY -Musca domestica...................................................................35
The honey bee- Apis mellifera............................................................................38
EXERCISES ON ARTHROPODS.........................................................................40
2.2 BIRDS AND THEIR LOCOMOTORY
STRUCTURES...................................................................................................46

Structure of a bird’s
feather..............................................................................................................47

1. Quill feathers...............................................................................................47
2. Contour feathers (pennae)............................................................................48
3. Down feathers.............................................................................................49
4. Filoplume feathers.......................................................................................49

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2.21: The bird’s
leg............................................................................................50

EXERCISE 2.22
(feathers)......................................................................................................52

2.3 BONES OF MAMMALS............................................................................55

2.31: The mammalian teeth..........................................................................55
EXERCISE on teeth.......................................................................................59
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN...........................................................................63
The cervical vertebrae....................................................................................64
The Atlas Vertebra.........................................................................................65
The axis
vertebra.................................................................................................66
Thoracic vertebrae..........................................................................................69
Lumbar vertebrae............................................................................................71
The sacrum.....................................................................................................72
The caudal vertebrae........................................................................................73
The appendicular skeleton...............................................................................73
The ulna and radius........................................................................................76
The scapular (shoulder bone)...........................................................................78
EXERCISES ON BONES...................................................................................79
2.4.
FISHES...................................................................................................85

Exercise on fish…………………………………………………………………………..88

PLANT
ANATOMY............................................................................................90

3.1: STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWERING PLANT...............................................91

3.2: THE SHOOT SYSTEM................................................................................91
3.21: Stems......................................................................................................91

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Classification of stems......................................................................................92
Exercise 3.21....................................................................................................98
3.22: Leaves...................................................................................................100
Exercise on leaves..........................................................................................105
3.23: FLOWERS……………………………………………………………………………..110
Description of flowers....................................................................................115
Exercise on flowers........................................................................................118
3.24: Fruits...................................................................................................121

Placentation..................................................................................................126

3.25: Seeds..................................................................................................127
4.1: FOOD TESTS.......................................................................................131
COMMON FOOD TESTS PERFOMED IN BIOLOGY PRACTICAL....................132
Testing a leaf for starch................................................................................137
Exercise on food tests...................................................................................138
4.2: ENZYME ACTIVITY...............................................................................149
Exercise on enzyme activities........................................................................150
CATALASE ENZYME.....................................................................................164
Exercise on Catalase enzymes.......................................................................165
4.3: TEMPERATURE REGULATION...............................................................171
Exercise on temperature regulation...............................................................171
4.4:
GERMINATION.................................................................................173
Exercise on germination...............................................................................173

4.5: MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF CELLS....................................................181

Exercise on movement in and out.................................................................182
4.6: SOIL SCIENCE………………………………………………………………………..190
LIST OF UNKNOWNS FOR THE PRACTICAL EXERCISES..............................193

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 PREFACE AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

With much pleasure, I appreciate the following for the great support during the
preparation of this book.

 My teachers of Biology and Chemistry at all levels of education for the

guidance, courage moral support in this great teaching profession.
 Fr. Desire Irunga; a priest, the director as well as the Head Teacher of St.
Marys’ SS Namaliga Bombo for the tireless support, inspiration,
encouragement and Guidance.
 My brother Mr. Justine Okello; a professional teacher, currently Bondo Army
SS-Arua for the financial support towards my carrier profession.
 My beloved only sister Sarah Apili; a professional teacher for the financial
support towards my carrier profession.
 My fellow colleagues in the department for the work you are doing to ensure
that Biology is passed well at all level.

All in all, the glory goes to almighty God, who provided me with life, skills and
knowledge to come up with this Book.

PREFACE

Being the fact that Biology Practical is among the most failed in UNEB at O.
level(UCE), This book has been designed to enable students master the tips to
pass O. level Biology Practical; hence its name. To enable them excel in the
practical paper 553/2 or 553/3.

DEDICATION

I dedicate this book to my Mother Sylivia Aloko and my Father Tom Okuma

Revised Edition 2019

© Copyright Reserved

No parts of this book may be reproduced, stored or transmitted in any form by

any means except in terms of agreement with the auther.

DANIEL ONGOM

Educationist; Kyambogo University.

0789806804/0758806804

Email danielkumar413@gmail.com

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 August 2019

GENERAL INFORMATION

1. Identification of Specimens.
Identification means giving a specimen its biological name basing on
observable features.
(a) Never to use local or English names to identify specimens. For example, an
orange is identified as a fruit before cutting but not orange, Reasons: (i) two
scars, (ii) pericarp. After cutting, is identified as a berry, Reasons: Fleshy
with many seeds.
(b) If the specimens is whole organism, you use characteristics of its order or
class to identify it. For example for a Housefly, thec is: An insect, Reasons:
Presence of :(i)Three main body parts, (ii) Three pairs of legs , (iii) Three
thoracic segments.

2. Description of structure:
When describing a specimen, should consider :(a) Shape and (b) Surface
characteristics.
(a) Shape: when describing, always compare the specimen/ part of specimen to
structure whose shape is standard and constant such as(i)Body organ: like
kidney shape, bean shape.(ii)3-D structures: like the conical stem of onion
bulb, cylindrical leaf of pawpaw. (iii) polygons:like, oblong head of termite,
triangular had of cockroach. (iv) other structures: like, thread, hair like, finger
like finger like membranous.
(b) Surface characteristics. For surface structures, always describe (i) what you
see i.e. number, position, arrangement.(ii) what you feel i.e. smooth/ rough,
slippery/sticky etc.
3. Comparison of specimen.

This involves looking at observable features of specimen and state differences and
similarities between them. Avoid using words like lack, has no unless unavailable .for
example soilder termites has no wings, when told to count wings has,zero (0) wings but
nothas no wings becauseno wings has not a number. For spider has eight legs not has
no six legs. Features which change environment such as (i) size and (ii) color should be
avoided. For similarities write brief and precise clear statement: (i) both
have/posses…..(ii) All have/ possess…..

4. Functions and adaptations

Here we look at:
(a) Functions and uses.When stating (i) avoid using words like; help, aid, assist,
act.
(ii) use; enable, used, facilitate. For example; antennae are used for
sensitivity. Not antennae help/aid/assist in sensitivity.

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 (b) Adaptation to functions. When stating adaptations: (i) name structure, (ii)
describe it, (iii) state its function. For example; hing leg is long to generate a
strong forward force during locomotion.

5. Dichotomous key
Dichotomous classification is a way in which organism are divided into
successive pairs basing on their structural similarities and differences until
a single organism remains alone in a group in which it is said to be
classified. Purely Observable featuresare used,features which changes
with environments such bas colours and size should be avoided. The steps
are discussed in chapter one.
NOTE:(i) Each characteristics is used once. (ii) Each pair of sentence of
sentence is called a couplet. The number of couplet in a key is less than the
number of specimens by one, Thus if the number of specimen is N, the
number of couplets is N-1.

6. Biological drawings.
For Biological drawings, marks are awarded for TDLMAN, Standing for
Tittle, Drawing, Labeling, Magnification, Accuracy, and Neatness.

(a) Titile: A statements that describes what the drawing is about. (i) Derived from
the statement of the question. (ii) Better to be written in capital letters and
underlined. (iii) Identify the specimen to which the drawing belongs. (iv)Point
out the required part of specimen to be drawn, including the required view or
section.(v) Tittle should start with the phrase “Drawing of”

(b) Drawing: For drawings: (i) Complete outline of the whole drawing including its
individual components thus no gaps or overlapping lines should be left on the
outline. (ii) Relative sizes, shapes and proportion of parts of specimen on your
drawing appear as they occur on the specimen.

(c) Labeling: (i) Only labelled when told to do so. (ii) Draw label line using pencil
and label word using ink. (iii) Label lines should be horizontal as much as
possible. (iv)Don’t put arrow heads, pointers means direction. (v) Label lines
should not cross each other, means labels are interchangeable. (vi) Don’t label
in plural when pointing a single structure. (vii) Don’t write in the drawing
because biological drawings are not maps. (viii) Correct spellings of labels
should be considered. (ix) Label line should touch the structure.

(d) Magnification: This shows the number of times a drawing is enlarged more
than the specimen.

Magnification is given by= (Size of or length of drawing) / (Size or

length of specimen)

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 (i) If a visual instruments is used, magnification should include the
magnifying power of the instrument, for the most commonly used hand
lens magnification is X10. (ii) Magnification should be stated with the
multiple sign preceding the figure that indicates the size of the
magnification. E.g. X2, X4 and X5. (iii) Should be written in the lower
right- hand corner of the drawing. (iv) Avoid fractions and decimals as
much as possible.

(e) Accuracy: You are required to draw the correct specimen and right parts of the
specimen in the view drawn.
Views Are (i) Dorsal, upper. (ii) Ventral, Lower. (iii) Lateral, side. (iv)
Anterior, front.(v) Posterior,hind.
E.g.
Look at the drawing of a toad and see how you would view it as in the table above
Dorsal view

Posterior view
Anterior view

Lateral
Ventral view

Section Are (i) Longitudinal/vertical. (ii) Transverse/ cross section.

Transverse section

Longitudinal
section

(f) Neatness: (i) Make thin outline using a sharp pointed pencil. (ii) Avoid much
rubbing. (iii) Don’t shade your drawing. (iv) Avoid placing answer sheet in
water during practical.
g) Outline: All biological drawings must have a single continuous
outline. You should totally forget the fine art skills of sketching. It is
advisable that you use a sharp HB pencil. You can also buy a drawing
pencil from a nearby supermarket. The broken outline makes your
drawing inapplicable.

7. Graphical presentation of data

Marks are awarded for TSAP; standing for: Title, Scale, Axes, and plotting.
The following are needed for the graphs.

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 1. Draw the axes.
There are two axes i.e. Vertical (Y) axis and horizontal(X) axis.
2. Label the axes.
i) Independent variable on the x-axis. This is what the investigator is
intended /intentionally decides or changes. E.g. Time, Temperature. This
includes units. E.g. Time in minutes.
ii) Dependent variable on the Y – axis. This is what the investigator is
interested in researching. This also includes units.
E.g. Concentration of lactic acid in mg/100cm3.

3. Give the tittle.

Title should talk on what is on the vertical axis in relationship to what is on the
horizontal axis. Leave units out. Avoid using verses and against.
E.g. A graph of concentration of lactic acid varying with time.
4. State the scale.
The scale is a ratio representing the actual value. Should be written on
the top right corner of the graph paper. Has word “Represent” written in full. E.g.
i) On x-axis(horizontal scale) 1cm represent 5 minutes
i) On y-axis(Vertical axis) 1cm represent 5 mg/100cm3

Avoid
 1cm rep 5 mg/100cm3, 1cm : 5mg/100cm3, 2cm
represent10mg/100cm3, 1 box represent 5 mg/100cm3, 1 unit/2 units
represent 5mg/100cm3, 1cm=5mg/100cm3.

5. Plot the coordinate.

Start from point strait, Don’t extrapolate, Use pencils only, Do not use dotted
lines

6. Draw the curve.

Use free hand, Avoid using rulers and smooth curves when joining. When
labelling the curve, write along the curve, don’t put label lines on the curve
because they may be interpreted as a branch of curve.

7. Describing graph.
Note the initial quality; Treat independent variable quantitatively; Treat
dependent variable qualitatively; Note any maximum, minimum or constancy.

8. Explaining graph.
Describe and explain basing on theory.

NB. When do we draw bar graphs?

• Bar graphs are used when the data to be put on the horizontal
axis (the independent variable) is grouped or simply categorized. For

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 example when years are used or when the data is given in range e.g.
age (5-10 years)
Chapter 1

CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

Objectives:
By the end of this chapter learners should be able to:

Use observable features of specimens to classify them.

• Recall the hierarchy of taxonomy based on modern systematics

• Draw simple identification keys for collections of specimens.
• Appreciate the importance of systematics in biological studies.
• Write appropriate description of the features of specimens.

1.1: INTRODUCTION:
The branch of Biology that is confined to the classification of living things
is referred to as taxonomy. It deals with the grouping of organisms basing
on their observable features. Practical classification at this level of
education will entirely focus on the use of observable features of
specimen organisms to classify them. This is what modern biology refers
to as phenetic classification.
The importance of systematics in Biology

• It helps us to develop a system of dealing with the increasing

complexity of nature.
• It is important in establishing relationships between organisms as
well as the ancestral information of organisms.
• It eases the study of living things when they are organized according
to their relationships.
• Taxonomy simplifies the study of living things.

1.2: THE HIERACHY OFBIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION.

You have already discussed with your teacher the branches of taxonomy
namely; nomenclature and systematics.
Green and Taylor in their book; Biological Science define systematics as
the branch of taxonomy that deals with the placement of organisms in
groups while nomenclature is the branch of taxonomy that deals with
naming of organisms. We shall start by understanding the business of
systematics. Biological classification deals with organisms at seven

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different levels of complexity. This constitutes what is referred to herein
as the taxonomic hierarchy.
The highest level of classification hence the largest group of related living
things is called the kingdom. The kingdom consists of organisms with a
common ancestor hence they are related. The relationship draws closer
and closer as we go down the hierarchy. Kingdoms are divided into
phyla (singular phylum), phyla into classes, classes into orders, orders
into families, families into genera
(singular genus) and genera into species. These biological groupings are called taxa
(singular; taxon)

The species therefore is the smallest group of closely related organisms

that can freely interbreed and give rise to viable offspring. The number of
organisms at each level of classification is shown by the length of the bars
in figure 2.

Kingdom

Phylum

Class

Order

Family

Figure 2 Genus
Species

At each level of classification shown above, the close relationship among

organisms at that level is represented by the size of the bars.
A candidate is therefore required to utilize the above hierarchy in
classifying a particular organism. This must be accompanied by
observable features as reasons for your classification.

1.3: BIOLOGICAL NOMENCLATURE

In section1.2, we discussed that the genus and the species make the
last two levels of classification. A name of an organism is therefore
derived from these two groups to which it belongs. Biological
nomenclature is based on the resolution of the international
committee of zoological and botanical nomenclature that an organism
is assigned a Latin name with two parts hence the Binomial system.
The first part of the name is the generic (or general/ genus) name

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 while the last part of it is the special/ specific or species name. Some
examples are given in Table 2 below.

Table 2: Examples of organisms with their biological names

Organism’s common name Biological name
Man Homo sapiens
Dog Canis familaris
Cat Felis domestica
Frog Rana temporalia
Bean plant Phaseolus vulgaris
Muvule tree Chlorophora excelsa
Mutuba tree (used for making bark cloth) Ficus natalensis
Coakroach Periplaneta americana
Grass snake Natrix natrix
NOTE: The Biological name of an organism is written starting with an
upper case (capital) letter on the generic name while the specific name
starts with a lower case letter. When typing, the name should be written in
italics as shown in Table 2 above but when writing, the two are underlined
separately e.g. Canis familaris. We shall encounter very many of these
names in chapters 2 and 3 of this book.
1.4: METHODS OF CLASSIFICATION

THE DICHOTOMOUS KEY

The word dichotomous is an adjective of the noun dichotomy that stems
from a Greek word dikhotomia that means “cutting in two" (dikho- "apart, in
two" + temnein "to cut"). Dichotomy according to the students’ dictionary:

Separation of different or contradictory things: a separation into two

divisions that differ widely from or contradict each other.
The dichotomous key is the classical method of classifying biological
specimens. It is based only the observable characteristics of organisms.
The steps followed in constructing a dichotomous key are given below.

• A clear observation of the specimens provided is made. The

characteristics of the specimens are listed in a table. Colour and size
of specimens are not used as characteristics.
• A flow chart is drawn illustrating the subdivisions of the group. At
each level of division a number is designated to represent the stage of
classification.
• A set of specimens with similar characteristic features is selected and
the opposite of the very feature referred to in the first category is used
to describe the second group.

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 • The two broad groups created are each subdivided into two smaller
groups. The smaller groups are subdivided until a single specimen
remains on the branch of the chart.
• The numbered stages on the flow chart now consist of contrasting
features of specimens which are bound by the similarity described at
the very beginning of the tree.
• A pair of such contrasting features is referred to as a couplet on the
dichotomous key. The number of couplets is conventionally less than
the number of specimens by one. If n represents the number of
specimens; then (n-1) is the number of couplets supposed to appear
on the dichotomous key.
• Each characteristic is used once in the dichotomous key.

Example: To construct a dichotomous key of arthropods.

You are provided with a freshly killed:

• Housefly labeled K
• Millipede labeled L
• Cockroach labeled M

• Bed bug labeled N

• Spider labeled O.

You are required to draw a dichotomous key for the above specimens.

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 Table of characteristics

Specimen Characteristics
Body Wings Antennae Hairs Mouth Legs Body
shape on parts divisions
body
K Ovoid Present One Present Present Proboscis Three Three
pair with Short present pairs
second pair and of
greatly hairy hairy
reduced jointed
legs
L Cylindrical Absent Present Absent Single Very Very
Short pair of many many
jaws pairs
present of
small
legs
M Ovoid Present. Present Absent Serrated Three Three
Inner wings Long mandibles pairs
membranous slender and palps of
and and present spiny
translucent, flexible legs
outer wings
opaque and
hard.
N Ovoid Absent Absent Absent Stylets Three Three
and pairs
proboscis of
smooth
present
legs
O Ovoid Absent Absent Present Biting Four Two
jaws pairs
present. of long
hairy
legs

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 The flow chart

Arthropods

(K, L, M, N, O)
1

Two body More than two body

divisions (O) divisions (K, L, M,N)

Wings present Wings absent

(K, M) (L, N)

3 4

Legs hairy Legs spiny Body ovoid Body cylindrical

(K) (N) (L)

(M)

The dichotomous key

1a) Specimen with two body divisions…………………………………….…specimen O

b) Specimen with more than two body divisions……………………………….go to 2

2a) Specimens with wings……………………………………………………………..go to 3

b) Specimens with wings absent……………………………………………………go to 4

3a) Specimen with legs hairy…………………………………………………... specimen K

b) Specimen with spiny legs……………………………………………………specimen M

4a) Specimen with body ovoid…………………………………………………..specimen N

b) Specimen with body cylindrical…………………………………………….specimen L

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NB: Dichotomous keys vary from one student to another. Everyone can
have a starting point for comparison. Try using the above specimens and
their features to come up with a dichotomous key of your own.

Exercise 1 (a)
Day & Date: ………….….……………...… / ……… / ……………….

You are provided with the following plant leaves;

• A pawpaw leaf labeled A

• pumpkin leaf labeled B
• Commelina leaf labeled C
• Cana lily leaf labeled D and
• cassava leaf labeled E

NB: refer to section 3 for a full list of terms used to describe leaves.

Using only the observable features of the specimens, construct a

dichotomous key to classify the specimens. Fill the observable features in
the table below.

Feature Leaves
A B C D E
a. Lamina
i. Shape
ii. Venation
iii. Margin

iv. Apex

v. Texture

vi. General
form (lobed
or non-
lobbed)
vii. Leaf type
(simple or
compound)
b. Stalk
i. Texture

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 ii. Nature (
petiole or
sheath)
iii. State ( hollow
or compact)
iv. Rigidity (hard
or spongy)
v. Groove

Use the observable features you have filed in the table to draw a

dichotomous key for the specimens. The flow chart

The dichotomous key

Exercise 1 (b)
Day & Date………..… / ………………………. / 20……………

Specimens V, W, X, Y and Z are common plant organs. Use them to answer

the questions that follow. Where necessary, use a hand lens to observe the
specimens.

• V is a flower of Bouganivillae
• W is a flower of Acassia
• X is a Hibiscus flower
• Y is a male maize flower
• Z is a flower of Panicum maximum.

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(i) State the observable features of the specimens as required in the
table below.

Features Specimen
V W X Y Z
Calyx
(sepals)

Corolla
(petals)

Stigma

Style

Ovary

Anther

Filament

Flower
stalk

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(ii) Use the features you have stated in a (i) above to construct a
dichotomous key for the specimens.

The flow chart:

The dichotomous key

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

Exercise 1 (c)

Day & Date: ……………….. ……… / …………. / 20………

You are provided with specimens P Q R and S. Carefully observe the

specimens and use them to answer the questions that follow.

• P is a freshly killed sterilized cockroach

• Q is a freshly killed worker bee
• R is a freshly killed sterilized housefly
• S is a freshly killed worker termite

Use a hand lens to observe the specimens and thereafter write short answers in the
table below.

Feature Specimen
P Q R S

Eyes

Antennae

Mouth parts

Legs

Using the features you have stated in the table. Write a dichotomous key
for the specimens P,Q, R and S in the space provided.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………

………………………….……………………………………………………………………...………
……

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

………………………………………………………………………………………………...…………
…

Chapter 2

ANIMAL ANATOMY
Objectives

By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to;

• Describe the anatomical structures of common animal specimens such as;

arthropods, mammals, etc.
• Explain the structural adaptations of different animal parts to their functions.
• Draw diagrams to show the structures of specified animal parts.
2.1: ARTHROPODS
These are animals that display the following characteristics.
• Possession of jointed appendages
• A hard cuticle made of chitin as strengthening compound hardened to varying
degrees.

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 • Muscles internally attached to the cuticle functioning as an exoskeleton.
• Possession of compound eyes in some groups for vision.

Classification of arthropods

Arthropods are classified into five classes namely;

i. Crustacean
ii. Chilopoda
iii. Diplopoda
iv. Arachnida
v. Insect

Class Crustacea
These are arthropods which have the following features.

• A pair of antennae on the 2nd and 3rd segment and a pair of mandibles on the
4th segment.
• A pair of compound eyes
• Gills for gaseous exchange
• There is no distinct division between the head and the thorax. The two are
fused to form a cephalothorax.
Examples of such include; the water flea and woodlice, prawns, crabs,
crayfish, lobsters etc.

Class Arachnida
These have the following features.
• Body has two main divisions the anterior and posterior.
• The anterior part consists of the head and thorax not distinctly separate
forming a cephalothorax.
• The cephalothorax bears the sensory organs, mouthparts and limbs in pairs.
• The first pair of appendages on the cephalothorax is called chelicerae and
may be modified to form poison fangs or pincers.
• The second pair of appendages called the pedipalps may serve as legs, pincers
or feelers.
• Thorax is separated from abdomen by a narrow waist-like constriction.
• Head bears no antennae no compound eyes but only simple eyes.
• There are usually four pairs of walking legs on segments 4-7.
• Gaseous exchange occurs through book lungs located on the posterior part of
the body

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 Examples include; spiders, scorpions, mites, ticks and harvestmen

Fig.2.11: Diagrams showing the anatomy of arachnids

Ventral view of a Dorsal view of a tick

Adaptations of the arachnids to their mode of life and habitat

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 • Well-developed mouth parts for piercing the host’s skin to suck blood.
• Possession of dull colours to camouflage and hide away from their predators.
• Possession of well-developed mouth parts equipped with pedipalps for holding
food.
• Possession of poison fangs for paralyzing prey. This is important in capturing
prey.
• Possession of book lungs on the posterior part of the body. These ensure
efficient gaseous exchange in the animal.
• Well-developed sense organs such as simple eyes and modified pedipalps on
the anterior part of the body increase the animal’s irritability. They also
enable animals locate their hosts e.g. ticks which locate enemies using carbon
dioxide.
• A solitary mode of life (tend to avoid company) enables them survive
predation.
• Production of silken webs for trapping prey. This is a feeding habit common in
spiders.

Economic importance of arachnids

• Some are causative agents of disease such as ticks which cause East coast
fever in cattle and Lyme disease in humans.
• They are sources of natural fibers such as silk produced by spiders. This can
be used for manufacture of textiles.
• They are also common biological specimen hence facilitating research.

Class Chilopoda (centipedes)

These are characterized by the following:

• A clearly defined head with other body segments identical. Body segments
vary in number from 12 to 100.
• A single pair of highly jointed antennae on the anterior head.
• A pair of small strong toothed and bristly mandibles. The animal is mainly
carnivorous.
• There is jaws ( mouthparts)
• There are many similar legs with a single pair per segment.

Examples include; Lithobius; the common garden centipede.

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Fig 2.12: Diagram of a centipede showing the external features

Class Diplopoda (millipedes)

Structural features of diplopods include;

• A hard protective layer of calcium-containing chitin (except in some small

species),
• Two simple eyes,
• One pair of mandibles for biting food. They are mainly herbivorous.
• Two short antennae.
• Stink glands with secretions that repel or kill insect predators.

Fig 2.13 Iulus the common garden millipede

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In old classification schemes, the diplopods and Chilopoda are grouped
together forming the phylum Myriapoda.

The phylum is very significant in;

• Burrowing of soil to create passages for air and water hence improving the soil
drainage and aeration.

Millipedes being herbivorous in nature

• Facilitate the breakdown of organic food substances hence improving manure

to the soil and improving its efficiency in farming.

Class Insecta
Insects are the second largest class of arthropods with the following structural
features.

• Three main body divisions separated into distinct head thorax and abdomen.
• Usually three pairs of mouthparts
• A pair of compound or simple eyes or both.
• Three pairs of walking legs on the three thoracic segments with a single pair
per segment.
• Usually one or two pairs of wings on thorax on the 2nd and or 3rd segment.
• Gaseous exchange occurs through spiracles that open on flanks of abdominal
and thoracic segment.

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Table 3 showing the common structural features of some orders of insects
Insect order Structural features Examples
Diptera • A single pair of • House flies
translucent wings. • Mosquitoes
• A second pair of wings • Tsetse flies
reduced to halters. • Fruit fly (Drosophila
• A pair of short melanogaster)
antennae
• Cerci reduced or absent
• Mouth parts modified
for sucking

Dictyoptera • Mouth parts modified • Cockroaches

for biting (mandibles • Praying mantis
present
Two pairs of wings
• structurally similar to
those of orthopterans.
• Hind legs longer in
• cockroaches
Forelegs longer in
mantis.
Very long wire like
(filiform) antennae
Long segmented anal
cerci.

Isoptera • Biting mouth parts ▪ Termites

• (mandibles)
2 pairs of
• membranous wings
• all equal in size.
Wings can be shed off
Some are wingless

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 Hymenoptera • Biting and sucking • Ants
• mouth parts • Bees
• 2 pairs of • Wasps
• membranous wings
Fore wings longer
• than hind wings
Waist like
constriction the
hymen joins thorax to
abdomen. (hence
name of order) Stings
present in wasps and
bees

Lepidoptera • A pair of scaly wings • Butterflies

• hence name of order • Moths
• Long coiled proboscis
for sucking
They are herbivorous
in the larva stages
with biting mouth
parts (caterpillars)

Odonanta • Biting mouth parts • Dragonflies

• Two pairs of • Damselflies
membranous wings
•
that are spread
horizontally at rest.
A pair of large
compound eyes

▪ Small antennae
▪ Elongated slender
abdomen.

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Coleoptera • Two pairs of wings. Outer • Weevils
wings; elytra are hard ant • Beetles
thick for protection while • Fireflies
• inner wings (tegmina) are
• membranous.
Biting mouth parts
Largest insects with
hardest bodies

Hemiptera • Piercing and sucking • Aphids

mouth parts • Bedbugs
Wings are absent in
some groups but if
present are
membranous.

THE AMERICAN COCKROACH-Periplaneta americana

Scientific classification
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Dictyoptera
Family: Blattidae
Genus: Periplaneta
Species: P.americana
External features of the adult cockroach

The head

• Is flat oval shaped and attached to the thorax by a short neck.

• Bears two large bean shaped compound eyes and simple eyes; oceli
which are less prominent.
• A pair of long slender filiform jointed antennae is prominent. These are
sensitive to touch, smell and vibration.

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 • Three pairs of mouth parts modified for biting. These consist of a pair of
long maxillary palps, labial palps, serrated mandibles and sensory hairs
that taste the food.
Diagram showing the structure of the head of a cockroach lateral view

The structure of the antenna of a cockroach

These are a pair of long, thread like appendages, extending forward from
an antennal socket located dorsally upon head capsule near the eye.
These are very mobile and act as tactile, thermal and olfactory receptor
organs. Each is formed of several small segments called podomeres. The
first basal podomere, called scape, is largest. The second called pedicel is
narrow and elongated. The remaining long, slender and many jointed
part of each antenna are called flagellum. They are best viewed
anteriorly when the cockroach is facing you. Structure of the cockroach’s
antenna

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Adaptation of the antennae to their function

• The antennae are hairy to increase sensitivity of the animal to

vibrations.
• They are long hence can reach and sense further than the reach of the
head.
• They are flexible and are easily twisted to reach the outside environment
effectively
• They are thin, light and tapering anteriorly hence are easily moved.

Mouth parts of the cockroach

They occur in threes including; a labrum, labium and maxillae which are
arranged around a hypo pharynx into which they open.
The labia and maxillae are equipped with labial and maxillary palps which hold
food.
There are also serrated mandibles situated above the maxillae for
biting and chewing food. The labrum is the upper lip while the
labium is the lower lip.

Adaptations of the mouth parts to their functions

• Serrated (toothed) mandibles cut and chew food.

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 • Maxillae have cutting blades (Lacinia) for cutting food.
• Maxillae possess sensory hairs for smelling food (olfactory function) 
Maxillary palps are jointed to collect, push and hold food.
• Labrum (upper lip)possesses strong muscles for holding food and
preventing it from falling during feeding
• The labium is equipped with a glossa for cutting food into small pieces

The thorax

• Consists of three segments the pro-thorax (pronotum), meso-thorax

(mesonotum) and metathorax (metanotum) each of which has points of
origin of a pair of legs.
• The legs are highly jointed, spiny and have a pair of claws and an
arolium/glandular pad at the distal end.
• Hind legs are longer and more muscular than the fore legs. This is an
adaptation to walking on the ground.
• The meso-thorax and meta-thorax each bear a pair of wings. The one
the meso-thorax; called the elytra is hard brown and opaque. It offers
protection to the inner wings on the Metathorax called the tegmen
which is membranous broad and translucent and are basically used for
flight.

On the last two thoracic segments opens a pair of spiracles one on either
side used for gaseous exchange.

The thorax and abdomen of a cockroach consist of the upper plate called a
tergum and a lower plate called a sternum sealed together laterally forming
a pleuron.

The abdomen

• Is broad and flattened dorso-ventrally in females and narrowed

posteriorly in males.
• Is segmented with about 10 segments on average. The abdomen is used
for sex identification in cockroaches.
• A pair of podical (gynovalvular) plates is held on the 7thabdominal
segment for holding the egg case called the ootheca.
• In males the 9th abdominal segment bears apair of Styles.
• The last abdominal segment bears a pair of anal cerci (singular cercus)

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 Lateral view of Periplaneta

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 Features on last abdominal segments of Cockroach

Adaptations of the cockroach to its mode of life and habitat

Cockroaches avoid light and concentrate in darker places. They like warm
dark places e.g.; in cracks, crevices and old boxes. They feed on all types of
food including fellow cockroaches, paper, clothes and small insects. They are
nocturnal i.e. tend to be more active at night.

Below are some of the adaptations to their mode of life.

• Dorso-ventral flattening of the body in shape makes them hide in

crevices and cracks where they are difficult to find and destroy.
• A dark brown color resembling that of their habitat ensures successful
camouflage.
• Possession of hard outer wings covered by a layer of waxy cuticle for
protection from both mechanical damage and desiccation on the land.
• Possessions of long filiform antennae that enable them feel around their
vicinity. This increases irritability of the animal.

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 • A highly segmented body which makes them very flexible during
movement.
• Hind legs are longer than fore- legs and are Z-shaped. This makes the
animal able to walk swiftly on the ground. The cockroach is the fastest
running insect!  Possession of spines on legs for protection.
• Possession of a pair of claws on the last tarsal segment enables the
animal to grip onto surfaces.
• Inner wings are modified to facilitate flight by having being very light
and offering little resistance in air and also a network of veins for
circulation of gases during flight.
• The body of a cockroach secretes a glossy smooth substance that
enables the animal escape its predators and also prevents desiccation
since it is waterproof.
• Mouth parts equipped with highly serrated strong and hard mandibles
for cutting, biting and chewing food.
• There is a pair of hairy maxillae which taste food before biting as well as
directing it to the mouth.

The economic importance of a cockroach

• Spreading germs for diseases like trachoma, dysentery and cholera.

• Used as biological specimens to represent arthropods due to their size
and availability.
• They are household pests where they destroy clothes, paper, utensils,
etc.

THE HOUSEFLY -Musca domestica

Scientific classification:

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Diptera
Family: Muscidae
Genus: Musca
Species: domestica

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External features of an adult housefly

The housefly has three distinct body divisions with a clearly defined; head, thorax,
and abdomen.

The head

• Is oval shaped and hairy.

• Bears a pair of prominent compound eyes and three simple eyes (oceli)
• There is also a proboscis modified for sucking. ( houseflies feed on fluids)

Diagram showing the external features of an adult housefly in dorsal view

Antenna
Leg
Compound eye
Simple eye
Wing
Prothorax

Mesothorax Thorax
Metathorax
Haltere
Abdomen

Anterior view of adult housefly

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 Lateral view of the housefly head to show the mouth parts

Compound eye
Antennae with lateral
bristle
Labrum
Maxillary palp
Labellum

Pseudo tracheae
Anterior view of the housefly head showing mouth parts

Compound eye
Antennae with lateral
bristle
Labrum
Maxillary palp
Labellum

Pseudo tracheae

The thorax

• Has three segments i.e. prothorax, mesothorax and metathorax. All of which
are hairy.
• Each of the thoracic segments has a pair of legs.
• The mesothorax bears a pair of membranous translucent wings.
• The metathorax bears a pair of halters (balancers). This is the most
distinguishing feature of Dipterans.
• Spiracles open on flanks between the 2nd and 3rd thoracic segment.
• There are black strands running longitudinally in the thorax.

37|P a g e
 Outer membrane

Base

Vein

Inner membrane

The abdomen

• Is short and hairy with at most four of its segments clearly seen.
• It bears a pair of spiracles opening on flanks of the segments.
• The last segment bears the external genitalia.

The economic importance of a housefly

• Spreading the germs that cause diseases such as dysentery, cholera,

trachoma, etc.
• Elimination of rotting material from our environment since they feed on them.
• Use as biological specimens for research since they can be captured easily
and are readily available.

The honey bee- Apis mellifera

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Arthropoda
Class: Insecta
Order: Hymenoptera
Family: Apidae
Genus: Apis
Species: mellifera

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External features of the Honey bee (lateral view)

Drawing of the legs of a honey bee

Left foreleg left middle leg outer surface of hind leg

inner surface

Like other insects, the bee has three distinct body divisions. These are head,
thorax and abdomen. The body is entirely hairy and segmented.
The head

• The head is freely mobile and not fixed to the thorax.

• It bears a pair of compound eyes together with three simple eyes.
• There is also a pair of short segmented antennae.
• The mouth parts consist of a proboscis modified lapping (drinking fluid into
mouth) and nest building while the glossa is modified for sucking.

The thorax

• Consists of three segments i.e. prothorax, mesothorax, and metathorax.

• Each of the segments bears a pair of jointed hairy legs.
• There are two pairs of transparent membranous wings with the hind wings
smaller than the forewings.
• The wings are interlocked by means of structures called hook lets.

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 • The metathorax is separated from the abdomen by a narrow waist like
constriction called the hymen hence the name of the order.

Drawing of the anterior view of the headOcellus

of a honey bee

Compound eye
Antenna
Mandibles

Paraglossa
Stipe
Labial palp Proboscis

Glossa

The abdomen

• The 1stabdominal segment is usually fused to the metathorax.

• A sting exists on the last abdominal segment.
• On the lateral side of each abdominal segment lie spiracles which open into
the body wall.

EXERCISES ON ARTHROPODS

EXERCISE 2.1 DATE: ………………../……………/

20…..

You are provided with specimens T which is a freshly killed arthropod.

Observe it carefully and use it to answer the questions that follow.

a.Giving at least a structural feature on the specimen as a reason for

your answer, state the phylum class and order of the specimen.
i.Phylum
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

Reason
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………

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 ii.Class:

……………………………………………………………

…..

Reason

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
ii. Order
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

Reason(s)
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………
………………

b. Describe the structure of the legs and wings of the specimen.

i. Legs

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii. Wings

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……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. State the adaptation of the legs and wings to their functions.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………

d) Using a razor or surgical blade, cut one hind and one fore limb from the point of
attachment to the body of the specimen. Stretch the limb and use a thread to
measure their lengths.

i. Measure and record the lengths of the legs.

Length of fore limb
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
Length of hind limb
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
ii.Work out the ratio of length of fore limb to
length of the hind limb.

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 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
iii.What is the significance of this ratio in the
mode of life of an organism?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….

e. Cut off another hind limb at the point of attachment to the body.
Draw and label appropriately.

f. Cut off one of the left outer wing of the animal from the point of
attachment to the thorax. Draw and label appropriately

43|P a g e
Exercise 1.11
Date: ………../………………../20…….

Specimens Q and P are freshly killed animals. Observe them carefully and
use them to answer questions that follow. Q is a freshly killed cockroach
while P is a freshly killed housefly.

a.Giving at least one observable feature as a reason for your answer, state
the classes of the specimens.
Specimen Q
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
Reason :
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Specimen P
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
Reason
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. Observe the specimens using a hand lens and state any differences in
the structures you have observed.
Specimen Q Specimen P
Head

Thorax

Abdomen

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 c. State the significance of the position of the eyes on the specimen Q.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………Remove the outer wings of specimen P, draw and label the
ventral side of the abdominal and thoracic regions of the specimen. State
your magnification.
Exercise 2.12 Date: ………….…../……………../20…...

Specimens K, L and M are freshly killed animal representatives.

Observe them carefully and use them as instructed to answer the
questions that follow.

a.Classify with observable features as a reason for your answer. Specify the;
i. Class for specimens K, L and M

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………

Reason(s)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………

ii. Order

M:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

L:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

K:
……….......................................................................................................................
..

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 Reasons:

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
b.Suggest the habitat for specimen L.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c. Mention any three structural adaptations of the specimen L to its habitat.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………

State any structural differences between specimens K and L

Specimen K Specimen L

i.
ii.

iii.

iv.

v.

46|P a g e
d. Observe the anterior head of specimen L using a clean hand lens. Draw and label in
the space below.

2.2 BIRDS AND THEIR LOCOMOTORY STRUCTURES

Birds are vertebrates of the class Aves. They have the following as their
characteristics.

• Their fore limbs are modified to form wings used for flight.
• Possession of toothless jaws covered by a horny beak
• Chest bones (sternum and pectoral girdles are expanded for attachment of
flight muscles.
• Skin covered by feathers
• Scales cover the legs

Locomotory structures of birds

2.21.Feathers

These are horny outgrowths on the skin of the birds. They are similar to the scales
of reptiles.

They are used for aerial movement (flight) and insulation of the body against heat
loss.

Structure of a bird’s feather

• A feather consists of two principal parts; the axis (rachis), or spine-

like central structure, and the barb, or side branch of the stem.
• The axis is divided into a bare, hollow portion known as the quill
(calamus) and a barb-bearing, solid part called the shaft.
• The base of the quill is rooted in a small sac of the skin and has a
tiny opening for the entrance of the nutritive pulp, which feeds the
feather while it is growing.

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 • The barbs, which all together form the vane or fringe, are linked to
each other by pointed barbules, or smaller barbs, which may be
again interlocked by minute hooks.

Types of bird’s feathers

▪ Quill feathers
▪ Contour feathers
▪ Down feathers

Diagram showing the location of feathers on a bird

1.Quill feathers
Location: These cover large wings and tail of the bird. They are mainly used for
flight

Features:

• Have interlocking barbules rendering the feather water proof.

• Have a small shaft
• A stiff , hollow quill or calamus
• Two holes at the base the superior and inferior umbilicus on the quill
A strong solid (axis) rachis.

Diagram showing the structure of a quill feather

48|P a g e
Structure in relation to function

• Quill feathers are used for flight in birds. This is due to the large
surface area provided by the large vane.
• The long quill provides strong attachment to the body of the bird.
• Vane consists of interlocking barbules that serve as a waterproof
surface hence protection from bad weather.
• The quill is hollow to reduce the weight of the feathers on the body
during flight  The vane is glossy to provide water proof surface to
the animal.

2. Contour feathers (pennae)

• These are similar in structure to the quills except that they are smaller
and flexible compared to quills.
• Their barbs are less firmly attached.
• They have a flexible quill

Structure in relation to function

49|P a g e
 • A fluffy after shaft for insulation of the body against heat loss
(thermoregulation).
• A curved surface which renders the bird its shape.

3. Down feathers
• Consists of long, loose, soft plumes making them soft and fluffy.

Tuft of barbs

Rachis
• Have short small calamus
• A very large after shaft
• No central axis (rachis)
Structure in relation to function
• Barbs increase the total insulation against heat loss.
• The fluffy barbs trap a large volume of air hence increasing the total
insulation against heat loss since air is a bad conductor.

4. Filoplume feathers
These are small, simple, hair like feathers with a long shaft and a
rudimentary brush of barbs. They have free barbs at the tip. Have
many barbs Are threadlike in shape Have a quill.

50|P a g e
2.21: The bird’s leg

51|P a g e
 a. Observe carefully a bird’s leg cut from the hinge. Describe the structure of a
bird’s leg.

………………………………………….………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

How is the bird’s leg adapted to its function?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

b. Draw in the space below; the lateral view of a bird’s leg. Label appropriately.

c. In which way is a bird’s leg similar to that of a cockroach?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……
e.How are they different?
Bird’s leg Cockroach’s leg

EXERCISE 2.22 (feathers)

Date ………/………../20……...

You are provided with specimens A, B and C which are animal parts.
Study them carefully and answer the questions that follow.

53|P a g e
 a. State the identity of the specimens.
A. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
B. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
C. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
b. Give reasons for your answers in (a) above.
A. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………….
B. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………

C. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
c. State a location of the specimen on the animal from which they were obtained.
A. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
B. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
C. ………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
d. Give similarities and differences between specimens B and C.
Similarities
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

Differences
Specimen B Specimen C

e.
i.Add at least 6 drops of water to the surface of specimen B and observe
carefully. State your observation.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
ii.What is the significance of your observation to the animal’s mode of
life?
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

f. Make a well labeled drawing of specimen B in the space below.

g. How is the specimen adapted to its function?

55|P a g e
 …………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
……….

2.3 BONES OF MAMMALS

Mammals are chordates in the class Mammalia. They are called so
because of possession of bony skeletons and a dorsal nerve cord
originating from the notochord which exists in early stages of
development. All mammals produce bone tissue from special cells called
osteocytes or osteoblasts. The bones form the animal’s framework upon
which the structural plan of the animal is laid out. They are points of
attachment for muscles in animals Skeletons are important for
protection, support, movement and locomotion. In addition, the skeleton
is important for capturing and physical digestion of food as well as
transmission of sound and reproduction.

Skeleton is a term applied to all the rigid or semi-rigid structures

supporting the soft tissues of an animal's body and providing leverage for
muscular action.

2.31: The mammalian teeth

Mammals have teeth in their jaws that enable them break large food
particles to smaller ones. Mammals are described as heterodont
because of being with different types of teeth suited to do different
functions. Homodont animals have similar teeth in their jaws. Teeth are
bony structures found in the jaw bone of the mouth cavity of an animal.
Teeth are fixed in jaws by gums. The neck is the region between the root
and the crown.

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Structure of a mammalian tooth
A mammalian tooth consists of three parts i.e. crown, neck and root.
The crown is the uppermost part of the tooth above the gum while the
root is the region of the tooth below the gum. Types of mammalian teeth

Mammalian teeth are of four types. These are;

• Incisors
• Canines
• Premolars and
• Molars; all of which are modified in structure to perform different functions
during feeding for which reason mammals are described as heterodont
animals.
a. Incisors

These are the teeth located in the center of the front of the jaw bone. In
herbivores however, they are not present leaving a toothless gap called
diastema in the upper jaw. This increases efficiency during feeding
because it provides a plat form on which the vegetation is gripped.

 Are chisel shaped teeth used for cutting food

 Have only one root
 Are curved at the tips

 Have a flattened crown.

Adrawingshowing structureof an incisor tooth

Enamel
Crown

Neck

Root

Structure in relation to function (adaptation) in incisor teeth

 The chisel shaped edge of the tooth is used for biting and cutting food.
 A long root of the tooth is for anchorage of the tooth in the jaw bone to resist
the tension developed during biting and cutting Q

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 b. Canines
These teeth are found next to the incisors. They function to cut and tear
food. They are better developed in carnivores. They have;
 sharp long pointed edge
 larger roots than incisors

A drawing showing Structure of the

canine tooth
Enamel
Crown
Neck

Root

Structure in relation to function in canines

 Long pointed edge for tearing food.

 A large root for anchorage in the jaw bone

c. Premolars (bicuspids)

These are the large teeth next to canines in the jaw bone. They;

 Have two roots

 Have flattened surfaces
 Possess cusps on the top

Diagram showing structure of the premolar tooth

Cusp

Crown Enamel

Neck
Root

Structure in relation to function in premolars

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  A large flattened surface for increasing surface area for
chewing food.
 Possession of strong root(s) for strong support of the tooth
in the jaw bone.

d. Molars

These are the last teeth to develop in the jaws of mammals. They;

 Have three roots in the upper jaw.

 Have two roots in the lower jaw.
 Have 4-5 cusps on their crowns.
 Are large and rough.

Diagram showing the structure of a molar tooth

Cusp

Enamel
Neck

Root

Structure in relation to function in molar teeth

 Flat ridged surface for grinding and chewing food.

 Strong roots for anchorage in the jaw bone.

The arrangement of teeth in the mouth of an animal is referred to as

dentition. A summary of an animal’s dentition shows half of the jaw with
the number of teeth in upper and lower jaws. This is called a dental
formula.

A dental formula shows adaptation of animal to feeding on various foods. Let

us take a look at a few animals with their dental formulae in the table below.

Animal Type of food Dental formula

Dog Flesh

Rat Plant tissue

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Herbivore (cow or Plant tissue
goat)
Horse Plant tissue
Man Animal and plant tissue

Rabbit Plant tissue

Discuss with your teacher the adaptations of the animals to their feeding
habits basing on the dental formula. Write down your answers.
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………
……

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

EXERCISE 2.31 Date …………….. /…../……………./20…...

1.Specimens X and Y are teeth obtained from the same animal. Observe them
carefully to be able to answer questions that follow.
a. Giving at least an observable feature on the specimen as a
reason for your answer, state the identity of the specimens.
X. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
Reason(s)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………

Y. ……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………
Reason(s)
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………..…………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………

Compare the external features of specimens X and Y. Record

b.
your observations in the table below.
Similarities
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………

Differences

Specimen X Specimen Y

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 c
.
i. Suggest the role played by each of the specimens X and Y in
the mouth of the animal from which they were obtained.
X:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
Y:
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
ii. State how each of the specimens X and Y are modified to
perform the function you have mentioned in c (i) above.
X:…………………………………………………………………………………………
……
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………
Y:…………………………………………………………………………………………
………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………
d.i.Suggest the type of food eaten by the animal from which the
specimens were obtained.

……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
ii.Give a structural feature of the specimens as reason for
your answer in d(i) above.

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………..………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….

Observe the specimen X in lateral view. Draw and label appropriately in the
space below.

EXERCISE 2.32
Date: ……………………… /……………. /……………….
/……….

Specimens D and E are parts of an animal. They are in the same region.
Use them to answer the following questions.

a. Identify the specimens D and E.

D:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
E:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 b. Give structural features of the specimens as reasons for your answers in (a)
above
D.…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
E…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
c. With reasons suggest the functions of specimens D and E in digestion of food.
D…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
E…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………..
d. Compare the structural features of specimens D and E. record your
observationsin the table below.

Similarities

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………

Difference

Specimen D Specimen E

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 e. In the space below, draw the dorsal view of specimen E. Label your drawing
appropriately
THE VERTEBRAL COLUMN
Animals in the phylum Chordata are characterized by the possession at
some stage in their development a structure called the notochord
beneath a single hollow nerve cord and above the gut which in later
stages forms a vertebral column.

The sub phylum vertebrata consists of organisms including man which

have a back bone or spinal column formed by interlocking units called
vertebrae. This strong but flexible vertebral column

• supports the body ,

• anchors the limbs, and
• it also protects the nerves of the spinal cord

Bones of the vertebral column are separated from one another by

cartilaginous discs between them called intervertebral discs. These are
shown in the diagram below.

A lateral view of the lumbar vertebrae with spinal cord running through

Types of vertebrae

There are five main types of vertebrae each of which is found in a specific
region of the vertebral column. These are summarized in the table below.

Table showing the location number and general function of different

vertebrae

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Region Name of Number Function
vertebra
Man Rat Rabbit

Neck Cervical 7 7 7 ▪ Allowing flexibility of

the neck.
▪ Articulation with the
skull.
Chest Thoracic 12 13 12-13 ▪ Attachment of the ribs.
Abdominal Lumbar 5 6 6-7 ▪ Supporting the whole weight
region of the trunk
▪ Allow for flexibility of the
back.
After Sacral 5 4 3-4 ▪ The sacrum provides for
pelvic attachment of the
girdle appendicular skeleton i.e.
pelvic girdle.
Tail Caudal 4 27- 16 ▪ Form the tail used for
30 balancing the body during
movement.
Total 33 57- 44-47
60
Generalized structure of the vertebra

A vertebra consists of a central neural canal through which runs the spinal
cord surrounded by a body called a centrum which supports the body of the
vertebra whose upper part consists transverse processes used for
articulation with other skeletal parts such as ribs. The transverse processes
are curved outward forming preand post zygopophyses on dorsal and
ventral side of the vertebra used for articulation with adjacent vertebrae. The
elongated transverse process occupying the central portion of the vertebra is
called the neural spineor spinous process; the axis of which forms the
neural arch or lamina.

The cervical vertebrae

These are the vertebrae of the neck. They are similar in structure except the
first two bones which are called the atlas and axis vertebrae. Generally the
cervical vertebrae show the following features.

• They have a small centrum below a triangular neural canal

• They have a short neural spine

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 • They are perforated at the transverse processes by ovoid vertebral arterial
canals or foramen which is passage of spinal nerves and blood vessels.
• The transverse processes are very small if present or completely absent in the
last cervical vertebra C7
• The zygapophyses are not present.

Diagram showing the dorsal and lateral view of the cervical vertebra

The Atlas Vertebra

• This bone lacks a centrum but
• It has anterior tubercular facets for articulation with the occipital condyle of
the skull. These allow the nodding of the head.
• It has a very small neural spine.
• Transverse processes are flat and broad.

A drawing of the structure of the atlas vertebra

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Structure in relation to function ion the atlas vertebra (adaptation
of the atlas vertebrae to its function.

• Possession of articular facets for allowing the articulation with the skull to
allow for nodding of the head.
• Presence of vertebraterial canals for passage of blood vessels and spinal
nerves.

The axis vertebra

The axis vertebra is the second cervical vertebra. It is located below the
atlas bone in the neck region. It has the following features.

• Its process on the centrum projects forward. This is called the odontoid
process or dens.
• It has no prezygapophyses.
• A laterally flattened bifid neural spine (spinous process).(Divides at the
posterior end into two equal parts.)

Diagram showing the structure of the axis vertebra (lateral view)

(Odontoid process)

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Structure in relation to function in axis vertebra

• A bifid spinous process (neural spine)

• A tooth like dens (odontoid process) around which the atlas rests to carry
above it a cranium (skull) and allows rotation by pivoting the neck during
sideways movement.

The next cervical vertebrae are all similar in structure. They are four in
man. They serve to keep the neck flexible and firm in position. They have
a short neural spine, a small centrum and vertebral arterial canals on the
transverse processes. The three types of cervical vertebrae are all shown
in the diagram below.
The other vertebrae take up positions just below the thoracic vertebrae as
shown in the diagram below.

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70|P a g e
Thoracic vertebrae
These are found in the trunk or chest of a vertebrate animal. They mainly serve
to provide attachment for the ribcage. They have the following features.

• Long neural spine projecting backwards.

• Tubercular and capitula facets for articulation with the ribs.
• A notch for passage of spinal nerves.
• A circular neural canal smaller than that of either cervical or lumbar.

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 A drawing showing the thoracic vertebra in lateral view

A drawing showing the anterior view of the thoracic vertebra

Structure in relation to function in the thoracic vertebra

• They have large neural canal to accommodate the enlargement of the spinal
cord in this region in relation to the innervation (nervous supply) of the upper
limbs.
• The adjacent cervical vertebrae articulate in a way that permits free flexion,
extension and some lateral flexion but restricted rotation of the chest.

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How the thoracic vertebra articulate with ribs lateral view

Drawing of a rib

Lumbar vertebrae
These vertebrae are located in the abdominal region of the vertebrate
skeleton. They serve to support the weight of the whole body. They also
allow flexibility of the abdominal region. They have the following
features.

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 • A large centrum (body),
• Long and wide transverse processes are well developed.
• Have prezygapophyses, anapophyses, hypophyses, metapophyses and
postzygophyses sometimes called mammillary processes.
• Their short flat neural spines (spinous process) project forward and
downwards.
• Triangular neural canal but larger than in cervical vertebrae.

Structure in relation to function in lumbar vertebrae

• Because the weight they support increases towards the inferior end of the
vertebral column, lumbar vertebrae have massive bodies, accounting for
much of the thickness of the lower trunk in the median plane
• Possession of large elongated transverse processes for attachment of
abdominal muscles.
• Their spinous processes project downwards and forward thus allowing
flexibility but not rotation of the back.

The sacrum
This is a triangular structure formed when several sacral vertebrae are
fused together. The most anterior sacral vertebrae have well developed
transverse process for articulation with the pelvic girdle.

Features of the sacral vertebrae

• Possess a small neural canal.

• Large wing like transverse processes

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The function of the sacral vertebrae is to transmit the weight of the body
of a stationary animal to the pelvic girdle.

Adaptation of the sacral vertebrae to their function

• Large wing like transverse processes for attachment of muscles.

• Fusion of several sacral bones to form a sacrum which is large enough to
withstand the weight of the upper part of the body which is transferred to the
legs via the pelvic girdle.

The caudal vertebrae

These bones are found in the tail of a vertebrate animal. They are arranged
in order of descending size towards the distal end of the tail.

• They gradually show decrease in the size of transverse processes

• The neural canals and spines also decrease down the length of the tail.
In man the caudal vertebrae are fused to form the coccyx.

The appendicular skeleton

This comprises of the limbs and the limb girdles. It provides a connection
between the axial skeleton and the limbs.

The structure of the limbs

The femur (thigh bone)

This is the longest bone produced in a mammal. It is found in the leg of

the mammal connecting from the pelvic girdle to the knee. It has a head
region at the proximal end consisting of a rounded surface which

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articulates with the acetabulum of the pelvic girdle resulting in a ball and
socket joint.

It also has three rough bony projections called trochanters near its head.

The proximal end of the femur consists of articulating surfaces of the

patella forming the hinged knee joint. There are also rounded and folded
surfaces that provide for muscle attachment.

The tibia (shin bone)

This bone forms the front of the leg as a supporting bone connected to the
triangular knee cap also known as the patella. The proximal end of the
tibia consists of flattened articulating surfaces of the condyles joining it to
the hinged knee joint these include the lateral and medial condyles.

Running down the femur is a groove known as the popliteal line whose
mass increases towards the distal end of the tibia.

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At the base of the lateral condyles is a point at which the tibia articulates
with the fibula. The distal end of the tibia is made up of a rounded
medial malleolus where it articulates with the tarsals of the foot.

The fibula articulates with the tarsals at the lateral malleolus. The fibula
forms the back of the leg. See the diagram below.

The humerus

This is the bone of the upper arm or the fore limb. The top end of the
humerus is rounded and fits into a cup-shaped depression in the
scapula, or shoulder bone, forming a ball-and-socket joint. Ball-and-
socket joints permit circular motion.

The lower end of the humerus joins with the two bones of the forearm at
the elbow to form a hinge joint. Hinge joints permit back-and-forth

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movements similar to those of a hinged door. The two bones of the forearm
are the radius and the ulna.

Diagram showing the anterior and posterior views of the humerus

articulating with radius and ulna

The ulna and radius

This is one of the bones that form the lower arm. It is fixed in position but
is connected to a smaller bone the radius which permits movement of the
arm in a direction of twist.
Diagram showing the structure of the radius and ulna

The ulna is fixed in position, but the radius can rotate over the ulna.
This makes rotation of the forearm possible in motions such as twisting
a screwdriver.

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There are two girdles; namely;

▪ The pectoral girdle: consisting of the scapula, coracoid

process and breast bone and the limbs.

▪ The pelvic girdle: consists of the pubis, ilium and ischium all fused together.
They
leave a large hole called the obturator foramen
providing for attachment of muscles and
reducing the weight of the pelvic girdle.

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Illustration of the pelvic girdle with sacrum still in place

Of much practical importance are the structures of these bones. We now

take a closer look at each of them.

The scapular (shoulder bone)

This is a flat triangular bone on the postero-external aspect of the upper
part of the thorax, connected with the sternum by the clavicle, and carrying
the humerus

Structure of the scapular

It has three borders and three angles, and a dorsal and a ventral surface.

• The ventral surface is concave, forming the subscapular fossa covered

by and giving origin to Subscapularis: a raised rim along its inner
border for insertion of Serratus Magnus.
• Dorsal surface presents the prominent spine, projecting as a free
process, the acromion, in a forward and upward direction externally :
• The spine divides the dorsal surface into an upper supraspinous fossa,
and a lower infraspinous fossa, giving origin to muscles.
• An articular facet for the clavicle occupies the front portion of the inner
border of the acromial process: in front of this the acromion presents a
free extremity.

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EXERCISES ON BONES

EXERCISE 2.31
Date ……………/……………/20…………….

You are provided with specimens B and C which are bones obtained from the
same animal. Study them carefully and use them to answer the questions that
follow.

a.
i. Identify the specimens B and C.
B…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
C………………………………………………………………………………….………………
…

ii. Give reasons for your identification given in (a) above. These should
be observable features on the specimens.

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………

b.

i. State the location of the specimen B. and identify the bone in the limb
which articulates with it.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
i. Name the type of joint formed at the point of articulation of B with
the bone you have named in (c) above.

……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
…………

c.i.State the function of the specimen B.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………….
ii. How is the specimen B suited to its function?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……….
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

d.In the space below, make a well labeled drawing of specimen B.

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 e.i. How is the specimen C suited to its function?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…..
i. Make a well labeled drawing of the specimen C in the space below

Exercise 2.32
Date…………………………../……………………/20…………

You are provided with specimens P, Q and R which are bony structures obtained
from the same animal. Observe them carefully to answer the questions that
follows.
a.i. Identify the specimens P, Q and R.

P …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
Q …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

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 R …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

ii. Suggest the parts of the body where the specimens may have been obtained.
P …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
Q …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
R …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
c. State the function of each of the specimens giving a
structural feature as an adaptation in each case.
P

Function
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
………………………………….………………………………………………………………
…...
Adaptation:
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
Q
Function………………………………………………………………………………………
……
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
….
R
Function
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

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 …………………….……………………………………………………………………………
…..
Adaptation :
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

c.Compare the structure of specimens Q and R.

i.Similarities
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…..
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
Differences

Specimen Q Specimen R

In the space below, draw the structure of specimen R in its anterior view.

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EXERCISE 2.33
Date ……………………../………………/20……………..

You are provided with specimens D and E which are skeletal tissues
obtained from the same animal. You are required to answer the following
questions after carefully observing the specimens.
a. State the identity of each of the specimens
D…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…..
E…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…..

b. Suggest the location of each of the specimens in the animal from which they
were obtained.
Give an observable feature as a reason for your answers.
D …………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
Reason
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………

E …………………………………………………………………….……………………………
…
Reason
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

c. Compare the specimens D and E. record your observations in the table below.
i.Similarities

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…..
ii.Differences
specimen D specimen E

g.Make a well labeled drawing of specimen E in the space provided.

2.4. FISHES
Fish constitute a diverse group of animals that live and breathe in water.
For practical importance we shall consider this mode of life in relation to
the body structure of common fish.

Characteristics of fish

• Skin covered by scales

• Possessions of fins for movement
• Gills on head for breathing.

Scientific classification of Tilapia

Kingdom Animalia
Phylum Chordata

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 Class Pisces
Order Oisteichthyes (bony
fishes)
Family Cichlid
Genus Tilapia
Species zilli

Table summarizing the structural features of cartilaginous and bony fishes

Order Chondrichthyes order Oisteichthyes(bony fish )

(cartilaginous fish)
• Skeleton made up of • Skeleton made of bone
cartilage only
• Possess branchial valves • Possess a muscular flap of
between gill pouches for skin the operculum
covering the gills. protecting the gills.
• Large placoid (flattened • Small cycloid flattened
tooth like) scales cover the smooth edged scales cover
skin. the skin

Dorsal fin Scale

Tail fin Lateral line
Eye
Nostril

Mouth

Operculum

Anal (ventral) Pelvic fin

Pectoral fin
STRUCTURE OF A BONY FISH for example Tilapia zillii

The fish’s gills

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These are the structures specialized for gaseous exchange in fish. They
are located on the lateral side of the head opening into the pharynx
through the pharyngeal cavity.

Adaptations of gills to their function

These apply to all respiratory surfaces.

• Possession of gill rakers that filter large particles before they reach and
damage the lamellae.
• Extensive capillary network ensures continuous exchange of gases
between blood and water.
• A thin epithelium reduces the distance over which diffusion occurs hence
increasing the rate of diffusion of respiratory gases.
• A large surface area exposed by numerous gill filaments increases the
speed of gaseous exchange.

Diagram showing the structure and location of the fish’s gills

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 Position of operculum
Gill rakers

Gill bar

Gill filaments

Adaptation of fish to their habitat and mode of life

• Scales protect the body from mechanical injury.

• Skin produces a slippery secretion that enables the animal escape
predation.
• Gills located on the head below the operculum are used for gaseous
exchange in water.
• A stream lined body shape reduces the resistance during swimming
movements in water.
• Possession of the caudal (tail) fin for providing a forward thrust during
takeoff.
• Possession of nostrils for olfaction (smell) enabling the animal find its food
in water and escape from predators.
• A lateral line containing jelly like material that detects vibrations in water
hence increasing sensitivity.
• A keen eye sight enhanced by a large eye located on the anterior head.
• The head of all fish tapers anteriorly to reduce the total resistance to
water flow during swimming.

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 • The median fins, that is, the dorsal, anal and ventral fins, control the
rolling and yawing movements of the fish by increasing the vertical
surface area presented to the water.
• The paired fins, pectoral and pelvic, act as hydroplanes and control the
pitch of the fish, causing it to swim downwards or upwards according to
the angle to the water at which they are held by their muscles.

EXERCISE ON FISH

Exercise 2.41

Date …………./…………../20………..

Specimen F is a freshly killed animal. Observe it carefully and use it to

answer the questions that follow.

a.State the following taxa for the specimen.

i. Phylum
……………………………………………….…………………………………………………
…
ii. Class
………………………………………………………..………………………………………
……
b. Mention an observable feature on the specimen as a reason for each of
your answers in (a) above.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……

c. Suggest the suitable habitat for specimen F.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
d. What structural features of specimen F make it suit its mode of life in the
habitat you have just mentioned in (c) above?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…

……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……...

e. Identify the structures covering the skin of the specimen

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……
i. Carefully pluck out one the structures on the skin. Observe it under a lens
and draw the features seen. State your magnification

ii. How is the structure you have drawn adapted to its function?
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………
………………

f. Place the animal with the lateral side uppermost on a dissecting tray.
Cut to remove the operculum taking great care not to harm the gills.
Draw and label the structures exposed in the cavity of the
operculum.

g. Draw the tail of the specimen in the space below. Label your drawing
and state the magnification.

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 Chapter 3

PLANT ANATOMY

Objectives

By the end of this chapter, learners should be able to;

• Describe the structural features of plants.

• Make drawings of the different plant organs of specimen plants.
• Explain the adaptation of plant structures to survival of the organism.
• Describe the role of plant parts in the life of the plants basing on observable
features.

3.1: STRUCTURE OF THE FLOWERING PLANT

Flowering plants are grouped in the division Angiospermophyta of the
kingdom Plantae. They are structurally divided into two parts; the root and
the shoot. The ascending portion of the plant is called the shoot
while the descending portion is called the root.

Leaf

Terminal bud
Shoot system
Axil Internode
Axillary bud

Node

Root system
Lateral root
Main root

3.2: THE SHOOT SYSTEM

The shoot is the portion of the plant that grows from the radicle of the embryo after
fertilization.

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This is the portion of the plant that grows above the ground. It consists of a
stem which holds leaves, buds, fruits and flowers.

3.21: Stems
The stem forms the main axis of the plant shoot. It has leaves at intervals
and terminal buds at the growing points. The leaf springs from the stem at a
point called the node. The length between two successive nodes is called the
internode. The angle formed between the leaf and the stem is called the axil
and the leaves that grow at such points are called axillary/ lateral buds.

Classification of stems
Stems are divided into aerial and underground stems.

Aerial stems grow above the ground. Some can support the plant in
upright hence are conveniently called the erect stems. Some erect stems
contain wood due to presence cellulose and lignin in cells. These are
called woody stems. Examples include Mahogany, Ficus, Mango trees,
etc. Others don’t contain wood are predominantly by water these are
called herbaceous stems.

Other stems cannot support the plant in upright position and are called weak
stems. These are further classified into twinning, climbing and creeping stems.
They rely on modifications of leaves and stems themselves to hold the plant
perpendicular or at some angle to the ground.

Runners and stolons

These stems grow above the ground but never upright. They bear
adventitious roots at nodes. New parts of the stem grow out at lateral
buds. They are used for vegetative reproduction.

Diagram showing the creeping stem of straw berry

Parent plant
Axillary

Scale

Runner Rootstock New runner

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Runners don’t store food hence are not perrenating organs. The main stem
is called a root stock. It bears scale leaves and foliage leaves. Runners
shrivel away when daughter plants are fully developed. Food is conducted
from the parent stem to the daughter stem. Examples include; strawberry,
oxalis, etc.

UNDERGROUND STEMS

Rhizomes

These are horizontally growing underground stems where the old part of the
plant lasts for several years.

• They have scale leaves which may break away forming a scar
• Buds are present in axils
• Adventitious roots are present at the nodes.

Examples include; couch grass (Elymus repens), ginger (Zingiber officinale,

bracken, iris etc.Diagram showing the structure of the stem of couch grass

Flower stalk

Leaf sheath
Swollen stem (rhizome)
Withered leaf

Vascular bundle
Leaf scar
Lateral rhizome

Adventitious roots

Functions of rhizomes

• Storage of food
• Vegetative propagation
Storage of food for the plant
Adaptations of rhizomes to their function

• Lateral buds grow into new branches of the rhizome.

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 • Scale leaves protect the stem from desiccation and mechanical injury
• Adventitious roots anchor the stem firmly in the soil and absorb water and
mineral salts.
• Swollen stem stores food for the plant

Corms

Bulbs e.g. onions, garlic and daffodils

These are short conical stems surrounded by fleshy leaf bases. They bear
adventitious rots and buds at the base. Green upper leaves manufacture food and
send it to fleshy underground leaf bases for storage.

New bulbs grow inside the old bulb and it produces contractile roots which pull the
new bulb down to maintain it in the soil.

Structure of an onion bulb

Flower bud

Foliage leaf

Scale leaf Storage leaf (leaf base)

Leaf bud
Stem
Adventitious roots

Functions of bulbs

• Storage of food for the plant

• Vegetative propagation

Adaptations of buds to their function

• Axillary (lateral buds ) grow into shoots

• Flower buds grow into flowers
• Scale leaves protect inner leaf bases which store food
Swollen leaf bases store food

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Stem tubers(e.g. Irish potato Solanum tuberosum)

These are swollen underground stems with ‘eyes’ formed by combination of scale
leaves and buds. They develop adventitious roots when sprouting begins as the
shoot grows up wards.

They don’t swell evenly along their length.

Diagram showing the structure of a sprouting Irish potato

Shoot

Lateral bud

Scale leaf

Adventitious root
Swollen stem

Diagram showing the structure of a non-sprouting Irish potato

Scale leaf
Eye
Lenticel
Lateral bud

Functions of stem tubers

• Storage of food
• Vegetative reproduction

Adaptations of stem tubers to their functions

• Axillary (lateral buds grow into shoots hence propagation.

• Scale leaves protect the buds from damage and desiccation
• The swollen stem stores food for the plant.
• Lenticels are used for gaseous exchange.

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General functions of stems to plants

• Supporting the plant above the plant

• Storage of water in the plant
• Transport of water and mineral salts through the plant

Modification of stems

They can be modified for;

• Vegetative propagation as in tubers, rhizomes, corms and stolons. Such stems

possess buds at nodes and grow adventitious roots.
• Protection from predation as in orange. Such stems have thorns for
threatening predators (herbivores)
• Storage of food as in sugarcane and other perrenating organs. These are
swollen with food reserves.
• Some stems are modified for photosynthesis. These grow resembling leaves
and such structures are called cladophylls. For example in Ruscus and
Asparagus

Adaptions of stems to their function

• Possession of lenticels used for gaseous exchange.

• They contain wood to increase resistance to air waves on land hence support.
• Stems of herbs contain much water to keep them turgid hence supporting the
herb.
• Possession of adventitious roots which offer extra support.
• Possession of chloroplasts in epidermal cells of some plant stems hence
photosynthesis
• Presence of a waxy cuticle on the epidermis for protection of the plant form
entry of pathogens as well as desiccation.
• Some weak stems such as hop and passion possess tendrils for coiling around
a support.

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 Diagram showing the structure on some modified stems

Exercise 3.21
You are provided with specimens S, T and U which are all plant parts. Observe
them carefully and answer the following questions.

a.i. Identify the specimens S, T and U.

S………………………………………………………………………………………………
T……………………………………………………………………………………………….
U………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 i. State structural features of the specimens used for the identification
above.
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. Observe carefully the specimens S and U. state similarities and

differences between the specimens.

i. Similarities
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

ii. Differences

Specimen S Specimen U

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 c. Make a drawing of specimen S in the space provided below

3.22: Leaves
A leaf is flat green blade composed of soft tissues of thin walled cells supported
by stronger veins. The leaf is joined to the stem by a stalk or petiole which
continues into a midrib (main vein) in dicotyledonous plants while the sheath
replaces the petiole in monocotyledonous plants.

Classification of leaves

Simple leaves

A simple leaf has its lamina either undivided or not completely divided into

leaflets.

External structure of a simple leaf

Margin

Lamina

Vein

Petiole

They differ in structure of their lamina apex and shape as shown in the diagram
below.

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 Diagram showing the different leaf margins

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Diagram showing common leaf shapes

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 Compound leaves

These are leaves whose lamina is perfectly divided into leaflets. They are named
according to the number of leaflets present. See the table below for names of
compound leaves

Leaflets name of Example

compound
leaf
2 bi-foliate bryophylum
3 tri-foliate bean, soya, cow pea,
Desmodium

5 Digitate silk cotton

(palmate )

arranged on opposite sides of the pinnate acassia leaf, ash

midrib i alternate pairs

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are subdivided into alternate Bi-pinnate Jacaranda mimmosifolia.
pairs on the leaf

Structural differences between monocot and dicot leaves

Dicot Leaf Monocot Leaf

• Net like pattern of veins resulting
in a reticulate (network venation)
• Prominent petiole attaches leaf to
stem at the node
• Dorsal and ventral surfaces of
leaf are different.
• Ligule absent
example: bean, mango, avocado,
bryophylum, cassava, pumpkin etc.
• A parallel pattern of veins
resulting in a parallel venation
• A leaf sheath attaches the leaf to
stem at the node.
• Dorsal and ventral surfaces of the
leaf are identical
• Ligule present
example: maize, sorghum, millet,
wheat, barley, Cana lily, bananas etc.

Leaf modifications

• Vegetative reproduction
• Some leaves are used for vegetative reproduction. They possess buds on
their margins. When the leaves get in contact with soil they develop
adventitious roots for support. For example bryophylum

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 A drawing of the leaf ofbryophylum
Bud

Bulbil (plantlet)
Adventitious roots

Petiole

• Support
Certain leaves are modified to provide support to the plant on which they
grow. These have tendrils on their tips. Tendrils are coiled structures on
plants usually sensitive to contact. They coil around a supportive
neighboring plant and remain held firmly above the ground. Examples
include; peas, beans, etc.

Structure of the leaf tendrils

• Protection

Leaves that are modified for protection have spines on their margins; e.g. goose
berry, Aloe- Vera. Also leaves of rhizomes and bulbs dry out to form scale leaves
which protect stems from desiccation.

• Storage

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 Some leaves are modified to store food and water for the plant. When a
dry seasons approaches, plants turn into seeds and their leaves change to
cotyledons. The cotyledons are modified leaves for storage of food. Leaves
that store water are succulent and swollen e.g. in bryophylum
• Attraction of pollinators.
In certain plant species, leaves are modified for attraction of pollinators
such as insects. This is due to possession of bright colors. E.g. In leaf
bracts of Bouganivillae

Exercise 3.22 (a)

You are provided with specimen B which is a plant organ. Study it carefully and
answer the questions that follow.

a.i.Identify the specimen

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Give three reasons for your answer in a (i) above.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. State three functions of specimen B to the plant from which it was

obtained

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c. How is specimen B adapted to its function which you have stated in (b)
above?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
d. Using one observable feature of specimen B, name the major group of
plants to which its plant belongs.

…………………………………………………………………..………………………………

e. Make a well labeled drawing of specimen B in the space below.

Exercise 3.22 (b)

Date: ………………../……………./20…………….

You are provided with specimens R, S, T, and U. Study them carefully and use
them to answer the questions that follow.

a. Observe the specimens carefully and write down the observable features
in the space below.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 b. Using only the observable features on specimens R, S, T and U; draw a
dichotomous key to identify the specimens.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

Make a well labeled drawing of specimen S in the space below.

Exercise 3.22 (c) Date: ………………/……………/20…..........

You are provided with specimens D, E, F and G which are all freshly detached
plant parts. Study them carefully to answer the questions below.

a. Identify the plant organ(s) represented by the specimens.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. Give three observable features as a reason for your answer(s)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. State the roles of specimens D and E to their plants

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

d. Use only the observable features on the lamina of the specimens to draw a
dichotomous key to identify each of the specimens

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

e. Suggest a habitat for specimen D. give a reason for your answer.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

f. State any structural adaptation of specimen G to the function it plays on

the plant form which it was detached.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

g. In the space below, draw and label the structure of specimen K

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3.23: Flowers

A flower is the reproductive part of a plant. The different parts of a flower are
arrange in rings called whorls on a large base called the receptacle supported by
the pedicel (flower stalk)

Structure of a flower

A typical flower consists of an expanded base the receptacle on which are borne
all floral whorls. The whorls have short internodes and occur in the order given
below starting with the innermost.

Floral part Component parts Significance

Carpels (collectively • An expanded hollow Produce the female
called gynoecium) or base; the ovary gametes and
pistils containing the egg develop into fruit
case called the after
ovule fertilization
• A narrow tube; the
style whose cavity is The gynoecium is
continuous with that the site of
of the ovary whose fertilization
distal
end flattens to form Reception of the
the Stigma
male sporangium,
the pollen grain
during pollination.
Stamens collectively • Ovoid anther heads Production of male
called the androecium containing pollen sacs gametes
in which pollen grains
are borne.
• A filament which
supports the anthers
in space.
The Corolla (collection • Petals are often colored Attraction of
of petals) and scented petals in pollinators such as
dicots insects.
but may be absent in Protection of the sex
monocots organs
The calyx (collection • Consists of sepals which Protection of the
of sepals) are often green. flower when it is still
in its bud.

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 Any floral whorl that grows outside the calyx is called the epicalyx e.g. in
Hibiscus (on cover of book)

In many monocot plants, the calyx and corolla are fused to form the perianth
segment.

Comparing the dicot and monocot flower

• Both consist of androecium and gynoecium

• Both are held by a stalk on the stem

Differences between monocot and dicot flowers

Dicot flowers Monocot flowers
• Floral parts are usually in fours • Floral parts are usually in threes.
or fives
• They have distinct petals and • There are no distinct petals and
sepals sepals. They are combined to
form perianth segments.
• Flat lobed sticky stigmas inside • Feathery stigmas hanging outside
the flower. the flower.
• Anthers firmly attached to the • Anthers are loosely attached to
filaments the filaments

A drawing showing longitudinal section of a dicot flower (e.g. Crotalaria

retusa) (half flower)

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 Petal

Stigma

Ovule Style
Pedicel

Anther

Sepal
Ovary
Filament
Intact flower of Crotalaria

Standard petal

Sepal
Wing petal

Pedicel

Keel petal

Ovary
Stigma
Style

Structure of the stamens of a dicot flower

Anther Fillament

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 Structure of the flower of a monocotyledonous plant
Most flowers of grasses are borne on the same stalk called the peduncle. They
occur in groups forming an inflorescence.

In maize the male and female flowers are not on the same stalk but they are
found on the same plant hence the flowers are unisexual. Male flowers occur in
pairs called spikelets enclosed by bracts

Diagram showing the location of flowers on maize plant (A), structure of

the male inflorescence (B) a single male spikelet (C) and a detailed
structure of the male flower
(D)

Male inflorescence

Female inflorescence

Anther Inner bract

Outer
bract

B Anther

Glume encloses
paired flowers

C
Diagram showing the structure of the female inflorescence of maize (A), longitudinal
section through inflorescence (B), longitudinal section through the female
flower (C) and single female spikelet (D)

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 Feathery
stigmas

Sterile
flower

Style Feathery
Ovary style

Ovule

A B C D

Stalk of inflorescence Outer bract

In other wild grasses, the flowers are bisexual i.e.; they have both the male and
female parts on the same flower.

Diagram showing longitudinal section through a grass flower

(hermaphrodite)

Bract

Ovary

Filamen
Stigma

Anther

115|P a g e
 Description of flowers
The table below shows the common terms used to describe flowers.

Term used Description of Example

flower
Complete flower Has all the floral Crotalaria, Hibiscus
parts including
gynoecium,
androecium, calyx
and corolla
Incomplete flower Lacks any of the Maize flower
floral parts
Dioecious (unisexual) Has either Maize flower
flower gynoecium or pawpaw flower
Pistillate if female or androecium but not
staminate if male) both
Monoecious flower Has both rice, Gynandropsis gynandra,
androecium and Panicum maximum
gynoecium

Actinomorphic flower Radially symmetrical sweet pea, roses,

flower; can be
divided into distinct
halves along many
planes
Zygomorphic flower Bilaterally White dead nettle
symmetrical; can be
divide into halves
along a single plane.
Composite flowers Consist of many tiny dandelion, sunflower, daisies
flowers (florets)
packed on large
flattened receptacle.
(see ray and disc
florets)

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Petaloid flowers Have calyx
resembling petals
Polysepalous have free sepals morning glory
Gamosepalous have fused sepals Hibiscus
Polypetalous when the flower has Hibiscus, Gynandropsis,
a free corolla Crotalaria
Gamopetalous When the corolla is maize, morning glory
fused to some part. If
it is fused to the
calyx, it forms the
Perianth.
Monocarpous contains only one Bougainenillea
free carpel
Apocarpous consists of many free Bidens pilosa
carpels
Synacarpous when there are Pineapple (Annanas sativa)
many fused carpels

Hypogynous When the ovary lies buttercup, Hibiscus,

above the receptacle

Epigynous when the ovary lies

below the receptacle

Perigynous a flower that has cherries and roses

petals, stamens, and
sepals arranged
around a cupshaped
receptacle that
contains the ovary

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 Exercise 3.23(a)
You are provided with specimens K, L, M, N and O. study them carefully and use
them to answer the questions that follow.

a. Give a description of the following specimens in the table below.

Part of flower K L M
specimen
Sepals

Petals

Stamens

Carpels

b. Using the structural arrangement of the specimens, state the type of

pollination likely to occur in each of the specimens
K………………………………………………………………………………………………

Reason………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………...

L………………………………………………………………………………………………

Reason………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………...

M………………………………………………………………………………………………

Reason………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

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 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

N………………………………………………………………………………………………

Reason………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………...

c. Remove the petals of specimen L and draw the half flower of the
specimen. Also make a drawing of the petal of specimen L

d. State differences between specimens K and O. use a hand lens to observe

specimen O.
Specimen K Specimen O

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 Exercise 3.23(b)
You are provided with specimens K and M both of which are flowers obtained
from the same plant.
Observe them carefully and use them to answer the questions that follow.

a. Identify the specimens M and K

M………………………………………………………………………………………………
K………………………………………………………………………………………………
b. State an observable feature from the specimens as a reason for your
answer.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………...

c. Describe the structure of specimen M.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………...
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………...
d. In the space below, make a labeled drawing of a single flower obtained from
specimen M observed under a hand lens.

e. In the space below, draw the structure of the flower obtained from
specimen K. Label your drawing.

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 f. How are specimens M and K adapted to their type of pollination?
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

3.24: Fruits
A fruit is mature ovary. It is the structure in which seeds develop in the flowering
plant.

Types of fruits

a. True and false fruits

True fruits are those formed when the ovary wall changes in various ways to
form a protective layer; the pericarp which surrounds the seeds. Example
include; beans, pepper, mangoes etc.

False (pseudo-carpous) fruits are fruits in which the ovary wall remains
unchanged after fertilization. They develop when ovaries associate with other
plant parts. Examples include pineapples, straw berry etc.

b. Multiple and aggregate fruits

Multiple fruits are formed from flowers whose ovaries become fused after
fertilization. Examples include pineapple, oranges etc.
Aggregate fruits are formed from flowers in which gynoecium consists of several
free carpels. Each ovary develops into a tiny fruit called a fruitlet. The fruitlets
are clumped together to form a fruit. Example; raspberry, strawberry

c. Simple fruits

These are fruits formed when ovaries of either Monocarpous or Synacarpous

flowers mature. Examples include; beans, mangoes, Bidens pilosa etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF SIMPLE FRUITS

Simple fruits are divided into dehiscent, indehiscent and succulent fruits

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 (i) Dehiscent fruits

These are simple fruits which split open when mature and dry in order to
release their seeds. They have lines of weakness on their fruit walls called
sutures along which they split to release the seeds Classes of dehiscent fruits
are given the table below.

Dehiscent fruit Description Examples

Follicles split along one line of Acassia, Sodom apple
weakness to release
seeds when mature

Legumes have two sutures along Crotalaria retusa, Beans

which they open to (Phaseolus vulgaris),
release seeds when Ground nuts (Arachis
hypogaea), Peas
mature (Psium sativum)

Capsules Open longitudinally tobacco, castor oil

along more than one of
weakness they are
formed from two or more
carpels
Schizocarps Consist of many seeds. Desmodium
They break into several
parts each of which
consists of one seed.

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(ii) Indehiscent fruits

These fruits do not open to release seeds but often wholly fall off from the plant
and at least decay partially before seeds germinate. They include the following:

Indehiscent fruit Description Example(s)

Achene consist of only one seed Bidens pilosa, Sunflower
surrounded by a dry
pericarp

Nuts Have very hard Cashew nuts

pericarps
Caryopsis Have their pericarps maize, wheat, oats
fused with the seed
coats
Cypsela Fruits in which the Tridax procumbens, sonchus
calyx persists as a
pappus of hairs.

Hairs

Frui
t

Samara Fruits in which the Spathodea, elm, ashes

pericarp is extended to
form one or more Fruit
wings.

Wing

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 (iii) Succulent fruits

These are simple fruits in which the fruit wall (pericarp) develops into a wholly
or partially fleshy cavity. It becomes separated into three distinct layers. i.e.

The outermost protective layer the pericarp

•
• The middle fleshy (commonly juicy) layer; the mesocarp and
• The innermost layer enclosing the seed(s); the endocarp
Succulent fruitsare divided into two major categories; these are

• Drupes and Berries.

Another controversial group of succulent fruits is the Pomes. They greatly

resemble berries but are classified as false fruits because they do not develop
from ovaries. They develop from receptacles of the flowers

Pomes include apples and pears (Pyrus communis)

. They consist of many seeds just as berries.

A drawing showing transverse (TS) and longitudinal (LS) section through an

apple

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 Table showing structural descriptions of drupes and berries

Succulent Description example

fruit
Drupe • Has only one seed avocado (Persea
• Has a hard woody inedible americana),
endocarp mango (Mangifera
• A thick epicarp indica)
Mesocarp is usually fleshy and coconuts (Cocos
nucifera)
edible in most fruits. The epicarp
has attractive colors when ripe to
attract dispersers. The hard
woody endocarp discourages
predators hence throwing away
the endocarp usually the inedible
poorly tasty seed to germinate if it
fell on favorable ground
Berries • Has many seeds tomatoes
• The seed is enclosed in a (Lycopersicon
juicy edible endocarp esculentum) pepper
(Piper nigrum)
• A very juicy mesocarp;
oranges (Citrus
usually attracts predators
sinensis)
such as ainmals when ripe
The seeds are usually anchored in
a juicy endocarp, they are
themselves
distasteful to predators hence are
usually eliminated during
ingestion as in oranges.
If these seeds are eaten as in
tomatoes, they have a slippery
coating that makes indigestible in
the predator’s gut hence they pass
out in feces and grow in points
where predators defecate!

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 A drawing showing a transverse section through a tomato

A drawing showing Transverse Section through an Orange

Epicarp
Mesocarp

Endocarp
Seed
Placenta

Septum

Placentation
This is the arrangement of seeds in the fruit wall. Since fruits and seeds arise
from the ovaries and seeds respectively, we can define placentation as the
arrangement of ovules in the cavity of the ovary. The placenta is the connection
between the seed and the fruit wall.
Types of placentation

Marginal placentation: is when the seeds/ovules situated at or near the

margin of the fruit wall/ ovary. It occurs in Monocarpous flowers and fruits
that develop from them e.g. beans, peas

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Axile placentation: is when the seeds/ovules are located in the middle of the
fruit wall/ovary in angles formed by the meeting septa. e.g. in oranges,
tomatoes and bananas

Basal placentation: is an arrangement in which seeds/ovules are located in

the column arising from the base of the fruit wall/ ovary and are not connected
to the wall by septa. Examples include; mangoes, avocadoes, etc.

Parietal placentation: in this, the seeds/ovules are located in the inner margin
of the fruit wall/ ovary wall at the point of fusion of carpels. Examples are seen
in paw paws and passion fruits

Free central placentation: is an arrangement in which the placenta to which

seeds are attached projects in the center of the fruit as a central pole which
never fuses the fruit wall. It is common in green pepper

A drawing of Longitudinal section through green pepper to show the placenta and
associated parts

Pericarp

Seed

Placenta

Diagram showing section of fruits to show different types of placentation

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 3.25: Seeds
A seed is a mature ovule. It grows and develops in the cavity of the ovary. The
seeds are attached to the wall of the fruit by the placenta.

Structure of the seed

A seed consists of;

• A young shoot called the plumule

• A young root the radicle
• One or two seed leaves called the cotyledons
• A food store called the endosperm
• A protective coat called the testa (seed coat)

Differences between dicot and monocot seeds

Dicot seed monocot seed

• Has two seed leaves • Has one seed leaf
(cotyledons) • A large endosperm
• A small endosperm • No Micropyle
• Micropyle present • No hilium
• Has hilium • Radicle and plumule sheath
• Radicle and plumule sheath present
absent

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 Diagram showing the structure of a bean seed
Testa

External features
Plumule
Testa
Radicle

Position of
radicle Micropyle

Cotyledon

Micropyle

Hilum
Longitudinal section

The hilium is the scar left at the point of attachment to the fruit wall (pod)

Diagram showing the structure of a monocot seed

Fused pericarp
and testa Cotyledon
Region of Position of
attachment to plumule
stalk Plumule

Radicle

Endosperm
Position of radicle
Position of radicle

You are provided with specimens A, B, C, D, E and F. observe them carefully and answer the
following questions. (Your teacher may choose any fruits of interest)

Identify the fruits; A, B,C,D,E,F which are fruits

A. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
B. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
C. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
D. ………………………………………………………………………………………………..
E. ……………………………………………………………………………………………….

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 F.………………………………………………………………………………………………..
b.State any observable features of the specimens

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………...
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………...
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
c. Use the features you have written above to write out a dichotomous key for
the specimens.
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 d. Cut longitudinally through specimen E and transversely through
specimen F. Describe the arrangement of seeds in the specimens.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

e. Draw the longitudinal section of specimen E in the space below. Label

your drawing

f. Using the features of the specimens, describe how the specimen are
dispersed.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 Chapter 4
PHYSIOLOGY

Objectives:

By the end of this chapter; learners should be able to;

• Appreciate the importance of enzymes in different life processes in both

plants and animals.
• Determine the food substances present in a given specimen.
• Identify the factors affecting enzyme activity.
• State the function and location of the different enzymes.

4.1: FOOD TESTS

Food tests are laboratory experiments performed with the aim of determining the
composition of different substances on which we feed. Food is a natural
chemical substance which can undergo chemical reaction just like you have
seen in Chemistry. Therefore we are dealing with the qualitative analysis of
food.

When performing a food test, we may prepare a test solution from a known food
substance and then add to it a known laboratory reagent with which it reacts to
give a noticeable color change which we often consider as an observation. Our
conclusions or deductions as they are called herein are meant to inform the
reader whether a given food substance is present or not.

Modern biology practical now goes ahead to investigate the relative

concentration of the food substance present in a sample hence our report must
give a clue about the amount of food substance present. Let us take an
overview of the common food tests performed in the biology laboratory.

PRELIMINARY TESTS FOR SOME FOOD SUBSTANCES

We can get a crude idea about the food substance likely to be present in a sample
by looking at the appearance of the solution it forms when dissolve in water.
Look at the table below to see what we can assert if you saw the specimen
solution in a glass beaker.

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Observation Clue
Insoluble in water Lipid probably present
Soluble forming a Starch or protein
turbid/cloudy/milky solution
Soluble forming a clear solution Sugars or vitamin C probably
present
Soluble forming colloidal suspensions Protein
However you need to be careful with the observations of table 4 above because at
times the food substance used is a common food substance like milk, orange,
etc. the exact type of food substance present can be deduced following the
scheme given in the table below.
COMMON FOOD TESTS PERFOMED IN BIOLOGY PRACTICAL
In the table below, one or more observations are given. This is aimed at guiding
the way you report about what has taken place. Look at your specimen
solutions clearly and select the observation that suits your observation. As
mentioned earlier, a turbid solution may contain starch or protein hence seeing
a turbid solution does not mean you confirmed starch. Only one of the
observations can be made at a time.

This table has been filled on assumption that you have used common laboratory
reagents as test solutions. When you extract the food substances from elsewhere,
the original color of the solution changes as well. It is important to note the
initial colour and nature of the test substance as in the table below.

FOOD TEST OBSERVATION DEDUCTION

SUBSTANCE PROCEDURE
Starch To 2cm3 of Turbid solution Large amount of
May be solution in a test changed to a black starch present.
extracted from tube, add 3 drops solution.
ginger rhizome, of iodine solution. Turbid solution Very small
Irish potato turned brown with amounts of starch
tuber, cassava, stains of black color present.
grain, etc. in solution.
Clear solution or Starch absent.
turbid solution
turned brown.
Reducing To 2cm3 of Clear solution Very large amount
sugar. Can be solution in a test turned to a blue of reducing sugars
extracted from tube, add an solution to a green present.
fruits, fruit juice equal volume of solution to a yellow
Benedict’s or precipitate, to an

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 such as Splash, Fehling’s solution orange precipitate,
germinating and boil for one to a red precipitate
seeds, milk, etc. minute. ending in a brown
precipitate
Colorless solution Moderate amount
turned to a blue of reducing sugars
solution to a green present.
solution to a yellow
precipitate
Colorless solution Traces of reducing
turned to a blue sugars present.
solution to a green
solution
Colorless solution Reducing sugars
turned blue and absent.
remained blue.
Non- reducing **To 2cm of test Clear solution
3 Large amount of
sugars may be solution, add turned to a blue nonreducing was
obtained from 2cm of dilute
3 solution to a green hydrolyzed to
table sugar, hydrochloric solution to a yellow reducing sugar.
sugar cane, acid. Boil the precipitate, to an
sugar beet, mixture for orange precipitate,
carrot, etc. 1minute. Cool to a red precipitate
under water and ending in a brown
add 2cm3 of precipitate
sodium hydroxide
solution. Add
2cm3 of
Benedict’s Colorless solution Moderate amounts
solution and boil turned to a blue of non-reducing
again. solution to a green sugars were
solution to a yellow hydrolyzed to
precipitate reducing sugars.
Colorless solution Non-reducing
turned blue and sugars absent.
remained blue
Lipid To 2cm of
3 The turbid solution Lipids present.
Easily got from solution in a test turned to cloudy
milk, ghee, tube, add and emulsion.

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butter, ground 2cm3 of dilute Solution remained Lipid absent
nut paste, ethanol and clear
castor oil, shake the
mixture gently.
beans, etc.
Leave to settle.

Rub a sample of A permanent lipids present

the test solution translucent spot
on a piece of formed on the paper
paper and leave
The paper remained lipids absent
to dry under the
sun. Observe the opaque.
passage of light
thru the paper.

Proteins. Can To 2cm3 of Turbid solution Very large amount

be obtained solution in a test turned to violet of proteins present.
from egg tube, add 2cm3 of precipitate.
albumen, sodium Turbid solution Proteins absent.
beans, peas, hydroxide turned to pale blue
ground nuts etc. solution followed precipitate.
by copper (II)
sulphate
solution.
To2cm3 of The colourless Large amount of
solution in test solution turned to a protein present.
tube add 2cm3 of pink precipitate.
Million’s reagent The mixture Proteins absent.
and boil the remained
mixture gently. colourless.
Vitamin C To 2cm3 of The dark blue color Vitamin C present.
DCPIP in a test of DCPIP faded
tube, add the whenever a drop
test solution was added forming
drop wise. a colorless solution
Solution remained Vitamin C absent.
dark blue.

**

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 • When performing the test for non- reducing sugar, we first add dilute
hydrochloric acid to break down (hydrolyze) the non-reducing sugar to
reducing sugar. The observation made is due to the reducing sugar
formed in the reaction.
• The reaction of Benedict’s or Fehling’s solution with the reducing sugar
takes place in neutral medium. Addition of sodium hydroxide solution is
meant to neutralize the acid in the mixture to enable reduction of the
Benedict’s solution.
The test for vitamin C is quantitative. It is used to estimate the concentration of
vitamin C in the test solution. You are supposed to record your observation
referring to the number of drops it takes to decolorize DCPIP. If the bleaching is
very rapid, then a large amount of vitamin C is present. If the bleaching occurs
after adding many drops of solution, then the solution contains traces of
vitamin C. Moderate amount of vitamin C can be deduced if it takes several but
not too many drops of test solution to decolorize the vitamin C.

DCPIP is short form for 2, 6-Di-Chloro Phenol Indol Phenol

The nutritive value (importance) of common food substances

Food substance Importance

Carbohydrates (reducing and non-reducing
sugars, starch, glycogen, e. t.c.)
Proteins
• Used as respiratory substrates to
provide energy.
• They are used for formation of
structures in plants
• Sugars are important in determining
osmotic properties of cells hence
controlling plant nastic responses.
• They are raw materials in formation
of body secretions such as mucus.
• Formation of enzymes and
hormones.
• Important in formation of blood as
plasma proteins.
• Used in buffering body solutions
hence maintaining constant pH for
enzymes.
• They may be used as respiratory
substrates in case the carbohydrate
is in short supply.
• They are body building foods for

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 which reason they are used in
growth and repair of worn out cells
and tissues.

Lipids • Formation of hormones

• Formation of structures such as
myelin sheaths of neurons and cell
membranes.
• Protection of the delicate organs in
the body such as brain and heart.
• Insulation of the body against heat
loss.
• May be oxidized in respiring tissues
to provide energy in case the
carbohydrate is in short supply.
Vitamin C • Required for proper absorption and
assimilation of Ca2+ ions in the
body.
• For formation of strong gums to
anchor teeth firmly.
• For proper healing of wounds.
• For proper skin health.

Testing a leaf for starch

Plants use their leaves to make food by reduction of carbon dioxide using
hydrogen derived from water in the presence of sunlight as a source of energy.
The sunlight is absorbed by chlorophyll; a green pigment stored in mesophyll
cells in chloroplasts.

In an experiment to test for starch in a leaf;

• The leaf is kept in darkness for at least 24 hours such that the cells use
up the starch contained in them. This is called de-starching. Another leaf

137|P a g e
 may be left in light at the same time such that the two are used in the
experiment for comparison. The latter is a control.
• The leaves are then boiled in water for about 5minutes; to kill the living
cells, breaking their cell walls and burst any starch granules present.
• The leaf is then transferred to a test tube half filled with ethanol and the
test tube held in a beaker containing water; above a Bunsen flame. The
water is heated to boiling such that ethanol boils with the leaf to bleach it
by dissolving the chlorophyll and make the reactions with iodine easily
observable.
• The ethanol is poured away and the leaf which is now brittle is immersed
in boiling water to soften it and make it permeable to iodine solution.
• The leaf is then spread on a white tile and drops of iodine solution added.

The leaf originally left in darkness turns white and remains brown on addition of
iodine while the other leaf originally kept in light turns blue black.

If a variegated leaf is used in this experiment, the brown color forms on the white
patches whilst the green parts turn blue black.

Exercise 4.10.
You are provided with specimens A 1 and A 2 which are both plant organs
originally kept in different environmental conditions. Use them to carry out the
experiment using the procedure described below. Record your observations and
deductions in the table below and thereafter answer the questions that follow.

• Boil the specimen A 1 in water for 5minutes.

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• Transfer the boiled leaf into a boiling tube containing ethanol and immerse
the the test tube into a beaker of boiling water as shown below. Keep this set
up for the next 10 minutes ensuring that the ethanol becomes green.

• Remove the boiled leaf and immerse it in a beaker of warm water. Keep it
there for 3 minutes.
• Spread the leaf on a white tile and add several drops of iodine solution.

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 • Repeat the procedures using leaf A 2 instead of A 1
Table of results
Test Observation Deduction

Questions
a. What was the purpose of the leaf in;

i. Water

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii. Ethanol

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
.……………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. Why did the alcohol turn green when the leaf was boiled?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

c. From your observations, suggest the environmental conditions in which the

specimens A 1 and A 2 were kept.
A1

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 A2

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

d.Give reasons for your answer.

A 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

A 2 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

e.Which environmental factor is being investigated to affect the plant physiology

in this experiment?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Exercise 4.11
Date ……………………../…………………../20………………………

You are provided with solution A which contains more than one food substance.
You are required to carry out the tests described in the table below to identify
the food substances present in A.

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 TEST OBSERVATION DEDUCTION
a.To 1cm3 of A in a test
tube, add 3 drops of
iodine solution.

b.To 1cm3 of A in a test

tube add 1cm3 of
sodium hydroxide
solution followed by
5drops of copper (II)
sulphate solution.
c.To 1cm3 of A in a test
tube, add 1 cm3 of
Benedict’s solution
and boil for a minute.

d.To 1cm3 of A add

1cm3 of dilute
hydrochloric acid and
boil for 20 seconds.
Cool under a running
tap and add a spatula
endful of sodium
carbonate powder.
When effervescence
stops, add 1cm3 of
Benedict’s solution
and boil again.
e.To 1cm3 of DCPIP in a
test tube, add A
dropwise until no
further change.

f. Identify the food substances present in A

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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g. What was the purpose of adding the following reagents in test (d)

i. Dilute hydrochloric acid

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
ii. Sodium carbonate powder.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
h. State the importance of the food substances you found present in A to your body.

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………..…………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..
………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………

Exercise 4.12
Date ……………………. /………………../ 20………...

You are provided with specimens B and C which are both plant tissues known
to contain specific food nutrients. In this experiment we shall determine the
food substances present in the specimens provided.

Specimen B is a tuber of non-sprouting Irish potato and C is a ripened orange

fruit.

Procedure

• Peel specimen B to remove the fibrous layer.

• Cut the clean tissue into a clean mortar and pestle and pound it.
• Add 20ml of distilled water and decant.
• Pour the resultant into a clean beaker and label this solution B

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 • Cut a cross section of specimen C and squeeze out the juice from one half
of the specimen.
• Collect 10ml of the juice in a clean beaker and label this solution C.

Use the extracts B and C to carry out the following tests to identify the food
substances present in them. Enter your results and deductions in the table
below.

TEST OBSERVATION DEDUCTION

a.
b.Pour 1cm3 of B into a
test tube and add 3
drops of iodine
solution.
c.Repeat procedure (a)
using C instead of B.

d.To 1cm3 of B add

1cm3 of Benedict’s
solution and boil for
one minute.

e.Repeat procedure (c)

using C instead of B.

f.To 1cm3 of DCPIP, in a

test tube add
solution B dropwise.

g.Repeat procedure (f)

using C instead of B.

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Questions

1. Identify the food substances present in specimens;

B………………………………………………………………………………………………

C………………………………………………………………………………………………

2. State the nutritive value of the food substances present in the specimens.
B………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………..

C
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………..............................................................

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………..............................................................

3. Basing on the food substances present in specimens B and C, suggest the

importance of the plant parts to the plant from where they were obtained.

B
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………...
C
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………...
Exercise 4.13
Date ……………….. /…………………/20……………………..

Solutions E and F are food substances. You are required to determine the
nutrient composition of each of the solutions. Carry out the following tests on
the specimens to establish the chemical nature of the food substances. Record
your observations and deductions in the table below.

TEST OBSERVATION DEDUCTION

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 a.
(i) To 1ml of E in a
test tube, add 3
drops of iodine
solution.
(ii) To 1ml of E in a
test tube add 1ml
of Benedict’s
solution. Boil the
mixture gently.

(iii) Repeat test (ii)

using solution F
instead of E.

(iv) To 1ml of E in a
test tube, add
1ml of sodium
hydroxide
followed by 1ml
of copper (II)
sulphate.
(v) Repeat the
procedure (iv)
using solution F
instead of E.
(vi) To 1ml of E in a
test tube, add
1ml of dilute
hydrochloric
acid, boil the
mixture for
1minute and cool
under water. Add
sodium
hydroxide
solution followed
by 1ml of

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 Benedict’s
solution. Boil the
mixture again.

b.State the composition of food substances E and F.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Exercise 4.14
Date …………………………./…………………/20…………

You are provided with solutions G and H which are known to contain certain food
substances. Carry out the following food tests and record your observations and
deductions in the table below.

TEST OBSERVATION DEDUCTION

a. To 1ml of solution
G, add 1ml of
Benedict’s solution
and boil.

b. To 1ml of G add
1ml of dilute HCl
and boil for
30seconds. Cool
the mixture under
water and add 1ml
of sodium
hydroxide followed
by 1ml of
Benedict’s
solution. Boil the

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 mixture again.

c. Dissolve 2ml of H
in 2ml of ethanol
and add distilled
water. Shake the
mixture gently.
d.Repeat the
procedure in d
using G instead of
H
e. From your observations in the table above, state the food substances
present in G and
H
G ………………………………………………………………………………………………
H ………………………………………………………………………………………………

f. What was the importance of boiling the solution with dilute hydrochloric
acid and later adding sodium hydroxide solution?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Exercise 4.15

Date ………………… / …………………/20……………

You are provided with solutions J and K which contain the same class of food
nutrients. Carry out the tests to determine the food substances present in each
of the solutions. Record your observations and observations in the table below.
TEST OBSERVATION TEST

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 a. To 1ml of solution
J add of Fehling’s
solution. Boil the
mixture for one
minute.
b. Repeat (a) using K
instead of J
c. Boil 1ml of J with
1ml of
hydrochloric acid
and cool the
mixture, add 1ml
of sodium
hydroxide solution
followed by 1ml of
Fehling’s solution.
Boil the mixture
again.
d. Repeat the
procedure (c) using
K instead of J.

e. To 1ml of test J
solution add 1ml
of sodium
K
hydroxide followed
by copper (II)
sulphate solution.

State the food substances present in J and K

J………………………………………………………………………………………………………

K………………………………………………………………………………………………………

4.2: ENZYME ACTIVITY

Enzymes are biological catalysts. A catalyst is a substance which even when
present in small amounts alters the speed of a chemical reaction and remains
unchanged at the end of the reaction.

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 Enzymes are referred to as biological catalysts because they are produced only
in living cells and perform the function of catalysis.

PROPERTIES OF ENZYMES

• They are sensitive to pH changes

• They are destroyed by heating.
• They work in very small concentrations.
• They are specific in action.
• They catalyze reversible reactions

Examples of enzymes which are useful in this practical manual include;

Enzyme Site of action Substrate End products
and pH
Amylase mouth and starch maltose (reducing
duodenum; sugar)
slightly alkaline
Pepsin stomach (acidic) protein peptides
Catalase liver and all living hydrogen oxygen and water
tissues ; slightly peroxide
alkaline
Diastase plant tissues starch Maltose (reducing
(slightly alkaline) sugar.
invertase animal and plant sucrose glucose and
(sucrase) tissues fructose
Yeast.

Exercise 4.21
Date ………………/………… /20……………….

Saliva contains an enzyme amylase known to catalyze the hydrolysis of starch

to maltose. Maltose is a reducing sugar known to reduce Copper (II) ions in
Benedict’s solution to Copper(I) ions. The absence of starch in the following
experiment will correspond to a presence of reducing sugar and vice versa.

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To investigate the effect temperature on the activity of saliva on starch

You are provided with solution L which contains common food substance. Carry
out the following experiment to verify the food substance present in L. Record
your observations and deductions in the table below.

Test Observation Deductions

a.Boil 2ml of L with 2ml
of Benedict’s solution.

b.Boil 2ml of L with 2ml

of hydrochloric acid.
Cool the mixture and
add a spatula endful
of sodium carbonate.
When effervescence
stops, add 2ml of
Benedict’s solution
and boil again.
c.To 1ml of L add 3
drops of iodine
solution.

Identify the food substance reacting in solution L

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 Rinse your mouth with Luke warm water and collect about 5ml of clean saliva in
a test tube. Dilute the saliva with distilled water to make 10ml of solution. Label
this solution M.

• Label three test tubes T 1 , T 2 and T 3 .

• Add to each of the test tubes the contents indicated below.
• Keep the test tubes in a test tube rack for 15 minutes.
• Remove them after 15minutes and divide the contents of each test tube
into two portions.
• Repeat test (a) and (c) using the contents of each of the test tubes instead
of L.

Test tube and its Test Observations Conclusions

contents
T 1 : 1ml of L+1ml of a
distilled water

T 2 :1ml of L+ 1ml of a
boiled M

T 3 : 1ml of L+ 1ml of M a

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d.Explain the results you have obtained in each of the test tubes T 1 , T 2 and T 3

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………….………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Exercise 4.22
To investigate the effect of pH on the activity of amylase on starch

As mentioned in section 4.2, the activity of amylase on starch is favored by the

presence of a neutral or slightly alkaline medium. In this experiment, we shall
determine a successful catalysis of hydrolysis of starch by amylase in presence of
three laboratory reagents N, O and P. Where we find reducing sugars present,
indicates that the reaction was successful and the reagent used favours the
activity of the enzyme. The reverse is true. The pH of N, O and P are different.

Use this information to answer the questions that follow.

You are provided with solution Q which contains carbohydrate. Solutions N, O

and P are laboratory reagents known to effect direct effect on the activity of
solution R on Q

a. Add a drop of solution Q on a white tile followed by a drop of iodine

solution.
i. Record your observation below.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

ii. What conclusion can you draw about the composition of solution Q?

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 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. Label three test tubes 1, 2 and 3. Add to the test tubes the following
contents indicated in the table below and keep each of them for 15
minutes in a water bath maintained at 35-38oC. After 15 minutes,
remove the contents of the test tube and carry out the test for starch in
(a) and reducing sugars by adding Benedict’s solution and boiling the
mixture.

Test tube and its Test Observations Conclusions

contents
T 1 : 1ml of Q+1ml of starch
R+1ml of N test

Benedict’s
test

T 2 :1ml of Q+1ml of starch

R+ 1ml of O test

Benedict’s
test

T 3 : 1ml of Q+ 1ml of Starch

R +1ml of R test

Benedict’s
test

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Explain the results obtained in each of the test tubes 1, 2 and 3.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

From your results deduce the nature of solutions N, O and P

N………………………………………………………………………………………………………
O………………………………………………………………………………………………………

P………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Exercise 4.23
Date …………………….. /……………../20…………….

To investigate the effect of substrate concentration on the activity of

amylase on starch

The activity of an enzyme increases as long as the substrate concentration

increases if the enzyme concentration is kept constant. In this experiment, starch
solutions of varying concentrations are mixed with a solution of amylase and
incubated at the same temperature and pH. If we determine how long it takes to
hydrolyze starch, we can deduce the effect of concentration of substrate on the
rate of enzyme controlled hydrolysis.

You are provided with solutions S 1 , S 2 and S 3 which contain varying

concentrations of starch. Solution T is an enzyme known to hydrolyze starch to
reducing sugars. Use the solutions to carry out the following experiment and
then answer the questions that follow.
• Label three test tubes T 1 T 2 and T 3 . To each of the test tubes, add 2ml of
solution T followed by 1ml of dilute sodium hydroxide. Then add 2ml of
solutions S 1 , S 2 , and S 3 to T 1 , T 2 , and T 3 respectively.

• Keep the test tubes in a water bath maintained at 37oC for 15 minutes and
simultaneously start the stop clock.

• At intervals of 5 minutes, take a drop of the mixture in each of the test

tubes and add it to a white tile followed by a drop of iodine solution. Also
take 1ml of the contents of each of the test tube and boil it with 1ml of

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 Benedict’s solution. Record only the last color and nature of the mixture in
the test tube.

• Record your observations in the table below.

TEST TUBE AND TIME TEST OBSERVATIONS DEDUCTIONS

ITS CONTENT (min)
T 2 ; 2ml of S 1 , 2ml 0 Take a drop of
of T+1ml NaOH the contents of
solution
T 1 on a white
5 tile and add a
drop of iodine
solution.
10

15

0 Take 1ml of the

contents of T 1

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 5 and add 1 ml
of

Benedict’s
10 solution. Boil
the mixture
gently
15

T 2 ; 2ml of S 2 , 2ml 0
of T+1ml NaOH Take a drop of
solution the contents of
T 2 on a White
5 tile and add a
drop of iodine
solution.
10

15

0 Take 1ml of the

contents of T 2
and add 1ml of
5
Benedict’s
solution. Boil
the mixture
gently.
10

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 15

T 3 ; 2ml of S 3 , 2ml 0 Take a drop of

of T +1ml of 1ml the contents of
of NaOH solution. T 3 on a white
5 tile and add a
drop of iodine
solution.

contents of T 4
and add 1 ml
5
of

Benedict’s
10 solution. Boil
the mixture
gently

15

10

15

0 Take 1ml of the

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 a. What conclusions can you draw from the experimental results?

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
Suggest an organ in the body where the enzyme is found. State a condition
from the experiment as a reason for your answer.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

From the results you have stated in the table above, sketch a graph for variation
of rate of enzyme activity with concentration of starch.

Exercise 4.24
To investigate the effect of surface area on enzyme activity

Keeping other factors constant, the rate of enzyme activity increases with decrease
the size of substrate particles. This is because small particles of substrate expose
large surface area for binding with enzymes

In this experiment you will be provided with a substrate which is in large lumps
and the other in smaller particles. You will investigate the rate of hydrolysis of the
two substrates by an enzyme by comparing the relative amount of product formed
after a given interval of time.

You are provided with;

• Specimen K which contains certain food substance.

• Solution L which affects the food present in K
• Dilute sodium hydroxide solution.

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 • Peel specimen K to remove the fibrous layer on it. Cut two cubes of 2cm and
use them for the following procedure.
• Add a drop of iodine to the cut part of the peeled specimen K. state what is
observed.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

• Grind one cube of K and decant to prepare an extract of 5ml. take 2ml of the
extract into a test tube and add 2ml of Benedict’s solution and boil this
mixture for 1 minute. Leave the boiled mixture to cool. State what is observed.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

• Prepare a water bath using a plastic cup in which you will add water to be
maintained at 38oC.
Label two test tubes T 1 and T 2 . Cut the cube of K into tiny pieces
i. To T 1 , add the cut pieces of the cube of K followed by 2ml of solution L
and 2ml of dilute sodium hydroxide solution.
ii. To T 2 add 2ml of the extract you prepared in (c) followed by 2ml of
solution L and 2ml of dilute sodium hydroxide solution.

Place the two test tubes in the water bath and leave the experiment for 15
minutes. After 15 minutes, remove the test tubes and carry out the test for
starch and that of reducing sugars. State your observations

T1

Starch test
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………….………………………………………………………………………

Reducing sugar test

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

T2

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Starch test
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Reducing sugar test

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Give an explanation for each of the observations made in the test tubes.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………..
…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
What was the purpose of adding dilute sodium hydroxide to each of the test
tubes?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Exercise 4.25

To investigate enzyme specificity

Saccharomyces (yeast) is a common raw material used in the manufacture of

alcoholic drinks. This is because yeast contains enzymes that catalyze conversion
of carbohydrates to alcohol. The enzymes contained in yeast include;

• Diastase (relative of amylase)-(for conversion of starch to maltose)

• Invertase (for hydrolysis of sucrose to fructose and glucose)
• Zymase ( for converting glucose into ethanol)

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 Each of the enzymes is specific for a given reaction. But Zymase has the greatest
concentration of all the three enzymes. In the following practical, the three
enzymes mentioned are present in a suspension of yeast W. when the food
substances are incubated with W; there is a change in the concentration of sugars
detected by the pattern of color changes. This is the basis of recognizing how fast
the reactions have occurred and which enzyme is specific for which food
substance.

You are provided with the following.

Solutions; X, Y and Z which contain different food substances. Carry out the
tests given in the table below to identify the food substances present in each of
the solutions

Tests Observations Deductions

X
To 1ml of solution in
a test tube
Y
add 3 drops of iodine
solution

To 1ml of solution add X

1ml of Benedict’s
solution and boil the
Y
solution for 1 minute.

Leave to cool Z

To 1ml of solution in a
test

tube, add 1ml of

hydrochloric

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 acid, boil the mixture
for a
X minute. Cool the
mixture

under a running tap

and add

dilute sodium
hydroxide
Y
followed by 1ml of
Benedict’s
solution. Boil the
mixture again
Z

Label three test tubes as 1,2, and 3;and put 2cm3 of solution X in test tube 1,
2cm3 of solution Yin test tube 2, 2cm3 of solution Z in test tube 3.

• Add 2cm3 of suspension W into each test tube 1, 2 and 3 respectively.

• Place the three test tubes in a water bath maintained at a temperature
range of 37-400c for 15 minutes.

(i) After the 15 minutes period, remove the test tubes and carry out Benedict`s
tests for reducing sugar using their contents. Record your observations and
deductions in table below.

Test tubes Observations Deductions

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 3

(ii) Explain your results in table 2 above.

Test tube1:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Test tube 2:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Test tube 3:

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

(c) Suggest the identity of the active ingredient in suspension W. Give a reason to
support your answer.

Identity:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Reason:
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) Suggest the application (significance) of investigation in (b) above in our daily

life. (03 marks)

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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CATALASE ENZYME
Catalase is an anti- oxidant enzyme found entirely in all living tissues. Owing to
the high metabolic rates in animals, the concentration of catalase is more in
animal than plant tissues.

The effects of catalase

Several metabolic activities in the body in the animal tissues result in formation
of toxic hydrogen peroxide which if left to accumulate is harmful to body cells.
Normally, at body temperature, this compound decomposes in aqueous solution
to form oxygen and water but the reaction is made faster if catalase; a
homogenous catalyst is present. The production of oxygen gas is the common
observation made when using catalase and hydrogen peroxide. This explains why
hydrogen peroxide is used as antiseptic to dress and clean wounds. (Recall the
effervescence which occurs)

Detection of the effects of catalase

Effervescence is the measure of the rate of reaction in this reaction but for
convenience we can also state the change in volume after a given interval of time.

𝐻𝐻 2 𝑂𝑂 2 (𝑎𝑎𝑞𝑞) 𝑂𝑂 2 (𝑔𝑔) + 𝐻𝐻 2 𝑂𝑂(𝑙𝑙)

Why we use liver in the experiment

Because the liver is a detoxifying organ in the body, the concentration of

catalase is more in the liver in special cells called peroxisomes. It requires a
neutral or slightly alkaline medium for maximum activity of catalase enzyme.

Other factors necessary for activity of catalase

The activity of catalase also increases when any compound containing iron is
present. This is because iron is one of the activators of the enzyme. It is indeed
one of the atoms forming a molecule of the enzyme.

Do all tissues of living thing contain catalase?

No, it is only present in metabolically active tissues but in not dead cells or
keratinized body parts such as hair, finger nails, hooves etc. You will not observe
any effervescence if you threw a few pieces of clean finger nails into a test tube
containing hydrogen peroxide
Exercise 4.26
You are provided with the following;

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 • Solution A
• A fresh piece of liver tissue
• A ruler and razor blade
• Mortar and pestle

Use the above items to carry out the following experiment.

Cut three equal sized cubes from the liver tissue and wash those cubes using tap
water. Use them as instructed in the table below.

Enter your observations and deductions in the table below.

TEST OBSERVATIONS DEDUCTIONS

(i) To 3cm3 of
solution A in a
test tube, add a
fresh cube of liver
tissue
(ii) Grind one cube of
liver tissue in a
mortar and pestle.
Transfer the
ground liver using
a spatula into a
clean test tube
containing
solution A
(iii) Boil one of the
cubes of liver in
water for about
30seconds. Pour
away the water
and cool the piece
of liver. Transfer
the boiled liver to
a test tube
containing

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 solution
A

(iv) To about 2ml of

solution A add a
small proportion
of iron fillings
using a spatula
(v) Repeat
experiment (iv)
using your own
finger nails
instead of iron
fillings

Questions

• From your observations, deduce the nature of solution A

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

• What is the effect of liver tissue on solution A?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
• Explain the results in experiments (ii) to (v)

……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

• Apart from iron fillings, name a reagent in the laboratory that can be used
in place of liver tissue.

…………………………………………………….…………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 Exercise 4.27
You are provided with the following;

• Solution A which is an oxidizing agent known to occur in living cells

• A fresh piece of liver
• Solutions X, Y and Z which are laboratory reagents known to affect the
activity of liver on solution A.

Cut three equal sized cubes from the liver tissue provided. Use the liver pieces
to carry out the following experiment.

a. Make observation on the volume of the mixture at the start and end of the
experiment (after 5 minutes)
TEST OBSERVATION DEDUCTION
i. Pour 2ml of Initial volume =
solution A into a ………………..ml
transparent measuring Final volume
cylinder. Add 2ml of =…………………..ml
solution X followed by
a piece of liver tissue.
ii.To 2ml of solution A in Initial volume
a transparent =……………….ml
measuring cylinder, Final volume
add 2ml of solution Y =…………………ml
followed by a piece of
liver.

iii.To 2ml of solution A Initial volume

in a test tube, add =……………….ml
2ml of solution Z Final volume
followed by a piece =…………………ml
of liver tissue.

b. Explain your results from the table above.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

To compare the catalase content of the plant and animal tissues.

Due to low metabolic rates, plants usually don’t accumulate hydrogen peroxide at
the same rates as animals do. As a result the rate at which hydrogen peroxide is
decomposed is slow in presence of fresh plant tissue as compared to the same
reaction in the presence of animal tissue. Animals are usually metabolically active
hence accumulate catalase at very high rates compared to plants.

Exercise 4.28
You are provided with hydrogen peroxide and specimens X and Y. You are
required to carry out tests on the specimens X and Y following the instructions
provided, then answer questions that follow.

a.

i.Cut off a piece measuring 1cm X 1cm X 1cm from specimen X. crush
it in a mortar using a pestle to obtain a fine paste. Add 5cm3 of water,
mix well and decant off the liquid into a test tube. Label this solution X
ii. Peel specimen Y, cut off a piece measuring 1cm X 1cm X 1cm. repeat
the procedures in a (i) above using this piece. Label the liquid from this
solution Y. b.
i. Put 1cm3 of hydrogen peroxide solution in a measuring cylinder. Using
a dropper, obtain the solution X and release one drop of solution X in a
measuring cylinder containing 1cm3 of hydrogen peroxide and
immediately start the stop clock. Read the volume of froth in cm3 after
every 10 seconds.
ii. Repeat the procedures in b(i) above using solution Y instead of X with a
different dropper.

Record your results in the table below.

Table

Time (seconds) 10 20 30 40
Level of froth X
in solutions Y
(cm3)

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c. In the space provided, draw on the same set of axes graphs to show the
variation of volume of froth with time for two solutions X and Y.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

e) Explain the variation in the level of froth with time in X and Y.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 …………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………………

f) How do the results of each solution relate to the activity of the organisms
from which they were obtained?

a. Solution X

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. Solution

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………….

4.3: TEMPERATURE REGULATION

In organisms, temperature is one of the factors in the internal environment that
must be kept constant. The rate at which heat is transferred in organisms varies
according to the size of the organism. Size determines the total area of the
organisms which is in contact with the environment.

Large organisms have small surface area whilst the small organisms have large
surface area. The larger the surface area, the greater the rate of heat gain or
loss. This explains why people and animals from hot deserts are often small in
size and thin whilst those from cold countries are short and fat.

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 Basing on the above explanation, carry out the following experiment and answer
the questions that follow.

Exercise 4.30
You are provided with the following;

• 100cm3 of hot water at 70OC

• A boiling tube and test tube of uniform thickness
• A thermometer
• A plastic cup or beaker and
• A stop clock or digital timer

Use the above materials to carry out the following experiment and thereafter

answer the questions. Procedure:

• Fill the test tube and the boiling tube with hot water and immediately
transfer them into an empty plastic cup.
• Measure and record the initial temperature of the test tube and that of the
boiling tube and simultaneously start the stop clock
• Measure and record the temperature of the water in the boiling tube and
test tube after every 3 minutes for 30 minutes.
• Enter your results in the table below
Time (minutes) 0 3 6 9 12 15 18 21 24 27 30
Temperature of the
boiling tube (oC)
temperature of the
test tube (oC)

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 a.From the graph; describe the changes that took place in the temperatures of;
iv.The boiling tube

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

v.The test tube

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

b. Give an explanation for the above mentioned changes.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c. What is the significance of the above experiment in the physiology of

mammals?
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………………

4.4: GERMINATION
Germination is a term used to describe the emergence of a seed into a young
plant. It requires a combination of physical conditions such as temperature,
water and air.

The process of germination involves.

• Absorption of large quantities water by the germinating seed (imbibition)

causing the swelling of the inner parts and wrinkling of the seed coat
which is then soft. The seed coat eventually raptures.
• Food stored in the cotyledons soaks up with the water and soluble food
components get dissolved. This is called mobilization of the food reserves.
• Enzymes catalyze the breakdown of food to supply energy for the growing
embryo which now contains actively dividing cells.

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Stages in germination of a dicotyledonous

seed. (Epigeal germination)

Epicotyl pulls plumule

Backwards through soil,
So leaves are not damaged
damaged
Epicotyl elongates

once above soil,

epicotyl straightens
testa and the leaves open
splits

radicle
emerges

radicle grows
down into the soil

lateral roots
develop

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 Diagram showing the stages in germination of a monocot seed

plumule in
sheath(coleoptile)
fruit wall
splits

More roots
emerges appear

First leaf

Coleoptile bursts
open

plumule more
conspicuous
beneath fruit wall

radicle
emerges

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Germination often involves hydrolysis of food reserves resulting in a considerable
reduction in the concentration of different food substances. These changes
commonly take place.

• The concentration of proteins reduces. This is because they are required for
constructive metabolism (anabolism) involving the building up of new
tissues for the growing embryo.
• The concentration of starch reduces in the germinating seed. This is
because it is hydrolyzed to provide reducing sugars (glucose and fructose)
which must be used for respiration in the developing embryo.
• The concentration of reducing sugars increases. This is because they are
made available by the starch hydrolyzing enzymes to be used for
respiration to provide energy for the growing embryo.

The concentration of given food substances is deduced using the intensity of

color changes described in chapter 4.

Exercise 4.41

You are provided with specimens K, L and M. You are required to use them to
carry out the following experiment in order to answer the questions that follow.

K is a maize seedling that has just started to sprout.

•
• L is a maize seedling that has been growing for 4 days
• M is a dry maize fruit which has not yet grown.
a. Make a well labelled drawing of specimen L in the space provided.

b. Identify the type of germination undergone by the specimen L.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 c.Prepare three extracts as follows.

• Crush the specimens K, L and M separately in a mortar. Add about 10ml

of distilled water and leave to settle.
• Decant and collect the liquid in a clean test tube.
• Divide each of the extracts into three portions. Use the extracts to carry out
the following experiment.
• Record your observation in the table below.

TEST OBSERVATION DEDUCTION

(i) To 2ml of each K
extract in a test
tube, add 2 drops L
of iodine solution.
Lave to settle.
M

(ii) To 2ml of each K

extract in a test
tube, add 2ml of
sodium hydroxide L
solution followed
by 2nl of copper
(II) sulphate
solution.
M

(iii) To 2ml of each K

extract in a test
tube, add 2ml of
Benedict’s solution L
and boil.

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d.Explain the observations you have made in the table above.

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4.42 To investigate the evolution of carbon dioxide by germinating seeds

Germinating seeds are actively respiring compared to dry seeds which have low
metabolic rates. The carbon dioxide produced in this aerobic respiration is the
same gas produced in our exhaled air. If a chemical substance such as calcium
hydroxide (lime water) or bicarbonate indicator is used; subsequent color changes
are as follows.

If lime water is used, the clear colorless solution turns to a white precipitate or
becomes turbid or milky if it is kept for some time with germinating seeds.

Bicarbonate indicator is dark red in neutral medium, blue in alkaline medium and
faint pink or yellow orange in acidic medium. Evolution of carbon dioxide in this
case will cause a color change from dark red to orange or yellow; showing that
carbon dioxide is a weak acid in aqueous solution. Recall that carbon dioxide
dissolves in water to form carbonic acid.

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 Exercise 4.42
You are provided with solution W and laboratory reagents X and Y of different
pH. You are also provided with seeds of two groups G 1 and G 2 . Use these
materials to carry out the following experiment to find out the nature of
solution W and there after investigate the effect of seeds G 1 and
G 2 on W

a. Record your observations and deductions in the table below.

TEST OBSERVATION (S) DEDUCTION (S)

i.To 2cm3 of W in a test
tube, add 2 drops of
solution X
ii.To 2cm3 of solution W
in a test tube, add 2
drops of solution Z
iii.Now add 2cm3 of
distilled water to the
test tube containing
solution W
iv.Using a drinking
straw, bubble your
breath into solution
W in a test tube for 1
minute.
v.Add 2-3 seeds from
set G 1 to the test
tube containing
solution W. keep the
set up in a test tube
rack for 5 minutes
vi.Repeat the procedure
in (v) using seeds
from G 2 instead of
G1

b. What process was being investigated in the experiment?

……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………

c. From your observations and deductions, what can you deduce about the
nature of solution W?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

d. Which gas was produced in the experiment (iv) that caused the reaction
you stated in the observation?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

e. What is the nature of the gas according to the reaction it has with W?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

f. Explain your results for test tube (iv)

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4.5: MOVEMENT IN AND OUT OF CELLS

In organisms materials are moved by three major processes. These include;

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 • Diffusion (the movement of any particles form regions of high concentration
to regions of low concentration)
• Osmosis and
• Active transport.

For biological practical importance we shall experiment the process of osmosis in

living systems.

Osmosis is diffusion of water molecules across a semi permeable membrane.

• A semi permeable membrane is one whose surface contains small

microscopic pores which can allow passage of selected materials. All
plasma membranes and cell walls of living cells are semi permeable.
• Plant Cells contain solutions called cell sap in their vacuoles.
• If the cells or their tissues are separated from solutions such as sugar, salt
or pure water, there is a concentration gradient established such that
water diffuses across the cell membranes of the cells into or out of the
cells. This is called osmosis.

The effect of concentration

Hypertonic solutions contain much more solutes than the solvents. When a
hypertonic solution surrounds a living tissue, the concentration gradient
established causes out flow of water molecules from the dilute cell sap into the
hypertonic surrounding solution. This results in a reduction in length of
tissues such that they become soft and wrinkled (folded). If a fresh stem of an
herbaceous plant is used, it bends inwards.

Hypotonic (dilute) solutions contain much more water than solute. If such a
solution surrounds a plant tissue, there is a tendency of water to move from the
solution into the plant tissue by osmosis. This results in a considerable
increase in length of the plant tissue. The tissue used becomes turgid, hard
and smooth.

Isotonic solutions contain the same concentration of salt and water. They are
dynamic equilibrium with the cell sap if they are in contact with the plant
tissue. The result is net movement of water into the cells and also out of the
cells. Thus a balance is achieved such that they remain unchanged in length. If
the herbaceous stem is used, it remains straight.

Exercise 4.51
Date …………………../…………………. /………………

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You are provided with specimen Q which is a plant tissue and sugar solutions of
concentrations 0%, 1% 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% 25%, and 30%.

Q is a fresh tuber of non-sprouting Irish potato.

Procedure.
• Peel the specimen Q to remove the fibrous layer. Obtain 8 strips of length
3cm each. Drop a cylinder in each of the solutions in a beaker and leave
the set up for 30 minutes.
• Remove the cylinders, measure and record their final length in the table
below.

Concentration of sugar solution (%)

0 1 5 10 15 20 25 30
Initial length of potato cylinders (cm 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0 3.0
Final length of the potato cylinders
after 30 minutes(cm)
Difference in length of after 30
minutes(cm)

a) Explain the observations made in the table above.

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 b) Plot a graph of difference in length of potato cylinders (on vertical axis)
against concentration.

Exercise 4.42
You are provided with specimen Q which is a plant tissue and two sets of
solutions of sucrose of varying concentrations; 0.1M, 0.125M, 0.25M, 0.5M and
1.0M. One of the sets consists of colored water.

(i) Use a cork bore to obtain five cylinders of diameter 1.0cm from Q.

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 (ii) Chop the cylinders to obtain a length of 2.0cm.
(iii) Label five plastic beakers; 0.1A, 0.125A 0.25A, 0.5A and 1.0A and five glass
beakers 0.1B,
0.125B 0.25B, 0.5B and 1.0B
(iv) Place the cylinders in the colored sugar solutions 0.1A, 0.125A 0.25A, 0.5A
and 1.0A and leave them for 20minutes.
(v) Remove the cylinders from the colored solutions after 20 minutes
(vi) Suck a little of the colored solution from the 0.1A solution using a dropper.
(vii)Transfer a drop of the colored 0.1A solution into the clear solution
labelled 0.1B of corresponding concentration.
(viii) Repeat the procedure (vi) and (vii) for the remaining pairs of solutions.

Record your observations in the table below.

Concentration of Observations Deductions

sucrose solutions
(moldm-3)
0.100

0.125

0.250

0.500

1.000

a.Explain your observations in the table above for the following solutions.
0.100moldm-3

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 0.25moldm-3

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1.000moldm-3

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b) Suggest the appropriate concentration of cell sap for the potato cylinders.
Explain your answer.

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………

c) Measure the diameter and height of each of the cylinders from the colored
solutions after 20 minutes.
Calculate the volume of each of the cylinders from the formula V=𝜋𝜋𝑟𝑟2ℎ; take π=
3.142. r= diameter/2

Concentration of Diameter (cm) Height (cm) Volume Difference

sucrose solution (cm3) in volume
(moldm-3) (cm3)
Initial Final Initial Final Initial Final
0.100
0.125
0.250
0.500
1.000

Suggest the biological significance of the process being investigated.

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Exercise 4.43 Date ………../…………/……..
You are provided with solution A B and C and a piece of fresh plant stem Q.
use these materials to carry out the experiment below to answer the questions
that follow.

• Label three petri dishes; A, B and C.

• Fill the petri dishes with corresponding solutions.
• Trim a clean piece of stem from Q measuring 4cm.
• Cut three strips from the cut piece using a razor blade. Ensure that the
thickness of the strips is uniform.
• Put one strip in each of the solutions in the Petri dish and leave for 20
minutes.

After 20 minutes, remove the strips and draw them in the space provided.
Strips after 20 minutes
Distance between A B C
ends of strips

Drawings of the
strips

Explain the observations made in the strips obtained from solutions A, B, and C

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 Identify the solution which is Isotonic to cell sap of the strip. Give a reason for
your answer

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Name the process being investigated in the experiment

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What is the importance of the above named process to plants?

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………

Investigating the diffusion of glucose as water moves through a living tissue

by osmosis.
When water containing glucose is allowed to move by osmosis, a considerable
amount of glucose is also carried along. However, the movement of glucose
occurs by simple diffusion and sometimes facilitated diffusion.

In this experiment, solutions of glucose were placed in contact with fresh potato
tissues to allow exchange of water by osmosis. Since the concentration of glucose
was kept low, and glucose being a small molecule, a considerable amount of
glucose was also transferred across the potato cylinders. The potato pieces were
later washed in distilled water and they were again placed in distilled water to
allow glucose diffuse out of their cells into the external hypotonic solution by
diffusion. We can increase the speed of this movement by cutting the potato
cylinder into small pieces to provide large surface area for diffusion.

The fact that glucose was moved by diffusion is obtained by carrying out a food
test using Benedict solution. If we obtain; from a green solution, yellow, orange, red
to a brown precipitate, we can deduce that glucose is present in the external
solution having moved out of the potato cylinders by diffusion.

Exercise 4.42

You are provided with a 2% glucose solution, test tubes, Benedict’s solution,
distilled water, cork borer and a fresh piece of potato tuber. Use them to carry
out the following experiment Procedure

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 • Obtain three identical potato cylinders using a cork borer. Measure and
slice the three cylinders to a height of 3cm each.
• Label 3 test tubes A, B and C. add 3cm3 of glucose solution to A, 3cm3 of
glucose solution to C and 3cm3 distilled water to B.
• Place each of the potato cylinders in each of the test tubes A, B and C.
leave them to stand for 20 minutes
• Label three other test tubes A 1 , B 1 and C 1 .
• Add distilled water to each of the test tubes A 1 , B 1 and C 1
• After 20 minutes, remove the potato cylinders from the solution and treat
them as follows.
• For the cylinder from test tube A, wash it in distilled water and place it test
tube A 1 for 10 minutes
• Obtain the cylinder from test tube B, wash it distilled water and place it in
test tube
B1
• Also remove the potato cylinder from test tube C and wash it in distilled
water, use a knife or razor to cut it into sections of 0.5cm each. Now
transfer these pieces of potato to a test tube C 1 for 10 minutes.
• Obtain 2cm3 of each solution A 1 , B 1 and C 1 and boil them in a mixture with
Benedict’s solution.
Record your results in the table below.

Table

Test Observations Deductions

Boil solution A 1 with
2cm3 of Benedict’s
solution

Boil solution B 1 with

2cm3 of Benedict’s
solution

Boil solution C 1 with

2cm3 of Benedict’s
solution

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 Questions.

a. Which process is being investigated in the experiment?

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b. How did the glucose molecules move in solution?

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Why were the potato cylinders from solutions A, B and C washed in distilled
water before transferring them to A 1 , B 1 and C 1 ?

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c. Give a suitable explanation for the results obtained.

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 Chapter 5

SOIL SCIENCE

Exercise 5.11
Investigating the physical properties of soil

a.To investigate the rate of drainage of different soil samples

You are provided with three soil samples X, Y and Z. use them to carry out the
following experiment and thereafter answer the questions that follow.

(i) Feel a smaller sample of each of the soils between your fingers.
Comment on the texture of the soils

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………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

vi.Plunge a piece of dry cotton wool in the bottom of each of three the cone of a
filter funnels. vii.Measure exactly 50ml of each soil sample and pour the soil on
top of the cotton wool in the funnel. viii.Place each of the funnels and their
content on the top of a 50ml measuring cylinder. ix.Pour 50ml of water into each
of the funnels and simultaneously start the stop clock.

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 x.Determine the volume of water collected in the measuring cylinder after every 5
minutes for 30 minutes for each of the three soil samples.

Enter your results in the table below.

TABLE OF RESULTS

Time (minutes) 5 10 15 20 25 30

Volume of water collected Soil X

(cm3) Soil Y

Soil Z

b. Represent the above information inform of a graph using the same axes.

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 c. Describe the trends of the graphs.
Soil A
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Soil B
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Soil C
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d.Explain the trends of the graphs.

Soil A

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Soil B
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 ………………………………………………………………………………………………………
Soil C
………………………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

e.Which one of the three soil types is best for farming? Give a reason for your
answer.

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……………………………………………………………………………………………………………

LIST OF UNKNOWNS FOR THE PRACTICAL EXERCISES

Exercise 2.31
• X is canine tooth
• Y is Premolar tooth

Exercise 2.32
• D is Incisor tooth
• E is Molar tooth
Chapter 1
Chapter 2
Exercise 2.41

• F is a fresh tilapia fish

Chapter 3
Exercise 3.21

• S is a rhizome of couch grass

• T is a bulb of garlic
• U is a stem of non- sprouting Irish potato

Exercise 3.22(a)

• B is a leaf of Bryophylum

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Exercise 3.22(b)

• R is leaf of acassia
• S is a leaf of commelina
• T is a leaf of Bidens pilosa
• U is a leaf of Jacaranda mimmosifolia

Exercise 3.22 (c)

• D is a leaf of Bryophyllum
• E is a Bougainvillea
• F is a leaf of Pumpkin
• G is a leaf of Acanthus

Exercise 3.23(a)

• Acassia flower K
• Hibiscus flower L
• Bougainvillea flower M
• Panicum maximum flower N

Exercise 3.23(b)

• M is a male maize flower

• K is a female maize flower

Chapter 4

Exercise 4.10

• A1 is a young leaflet of Acassia tree kept in open light for 48hours

• A2 is young leaflet of Acassiaoriginally kept in darkness for 48hours

Exercise 4.11

• A is an extract of cane juice or table sugar mixed with a ¼ tablet of

ascorbic acid

Exercise 4.12

• B is a fresh tuber of non-sprouting Irish potato.

• C is a ripe fruit of orange

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Exercise 4.13

• E is a solution containing 1% starch

• F is a solution prepared by dissolving 10g of egg albumen in water to
make a liter.

Exercise 4.14
G is a solution containing 10g of sucrose in 1 liter of solution.
• H is oil obtained from ground nut paste.

Exercise 4.15

• J is a solution containing 10% sucrose

• K is a solution of D glucose (10%)

Exercise 4.21

• L is 1% starch

Exercise 4.22

• N is distilled water
• O is 0.01M sodium hydroxide
• P is 0.01 hydrochloric acid
• R is a 1% amylase solution
• Q is 1%starch

Exercise 4.23

• S 1 is a 0.1% solution of starch

• S 2 is a 1% solution of starch
• S 3 is a 5% solution of amylase
• T is a solution of 1% amylase

Exercise 4.24

• Solution L is 2% solution of α-amylase

• Specimen K is a fresh non-sprouting Irish potato

Exercise 4.25

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 • Suspension W is 2% yeast
• Solution X is 1% starch
• Solution Y is 10% sucrose
• Solution Z is 20% glucose

Exercise 4.26

• Solution A is 20% hydrogen peroxide

Exercise 4.27

•
• Solution X is 0.005M sodium hydroxide
• Solution Y is 0.005M hydrochloric acid  Solution Z is distilled water
Exercise 4.28

•X is a fresh tuber of Irish potato

• Y is a fresh liver tissue
Chapter 5

Exercise 5.11

• X is loam soil
• Y is sandy soil
• Z is clay soil

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