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CHAP4 Streamflow Measurement
CHAP4 Streamflow Measurement
CHAP4 Streamflow Measurement
ENGINEERING HYDROLOGY
STREAMFLOW
MEASUREMENT
1
WEEK 4 – STREAMFLOW MEASUREMENT
LEARNING OUTCOMES
At the end of the week, students should be
able to:
At the end of the week, students should be able to:
o estimate streamflow discharge using velocity-area method
& dilution method (CO2);
o read and interpret rating curve (CO2).
2
Streamflow
Streamflow represents the runoff phase of the
hydrological cycle
P–L=R (assuming S = 0)
3
Streamflow Measurement
Streamflow can be measured relatively accurately.
The techniques can be classified as follows:
(I) Direct determination
- Area-velocity method
- Dilution method
- Electromagnetic method
- Ultrasonic method
(II) Indirect determination
- Hydraulic structure
- Slope-area method
4
Area-Velocity Method
Measurement should be performed at a site where
• The stream has well-defined cross section which
does not change with season
• It is easily accessible throughout the year
• The reach is straight and stable
• The reach is free from back-water effect
5
Area-Velocity Method
The river cross section is divided into large number of
segments by verticals using the following
guidelines:
• Segment width <1/15 to 1/20 of river width
• Discharge in each section should be <10% of total
discharge
• Velocities difference between adjacent segments
should be <20%
Typical relationship:
Stream velocity v = aN + b
where a,b are instrument constant, N = rotation /s
7
Vertical-axis Current Meter
Range: 0.15-4.0m/s, up to 0.3% accuracy at >1m/s
E.g; Price Current Meter & Gurley Current Meter
8
Horizontal-axis Current Meter
Range: 0.15-4.0m/s, up to 0.25% accuracy at > 0.3m/s
9
Swoffer 2100. Sources; Irma et al., 2008
10
Floats
Primitive way of measuring time and distance traveled
by a float. Suitable for:
• Small stream in flood/ rapidly changing water
surface
• Preliminary survey
12
Field Velocity
Velocity distribution in a stream across a vertical
section varies according to depth and distance
from boundary. Hence velocity measurement
typically must be done on large number of points.
13
Field Velocity
Some simplified approaches:
• Single-point observation method: Average velocity
is taken at 0.6x depth below water surface for
shallow stream <3m.
• For moderately deep streams, velocity is observed
at two points (0.2x and 0.8x depth below water
surface) and the values averaged.
• For flood flow, only velocity within 0.5m deep
below surface is measured. The average velocity is
multiplied by a reduction factor (0.85-0.95) based
on observations at lower stages. 14
Area-Velocity Method
Depth and velocity are measured at the verticals.
* d = 0.6d (shallow stream, < 3m) & d = 0.2d & 0.8d (deep
stream, > 3m)
15
Area-Velocity Method
Discharge in each segment is given by
Qi yi viWi
1
where Wi (Wi Wi 1 ) For i = 2 to (N-2)
2
2
1 W2
W1 W1 For i = 1
2W1 2
2
1 WN 1
WN 1 N
W For i = N-1
2WN 2
N 1
17
Dilution Method
The method determine flow rate in an absolute way
(based on volume of tracer & time), and is suitable
for small turbulent streams.
When??- Very shallow stream, inaccessible area &
high velocity
Types of Tracer ;
i) Chemicals - Common Salt, Sodium Dichromate
ii) Fluorescent dyes (Rhodamine-WT, Sulpho-
Rhodamine B Extra)
iii) Radioactive (Bromine-82, Sodium-24, Iodine-132)
18
Sudden Injection Method
Let C0 be the small initial concentration of the tracer in
the flow, C1 be the injected tracer concentration
upstream, and V1 the volume of tracer injected.
V1C1
Q t2
t1
(C 2 C 0 )dt
19
Constant Injection Method
Let C0 be the small initial concentration of the tracer in
the flow, C1 be the injected tracer concentration
upstream, and Qt the rate of injection.
Qt (C1 C2 )
Q
(C2 C0 )
21
Hydraulic Structures
e.g; notches, weirs, flumes, sluice gates
The structures produce a control section
in the flow where correlation of
discharge and water surface
elevation can be established.
Generally Q = KHn
where H = head above structure
K and n are system constants
flume
22
http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/topics/water/tts/caspartts.html
http://www.eng.miami.edu/~dchin/sluice1.jpg
SLUICE GATES
http://www.flickr.com/photos/squelch/227089954 23
24
Stage Measurement
An easier and cheaper approach ( to measure discharge)
is to measure the stage (water level) which can be
related to the discharge.
This require the stage-discharge relationship to be first
established through a series of careful measurement
of both quantities and relating them by a plot or an
equation.
25
Stage Measurement
Measured with respect to a datum, usu. the MSL or any
arbitrary datum, using:
• Staff gauge
Manual Gauges
• Wire gauge
• Automatic stage recorder
- float-gauge recorder (measure displacement of a
float on water surface)
- bubble gauge (measure hydrostatic pressure at
river bed)
26
Staff Gauge
27
Staff Gauge
http://www.crh.noaa.gov/images/ahps2/gid/spln1/SPLN1_SG1.JPG
ahps.srh.noaa.gov
28
Float-Gauge Recorder
29
Float-Gauge Recorder
30
Bubble Gauge
Gas circuit
32
Permanent Control
33
Permanent Control
Stage (m)
34
Permanent Control
Stage (m)
35
Permanent Control
N ( XY ) ( X )( Y )
β
N ( X 2 ) ( X ) 2
b @ log C r
b( X )
Y β
N
N ( XY ) ( X )( Y )
R @r
N ( X 2 ) ( X ) 2 N ( Y 2 ) ( Y ) 2
36
Stage for zero discharge a
Method 1:
• Draw best fit curve S-Q
Stage (m)
• Extrapolate to get a
• Plot log Q vs log(S-a);
verify whether data plot as
straight line.
• If NO, repeat steps.
37
Stage for zero discharge a
Method 2:
• Draw best fit curve S-Q
• Select points A,B,C such
that QA/QB = QB/QC
• Get point D,E
• Extrapolate DE and AB
• Identify point F to get a
=a
38
Stage for zero discharge a
Method 3:
• Draw best fit curve S-Q
Stage (m)
• Select points Q1, Q2 & Q3
such that Q1/Q2 = Q2/Q3
• Read S1, S2 & S3
• Hence S1 a S 2 a
S 2 a S3 a
S1S3 S 22
• OR a
S1 S3 2S 2
42
Backwater Effect
• Measure stage at a secondary
(auxiliary) gauge some distance
downstream of the main gauge
m
Q F
• Let
Q0 F0
where
fall F = S – Saux , m = constant
F0 is the selected normalizing value,
Q0 is the normalized discharge at F0
F/F0
• Plot (i) Q0 vs S (constant fall curve), and
(ii) Q/Q0 vs F/F0 (normalized curve)
• Hence, for a set of reading S and F:
(i) calculate F/F0,
(ii) read Q/Q0 and Q0 from plots,
Example 4.5, pg43131
(iii) calculate Q.
44
Unsteady Flow Effect
Approach velocities of advancing flood wave is larger
than steady flow at the same stage. Hence Q
increases correspondingly.
Approach velocities of receding flood wave is smaller
than steady flow at the same stage. Hence Q
decreases correspondingly;
This results in a looped S-Q curve.
Each flood may produce different S-Q curve.
45
Looped S-Q Curve
46
Extrapolation of Rating Curve
Typically to extrapolate available data to determine
design-flood stage.
• Conveyance method
• Logarithmic plot method
48
Conveyance Method
• determine best-fit
linear relationship to
cover extrapolation
range
51