Applied Thermal Engineering 113 (2017) 694–704

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Applied Thermal Engineering

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apthermeng

Research Paper

Joint numerical-technical analysis and economical evaluation of

applying small internal combustion engines in combined heat and power
(CHP)
Pooya Arbabi a, Abbas Abbassi a,⇑, Zohreh Mansoori b, Mohammad Seyfi a
a
Amirkabir University of Technology (Tehran Polytechnic), Department of Mechanical Engineering, 424 Hafez Ave, Tehran 15875-4413, Iran
b
Energy Research Centre, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran

h i g h l i g h t s

A general procedure for the design and selection of a CCHP unit has been provided.

A numerical model of a CCHP based on an internal combustion engine has been simulated.

The model can estimate the amount of generated power and recycled heat.

The results have been verified through the results of a model and experimental data.

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: We offer a general procedure to design and select a CHP unit based on an internal combustion engine.
Received 27 April 2016 This work is devoted to provide a numerical model to estimate the amount of generated power and
Revised 5 November 2016 recovered heat, based on the engine performance features. We evaluated the mismatch of our numerical
Accepted 8 November 2016
results and the available computational published values. We also evaluated our presented design CHP
Available online 9 November 2016
unit economically and technically. Finally, ‘‘Grey Systems Theory” is proposed as a multi decision making
strategy to determine the optimal engine. Applying the numerical model on vehicles’ engines provides
Keywords:
the efficiency and power and heat production characteristics of the engine. It is observed that an opti-
Cogeneration system
Internal combustion engine
mum operation system must be chosen for each case, separately. Generally, using several smaller engines
Numerical modelling in parallel mode is preferred over a single large engine. This is due to two major enhancements achieved
Technical and economical evaluation in the former scenario; longer operation period at full load operation and reliability level improvement.
Multi criteria decision-making Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Grey systems theory

1. Introduction consumption peaks during winter and electricity consumption

peaks during summer, thus these two networks can be used as
Many studies in energy conservation are mainly focused on backups in case of necessity, interchangeably. Being said that gas
lowering greenhouse gas emissions and improvement of energy network can be used for DG1 in industrial and large-scale residential
supplies. Distributed generation and cogeneration systems are buildings.
among the popular solutions in energy conservation [1].
Iran has one of the richest fossil energy resources in the world
2. Contributions
by having 18.2% of total gas resources in the world. It is also one
of the largest worldwide natural gas consumers after USA, Russia
A master plan is enacted in Iran for 5 thousand MW of dis-
and China [2]. In Iran, the nationwide gas piping network supports
tributed generation based on internal combustion engine. A
more than 100 km of pipelines in over 900 cities and 11,000
numerical model makes us capable to evaluate our estimation of
villages [3]. Iran is one of the few countries which have both the
engine characteristic as a CHP prime mover. By applying this
electricity grid and gas network. Based on statistical studies, gas
model, available options in the market are evaluated readily
without the need for time-consuming experiments; hence the
⇑ Corresponding author.
operational characteristics of available options are easily obtained
E-mail addresses: pooya_arbabi@aut.ac.ir (P. Arbabi), abbassi@aut.ac.ir
1
(A. Abbassi), z.mansoori@aut.ac.ir (Z. Mansoori), m.seyfi@aut.ac.ir (M. Seyfi). Distributed Generation.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.applthermaleng.2016.11.064
1359-4311/Ó 2016 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 P. Arbabi et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 113 (2017) 694–704 695

Nomenclature

a crank radius (m) U unscheduled downtime

A area (m2) V volume (m3)
Ah hourly availability (%) w average gas velocity (m/s)
bmep break mean effective pressure (kPa) W work (kJ)
B cylinder bore (m) y useful cogeneration lifetime
c specific heat (kJ/kg K)
CD discharge coefficient Greeks
cf cash flow a price
D valve diameter (m) c specific heat ratio
E energy (kJ) g efficiency
ex exergy (kJ/kg) h crank angle (rad)
F fuel u equivalence ratio
fmep frictional mean effective pressure (kPa) w flow exergy
GIG grey incidence grade
h enthalpy (kJ/kg)
Superscripts
hc convective heat transfer coefficient ch chemical
I investment th thermomechanical
imep indicated mean effective pressure (kPa)
ir interest rate
IRR internal rate of return Subscripts
0 reference conditions
l length of connecting rod (m)
L stroke (m) a air
Lv valve lift (m) ac actual
LHV lower heating value (kJ/kg) c clearance
ch chemical
m mass (kg)
n number of cylinders cool coolant
N engine speed (rpm) d displaced
ex exhaust
NPV net present value
P pressure (kPa) f fuel
PR price ratio gen generated
Q heat (kJ) ht wall heat transfer
i inlet and outlet
r compression ratio
R universal gas constant (kJ/kg K) L lost
RE reliability (%) max maximum
s entropy (kJ/kg) P piston
R recovered
S scheduled downtime
T temperature (K) v volumetric
Ts annual number of hours the CHP is in service w waste
W cylinder wall
u internal energy (kJ/kg)

with this numerical model. Then, the electrical and heating
demand of individual cases is estimated. Using the data bank,
available options capable of meeting electrical and heating
demands are selected; each prime mover makes a scenario along
with its proper auxiliary equipment and operation characteristics
(state of being connected to the grid, operation method, etc.). Each
of the scenarios is evaluated in a multi-criteria decision making
system (the Grey Systems theory here) to obtain the optimum sys-
tem. In the evaluation process, weighting parameters (e.g. techni-
cal, economic, environmental and operational) are utilized. The
procedure is shown for a case study. This procedure covers all parts
of examining a cogeneration system. Therefore, we can consider
this as an overall evaluation. Improved results of such a study
including a wide range of engines in the market and weather con-
ditions for each area conclude practical software to implement the
master plan.
There are several studies focused on CHP systems which cover a
wide range of types, sizes, etc. Some articles focused on a cogener-
ation system for a special case in a residential building located in a
particular geographical area. These studies are locally valuable,
although they are mostly applicable to their respective area [4,5].
In most cases, the thermal and electrical load is estimated at the
first place. Then, either the different applicable prime movers are
examined [6,7], or the effect of the auxiliary instruments is exam-
ined on a prescribed prime mover which had been chosen before-
hand [8–11]. In these types of papers, a cogeneration system is
designed for a particular case. In the above mentioned articles,
the environmental and economic evaluations were conducted by
focusing more on technical evaluations [6,9,11–14]. However,
some cases focused on the environmental and economic evalua-
tions [15–17]. Limited studies were utilized in these articles which
may not be sufficient for master plans. Also, each case focused on
some of the evaluation criteria, while it lacks other parts of the
whole evaluation that the designers need to consider in their
design plan. By applying a multi-criteria decision making system,
this problem can be solved.
Note that, in many experimental studies, a particular prime
mover is selected with its auxiliary equipment according to the
designer’s decision. The efficiencies are calculated using experi-
ments. Therefore, the operational characteristics are determined
for a prescribed condition [5,18–20]. Naturally, experimental
studies focus on a particular case and a comparison of different
scenarios is not available. Thus, the whole evaluation cannot be
conducted in this type of studies.
696 P. Arbabi et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 113 (2017) 694–704
In many other studies, small cogeneration systems are designed
based on different prime movers. These systems are also used for
determination of an appropriate prime mover, or determination
of the optimum operation strategy to meet specific amounts of
thermal and electrical demands. Most of these studies have
focused on common operation strategies [12,13,21,22], although
in some cases, new operation strategies have been developed
[11,23]. The outcome of these studies are mainly just offering a
new scenario or improving the existing one, therefore this process
is considered as a single part of the whole evaluation process.
There are few studies which have modelled a cogeneration sys-
tem based on a particular prime mover. Then, the designed models
have been validated and calibrated using either the empirical data
or the data collected from the manufacturers’ catalogues [24]. In
this investigation, we are applying the same method.
In this study, the thorough examination is conducted, using
similar procedure presented in the whole evaluation characteris-
tics. After examination of previous studies, some steps were added
in the whole evaluation process. Technical and economic studies
based on a thermodynamic approach were carried out. The present
numerical model is verified with another model at the University
of Mississippi and validated against the manufacturer’s data. Also,
the numerical study is performed in the most possible realistic
working conditions. After the above considerations, some parame-
ters (used in defining the different operation methods and the type
of prime mover) are presented using non-dimensional and weight-
function efficiencies. All of these parameters play an important role
in making the final decision upon determination of the optimum
CHP system. In this study, available engines in Iranian market are
considered as options for the prime mover in residential cogener-
ation systems. Finally, the presented methodology is illustrated
in a case study in Iran.
3. Numerical modelling
In this section, an IC engine is modelled to meet the heat and
power demands. There are numerous modelling approaches and
IC engines, which all increase the complexity of this study. Numer-
ical models were chosen to lower the costs of conducting experi-
ments on engines and also to obtain the technical data quickly.
The main purpose of the modelling is estimation of available elec-
trical power and recovered heat, thus the engine is considered as a
whole. The goal of this study is to estimate the shaft work and the
amount of recovered heat from the engine’s jacket cooling and
exhaust systems. Estimations are based on the minimum available
technical data from companies’ catalogues.
Fig. 1. General model for micro-CHP systems [7].
In this step, we used a linear model is used between the input
fuel and different output variables. Although, using a second and
third order function results a more accurate conclusion, using a lin-
ear function instead, may simplify the procedure by means of lin-
ear programming techniques. During the market study phase,
determination of the optimum engine is the objective and the
amounts of produced heat and power of the prime movers are
approximately estimated. This estimation is sufficient to create a
comparison table which presents different operation characteris-
tics of available options for the designer. Therefore, a zero dimen-
sional model with a linear equation between the input and the
output is used in the present modelling. In this model, the cylinder
is considered as an open system having an inlet of air and fuel and
an outlet of exhaust gas. Four-stroke, gas burning, open chamber
and water-cooled linear reciprocating engines are the main focus
of this study. Fig. 1 shows schematically the control volume for a
general micro-CHP system.
A general model of the CHP system (Fig. 1) consists of an inter-
nal combustion engine prime mover, driving a generator to pro-
duce power. Meanwhile, a portion of the heat generated in the
prime mover is recovered in heat exchangers. The air-fuel enters
the engine and the power is generated by means of the prime
mover. Then, the combustion products enter the heat exchangers,
so that some portion of heat is recovered. The ‘‘waste” energy
leaves the system in the form of exhaust gas, and ‘‘heat loss” occurs
naturally during the whole process, which can be neglected, as it is
significantly small. The variables shown in Fig. 1 correspond to the
mass flow rate, enthalpy, temperature, flow exergy, etc. of air, fuel
and exhaust gas. Detailed demonstration of each term is provided
in the following sections.
3.1. Engine model
3.1.1. Engine’s geometry
The cylinder volume can be expressed by [25]:
pB2
V ¼ Vc þ ðl þ a  sÞ ð1Þ
4
where V and Vc are in-cylinder and clearance volumes, respectively,
and s is the distance between the crank axis and the piston pin axis.
a, l and B are the crank radius, the length of connecting rod the
cylinder bore, respectively [25].
1=2
2
s ¼ a cos h þ ðl  a2 sin hÞ
2
ð2Þ
where h is the crank angle.
 P. Arbabi et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 113 (2017) 694–704 697

3.1.2. Thermodynamic model where w is the mean velocity of gas inside the cylinder, defined as
In this step, we calculate the functions for temperature, pres- [25]:
sure, and the mass in the cylinder with respect to time (crank  
V dTr
angle). The first law of thermodynamics can be expressed as [26]: w ¼ C1 Sp þ C2 ðP  Pm Þ ð12Þ
Pr V r
dU dQ dW X dHi
¼  þ ð3Þ In the above equation, Sp denotes the mean piston velocity. C1 and
dh dh dh i
dh
C2 are 6.18 and 0, 2.28, 0 and 2.28, and 3.24  103, for gas transfer,
In the above equation, the subscript i denotes the inlet and outlet compression and combustion steps, respectively. Pm is the in-
conditions. Q is the net heat transferred to the cylinder, which cylinder engine pressure defined as [29]:
equals the difference between the heat released during combustion  c
Qt and the heat escaped through cylinder walls Qht. The above equa- Vt
Pm ¼ P0 ð13Þ
tion can be rewritten based on the cylinder temperature function V
with respect to crank angle in an ideal gas condition as [26]: where Vt is the total volume of the cylinder, P0 is the ambient pres-
dT dm dQ ch dQ ht mRT dV X dmi sure and c is the specific heat ratio.
mcv þu ¼   þ hi ð4Þ Also, Aw is calculated using [27]:
dh dh dh dh V dh i
dh
pB2
In the above equation, m is the gas mass in the cylinder at the Aw ¼ Awall þ Ahead þ Apiston ¼ pBða þ l  sÞ þ ð14Þ
moment, cv is the specific heat in constant volume, R is the gas con- 2
stant, V is the cylinder volume and h is the enthalpy. The above
equation is applicable to direct injection spark ignition and com- 3.1.4. Mass exchange
pression ignition internal combustion engines. In order to include the effect of gas transfer, the mass flow rate
equations are recommended as [25]:
3.1.3. Heat exchange vffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi
 1=c u " ðc1Þ=c #
The rate of chemical heat release is calculated using the mass dm C D Av P1 P 2 u 2c  P2
¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi t 1 ða-15Þ
burn rate as follows [27]:
dh N RT 1 P 1 c1 P1
dQ ch dxb
¼ Q in ð5Þ
dh dh and for a choked flow as [25]:
where Qch and Qin are chemical heat transfer and net heat produced,  2ððccþ1Þ  ðc1Þ
c
dm C D Av P1 1=2 2 1Þ P2 2
respectively. xb is the composition combustion parameter in the ¼ pffiffiffiffiffiffiffiffi c if 6 ðb-15Þ
dh N RT 1 c þ 1 P1 cþ1
Weibe function.
The net heat input is defined as follows [27]: In the equations above, CD represents the experimental discharge
F  constant as shown in Fig. 2 and N denotes the angular speed of
Q in ¼   Q t for u 6 1
A ac
ða-6Þ crankshaft. The subscripts 1 and 2 denote the inlet stagnation and
1 þ AF ac
outlet conditions, respectively. Thus, for inlet valves they express
F  the inlet air and in-cylinder conditions, respectively. On the other
Q in ¼   ½Q t  3890ðu  1Þ for u > 1
A ac
ðb-6Þ hand, for discharge valves, they express the in-cylinder conditions
1 þ AF ac

where u denotes the equivalence ratio and AF ac denotes the actual
fuel-air ratio. Qt is the total produced heat defined as [26]:
Q t ¼ mf LHV f ð7Þ
where mf is the mass flow rate of fuel and LHVf is the lower heating
value of the fuel.
The Weibe function for a SI engine is defined as [27]:
"  nþ1 #
h  hs
xb ðhÞ ¼ 1  exp a ð8Þ
hd

and for the CI engines, it is defined as [28]:

 n "  nþ1 #
6:908ðn þ 1Þ h  hs h  hs
xb ðhÞ ¼ exp a ð9Þ
hd hd hd

In both equations, hs is the crank angle for initiation of combustion

and hd is the duration of combustion. Constants a and n are 2.9 and
0.32, respectively.
The rate of heat transfer through the walls is defined as [26]:
dQ ht hc Aw ½T  T w 
¼ ð10Þ
dh 2pN
where Aw denotes the total cylinder wall area and Tw represents the
wall temperature. The convective heat transfer coefficient is calcu-
lated through Woschni’s relation [25]:

hc ¼ 3:26B0:2 P0:8 T 0:55 w0:8 ð11Þ

Fig. 2. Discharge constant versus valve lift [25].
698 P. Arbabi et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 113 (2017) 694–704

and post-discharge conditions, respectively. The can be expressed
as [25]:
pD2v
AV ¼
4 cal solution is presented in Fig. 3.
where Dv is the valve diameter. In real conditions, one should sim-
ulate the opening and closing behaviour of the valves, which are
directly related to the discharge constants. Therefore, a parameter,
named valve lift, is used here which is expressed by Lv. The valves
are considered to have ideal design conditions having their CD
derived from Fig. 2. In addition, the valve’s opening and closing
periods are similar and symmetric and the maximum opening of
the valves equals 25% of valve diameters.
In order to calculate the gas properties, the specific heat ratios
should be calculated as a function of temperature. For the air fuel
mixture, the relation proposed by Zucrow and Hoffman can be
used [30].
against a numerical model based on similar experimental engines
written at the Mississippi State University in 2012. The noted
numerical model has been written using FORTRAN and used a
ð16Þ fourth order Runge-Kutta algorithm. The flowchart of the numeri-
The solution logic in the Simulink environment is based on the
signals received in time. Different processes such as fuel inlet, fuel
ignition, heat transfer from the cylinder walls to the jacket water,
work production and the exhaust gas release do not take place
simultaneously in a cycle period in the engine. Thus, Simulink
environment cannot be useful for the calculation of efficiencies.
As a result, after solving the final equation, a numerical code in
MATLAB’s main environment is used to calculate the efficiencies.
4. Evaluation criteria
4.1. Technical evaluation

3.2. Engine energy balance After the first estimation is performed, it is necessary to conduct
the preliminary evaluations. This step helps choosing an engine to
The energy balance equation yields [26]: meet the energy demands and maintain a better economic situa-
_ shaft þ Q_ ex þ Q_ cool þ Q_ loss
E_ fuel ¼ W ð17Þ tion compared to the other types. Decision on a cogeneration unit
has to be made according to both technical and economic evalua-
where the rate of shaft work is given by [26]: tions. For a CHP system based on ICE, the overall thermodynamic
first law efficiency is expressed as [6]:
_ shaft ¼ n  bmep  V d  N
W ð18Þ
2 _ shaft þ Q_ ex þ Q_ cool
W
gCHP ¼ ð24Þ
In Eq. (18), bmep, n and N denote break mean effective pressure, the E_ fuel
number of cylinders and engine revolutions per minute,
respectively. The exergy balance in Fig. 1 has to be in a way which for the
In order to calculate bmep, one should consider [26]: steady state system the rate of inlet exergy equals the rate of outlet
exergy plus the rate of exergy destruction due to irreversibility.
bmep ¼ imep  fmep ð19Þ Therefore, the exergy balance can be presented as [7]:
The indicated mean effective pressure imep is calculated X   X
T0
through equation below [26]: m _ þ ex
_ a wa ¼ W
_ f wf þ m _Rþ Q_ L 1  þ _ w ww
m
TL
H
imep ¼
PdV
ð20Þ þ T 0 S_ gen ð25Þ
Vd
In the above equation, w denotes the flow exergy, and the sub-
and the friction mean effective pressure is calculated through Win- scripts 0, R, L and w represent conditions corresponding to ambient,
terbone’s relation [31]: heat recovery, destruction and waste, respectively. Also, the sub-
fmep ¼ 0:061 þ 1:167Pmax þ 4:9  106 N ð21Þ scripts f and a represent the inlet fuel and air, respectively.
Now, one may partially calculate each statement in the above
The rate of heat transfer through the exhaust gas flow is [26]: equation. On the right hand side of equation, the air exergy con-
N sists only of thermo-mechanical type, while the fuel exergy
Q_ ex ¼ n  m
_ ex  hex ð22Þ includes both thermo-mechanical and chemical types. Thermo-
2
mechanical exergy related to air and fuel can be calculated using
where m _ ex and hex denote the outlet mass rate and the exhaust gas [33]:
enthalpy, respectively. The latter is derived from Keenan and Kaye
tables [32] for exhaust gas. wth
f ¼ ðhf  h0 Þ  T 0 ðsf  s0 Þ ð26Þ
Finally, the jacket cooling heat rate is defined as [26]:
dQ ht N wth
a ¼ ðha  h0 Þ  T 0 ðsa  s0 Þ ð27Þ
Q_ cool ¼ n  ð23Þ
dh 2 where h and s represent specific enthalpy and entropy, respectively,
and their difference with respect to the reference conditions can be
3.3. Numerical solution algorithm calculated using [33]:
Z T in
In order to estimate the approximate amount of work and h  h0 ¼ C p ðTÞdT ð28Þ
recovered heat in the numerical modelling of an IC engine, the T0
thermodynamic properties are modelled with the gas transfer
model between compositions inside the cylinder, as a control Z T in Z P in
C p ðTÞ R dP
volume. s  s0 ¼ dT  ð29Þ
T0 T M P0 P
To conduct the numerical modelling, the modelling equations
were inserted in the Simulink environment in MATLAB. To solve Also, R is the gas constant and M denotes the molecular mass. When
this problem, an ODE45 algorithm - in which it changes between the reference and ambient conditions are assumed to be similar,
two fourth and fifth Runge-Kutta solvers - was applied using vari- one can neglect the amount of thermo-mechanical exergy. The flow
able steps. Finally, to verify the results, these data are compared exergy of the fuel is simply calculated as [34]:
 P. Arbabi et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 113 (2017) 694–704 699

Fig. 3. Flowchart of the numerical solution.

Z  
wf ¼ wth ch
f þ wf ð30Þ T0
_R¼
ex 1 dQ_ R ð33Þ
TR
where wch
f is the chemical exergy of the fuel and it can be calculated
This equation includes calculation of the recovery instruments
for every CyHz hydrocarbon on a mass basis as [35]:
  and products, thus needing a separate time-consuming modelling.
z 0:042 However, the statement can be estimated using an effective heat
wch
f ¼ LHV 1:04224 þ 0:011925  ð31Þ
y y recovery temperature equal to the mean of engine products’ tem-
perature Tp and waste temperature Tw [37]:
Also, to be more precise, when the fuel contains Sulphur with
 
the formula CyHzOpSq, the chemical exergy can be calculated as T
[36]:
_ R ¼ Q_ R 1  0
ex ð34Þ
TR
  
z p q z
wch
f ¼ LHV 1:0401 þ 0:01728 þ 0:0432 þ 0:2196 1  2:0628 At last, according to the aforementioned equations, the exergy
y y y y
efficiency can be defined as [7]:
ð32Þ
_ þ ex
W _R
To calculate the heat recovery exergy accurately, one may use gexergy ¼ _ f wf
ð35Þ
m
equation [37]:
700 P. Arbabi et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 113 (2017) 694–704
4.2. Economical evaluation
Generally, economic parameters differ from each other based
on the consumer’s behaviour, production-consumption coordina-
tion, annual operation hours of the systems and economic and
political circumstances in each domestic area. The parameters used
for economical evaluation in this study, are presented as follows.
First, the ‘‘price ratio” is considered and it can be represented as
[38]:
_ shaft ae þ Q_ R ah
W cess. An acceptable OPL capability means that the prime mover’s
PR ¼ ð36Þ
E_ fuel af
which is somehow a weighted version of the energy utilization fac-
tor. In Eq. (36), ae is the electricity price and its value is approxi-
mately 0.06 $/kWh, noting that it changes during 24 h of the day.
In addition, ah is the heat price, considered equal to a value of
approximately 0.04 $/kWh, and af is the fuel price, which equals
0.02 $/kWh and 0.03 $/kWh for gas and diesel fuels, respectively.
Next, ‘‘capital cost” is considered. Although, this parameter can-
not indicate the amount of profitability, investment risk and rate of
return individually, it has a great influence on the customer’s deci-
sion. The smaller is the capital cost, the more is the ambition to buy
and invest.
‘‘Operation and maintenance costs” is the next parameter. This
is a key factor when considering internal combustion engines due
to the reciprocating movements and respecting impulses and
vibrations. However, the running costs of IC engines are among
the lowest in different prime movers. The costs for major or minor
maintenance, whether they are for overhauls or for unexpected
maintenance, have a negative impact on the customer’s decision.
‘‘Payback period” is the next parameter. This parameter can be
considered as a rule of thumb calculation for the capital cost recov-
ery. This parameter does count for the real value of money during
time, so it can be considered as a simple relation for non-technical
investors.
One of the key parameters in this evaluation criterion is ‘‘net
present value”. This parameter plays an essential role in economic
evaluations. Using ‘‘NPV”, one can determine if the project is prof-
itable. It is related to the interest rate ir, which is usually consid-
ered to be the same as the inflation rate. NPV is the parameter
which can calculate the real value money in every year of opera-
tion. It is calculated as follows [39]:
X
L
cfy
NPV ¼ y I ð37Þ
y¼1
ð1 þ irÞ
where cfy is the cash flow in y-th year. One can consider the project
as profitable, if the value of NPV is positive. The more positive the
NPV is, the more profit will the project produce. The designer can
set NPV to equal a predefined value after L years and design the
CCHP and its components with the NPV value in mind. The unit of
NPV is the same as the unit of used currency. It has to be noted that
NPV is a dynamic parameter and can be calculated annually. The
equivalent parameter (in terms of value) for NPV is NPVIRR through
the project lifetime.
Finally, the ‘‘internal rate of return” plays an important role in
economical evaluations. ‘‘IRR” has a vital role in economic evalua-
tion of a CCHP which shows the profitability margin (IRR  ir) of
the project. When NPV is zero, IRR is responsible for the determina-
tion of the project profitability. If IRR becomes smaller than ir,
investment is not recommended for the investor, as in case of
IRR = ir, there is no profit and there is the possibility of money loss.
IRR can be calculated as the following [39].
X
L
cfy
NPV IRR ¼ I ¼0 ð38Þ
ð1 þ IRRÞ y
y¼1
Like NPV, IRR can be predefined to have a sustainable value. ir
denotes the interest rate; the interest rate is 15% in Iran, in 2016,
while it is near 4% in most of the developed countries. Due to this
relatively higher interest rate, the investment risks in the cogener-
ation section are higher in Iran.
4.3. Other evaluation parameters
‘‘Operation in partial load (OPL)” is useful in the evaluation pro-
efficiency does not drop as the consumption load decreases. This
parameter changes for different types of prime movers and is of
great value for internal combustion engines. In general, it is a qual-
itative parameter which becomes important according to the user’s
consumption load type, especially electrical load.
Next, ‘‘environmental parameters” are considered. National and
international organizations strongly concern about environmental
issues and enact strong rules about it. Therefore, it is necessary to
consider this parameter in every engineering issue. Two of the
most important concerns regarding environmental issues are air
and noise pollution [40].
It is also recommended to have the time duration of the opera-
tion period and annual maintenance in mind. In order to determine
the proficiency from the operational point of view, two parameters
of ‘‘reliability” and ‘‘availability” are taken into account [39]:
T s  ðS þ UÞ
%RE ¼  100 ð39Þ
Ts  S
T s  ðS þ UÞ
%Ah ¼  100 ð40Þ
Ts
‘‘Life time” obviously can affect evaluation results, too. The life
time of a system has a positive and direct role in promoting eco-
nomic parameters and usually decreases the investment risk. Also,
it has a high encouraging influence on the customer’s decision.
Next, ‘‘possibility of instrument imports and exports” can be
effective in evaluation. This parameter has a direct relation with
the government’s policies regarding energy. Therefore, it should
be considered in major decisions.
Finally, a small ‘‘footprint” is of great importance, especially in
residential applications [40].
The parameters mentioned in Section 3.3 are mostly of qualita-
tive type and do not have a particular quantitative value. Therefore,
according to the multi-criteria decision making rules and the com-
parison of different scenarios, quantitative values are assigned to
each one of them.
4.4. Base decision-making
In the context of base decision making, only the primary parts
including the prime mover and the heating and cooling compo-
nents are selected. In the present study, an internal combustion
engine was chosen as the prime mover. Therefore, decisions are
made only on the heating and cooling systems. In addition, there
are numerous types of IC engines to be used as the prime mover.
There is a wide variety of parameters to be considered when
making decisions on choosing the elements of a cogeneration sys-
tem. Generally, these have the common characteristics mentioned
below [39]:

Some of them are only qualitative.

There are a few parameters which have different units.

They are from different orders of magnitude.

They are from different orders of significance.

There are a lot of important parameters to be considered.
 P. Arbabi et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 113 (2017) 694–704 701

To overcome the hardship of making decisions considering the

above difficulties, it is necessary to:

Transform all qualitative parameters into quantitative ones.

Present all existing parameters in dimensionless form.

Normalize all parameters to place them all in a specific limit.

Present all parameters using weighting functions according to
their technical importance and operation conditions.

Those approaches which can fulfil the aforementioned expecta-

tions are generally categorized under multi-criteria decision-
making strategies. Among the different approaches to study unde-
termined systems, probabilities, fuzzy mathematics and the Grey
System’s theory are used the most. The Grey System’s theory was
first presented by Zhang Zho Long in 1982 in China. It is capable
Fig. 4. Temperature profile versus crank angle.
of solving undetermined problems using the least available data
[41].
In the present study, the Grey System’s theory was used, in
which parameters have different weighing values. These calcula-
tions conclude a GIG parameter ranging from 0 to 1, for which
the higher GIG value shows a better scenario to be applied in the
cogeneration system.

5. Results

In order to evaluate the numerical model, the results were com-

pared with a numerical model for the same engine developed at
University of Mississippi State [26]. In the present model, pressure
and temperature properties of the cylinder are calculated. Using
these data, available heat recovery and power production charac-
teristics are calculated. In the numerical model developed at
University of Mississippi, only the diagrams of temperature and
pressure are presented. In the foregoing study, the errors in the Fig. 5. Pressure profile versus crank angle.
two models are compared with the experimental data in addition
to the comparison between the two temperature and pressure dia-
and energy loss were reported to be 23, 27, 40 and 10%, respec-
grams. Technical data for the studied engine are presented in
tively. Also, the exhaust gas temperature was reported to be
Table 1.
885 K. In the present model, power efficiency, engine jacket cooling
Figs. 4 and 5 show the temperature and pressure profiles versus
efficiency, exhaust gas efficiency and energy loss are 22.3, 25.0,
crank angle, respectively, for the present model and the model at
41.8 and 10.9%, respectively. Also, the exhaust gas temperature is
University of Mississippi. The difference between the diagrams is
885.277 K. Considering Table 2, results are either in the limit for
mainly due to the different assumptions for combustion duration
the producing company or closely similar to them. Also, the calcu-
and start. In Eq. (8), these two facts should be determined. In the
lation error for the exhaust gas temperature is 1.17% in this model.
model of Mississippi, combustion starts 40 degrees before TDC
It has to be noted that the accuracy of the manufacturer’s data usu-
and it takes 40 degrees long. In the present model, however, it
ally suffers from neglecting the instrumental uncertainty during
starts 25 degrees before TDC and it takes 35 degrees long. The max-
data collection. Also, in the present numerical model, minor
imum temperature and pressure in the present model are 2799 K
assumptions are made which do not conform to the actual charac-
and 7217 kPa, respectively. Although, the maximum values are
teristics of the cogeneration systems. As a result, comparison of the
not presented in the model of the University of Mississippi.
results of the present model and the manufacturer’s data can be
In the next step, numerical results are compared with the
acceptable to some extents.
experimental data presented by the manufacturing company
After engine valves opening, the energy equation is omitted
[26]. These company data, including exhaust gas temperature
from the solution procedure. Because, the energy equation was
and efficiencies are presented in Table 2.
considered for the control volume inside the cylinder, but in cogen-
In the model at University of Mississippi, the values for power
eration the behaviour of exhaust gases from the valves plays an
efficiency, engine jacket cooling efficiency, exhaust gas efficiency
essential role. At this point, exhaust gas temperature lowers partly,
as a cause of combination with the residual gas from the previous
Table 1 cycle, and it approaches a constant temperature after a while. The
Engine technical characteristics [26]. exhaust gas temperature at the end of each cycle can be considered
Parameters Values
as the final temperature of exhaust gas.
Since, the pressure and its maximum value are used for the cal-
Max. power 19.4 kW
Engine characteristics Linear 4 cyl.
culation of available work and BMEP, respectively, the values for
Displacement volume, Vd 1.82 L these two have to be calculated using energy equation for gases
Cylinder bore 84 mm inside the cylinder.
Piston stroke 82 mm The diagram showing pressure behaviour as a function of vol-
Compression ratio 8.5
ume (Fig. 6) represents a real working cycle for the SI engine.
Engine speed 1800 rpm
The amount of work as a function of crank angle is presented in
702 P. Arbabi et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 113 (2017) 694–704

Table 2
The results of the two models in comparison to the manufacturer’s data.

Data Exhaust temperature (K) Energy loss (%) Exhaust efficiency (%) Jacket cooling efficiency (%) Power efficiency (%)
Manufacturer’s data 875 5–15 34–45 17–26 25–28
Mississippi model 885 10 40 27 23
Present model 885.277 10.9 41.8 25.0 22.3

Fig. 6. Pressure profile versus volume.

Fig. 7. The work delivered to crankshaft versus the crank angle.

Fig. 7. The latter diagram shows the results of integration of
pressure with respect to volume. The time difference between
the initiation of combustion and the maximum work transferred
to the crankshaft can be obviously seen in this figure.
5.1. Examination of engines in the Iranian market
In this section, some of available vehicular engines in Iranian
market have been examined. It should be noticed that expensive
engines have been omitted from this study due to the lack of eco-
nomic justification for using them in cogeneration. Also, light
vehicular engines have been evaluated using the numerical model,
for the technical data catalogues are available only for this cate-
gory. Table 3 presents catalogue data for some light engines avail-
able in Iran (see Table 4).
5.2. Case study
A residential complex located in the west of Tehran, Iran, having
an 850 m2 area has been taken into account. The building includes
9 floors and 36 apartments and it is 27 m high. The heating and
cooling loads of this building were calculated using HAP (Hourly
Analysis Program) software according to the weather data of Teh-
ran. The resulting data for critical loads are as follows:

January with 135.63 kW power demand, 0.912 kW hot water
demand and 1610 kW heating demand load.

July with 203.22 kW power demand, 0.293 kW hot water
demand and 2001 kW cooling demand load.
After the calculation of critical loads, one has to decide on the
prime mover. In each optimization problem, three factors of input
 P. Arbabi et al. / Applied Thermal Engineering 113 (2017) 694–704 703

Table 3
Light vehicles’ catalogues technical data [42,43].

Vehicle Engine volume (cc) Max. power (kW) Fuel consumption (l/100 km) Compression ratio
A 1598 60 9 7.8
B 1598 80 6.9 9.8
C 1645 85 7.8 11
D 1360 55 6.4 9.6
E 1578 82 6.6 10.5
F 1761 75 9.1 9.3
G 1323 52 6.9 9.7
H 2378 75 15 10
I 2398 80 16 9.7

size of the prime mover, which can be examined in future research

Table 4
efforts.
Performance estimation of light vehicles in catalogues.

Vehicle CHP efficiency Electric power (kW) Heating power (kW)

6. Conclusion
A 75 45 124
B 78 63.2 148.3
We assessed examinations on some of the effective parameters
C 86 67.2 163.8
D 84 42.35 105.9 used in the technical, economic and environmental evaluation of
E 88 64.78 88.1 the cogeneration systems. The introduced evaluation parameters,
F 81 57.2 144.24 aid decisions among available scenarios to be applied to the design
G 80 39.52 104.19
and selection of the cogeneration system based on an internal
H 72 55.5 166.5
I 89 94.8 217.69 combustion engine (including the type of IC engine and the auxil-
iary equipment). The purpose of this process is to determine the
optimum scenario for a desired case, with respect to the operation
data, evaluation parameters and output data are considered. For
conditions. Grey Systems theory and the multi-criteria decision
this case, there were two scenarios present:
making are proved to be useful to be utilized in this optimization
process. This paper presented and validated a general manual for

Scenario 1: The national Desa engine D87(2) having a maximum
evaluation and decision making on a cogeneration system based
power of 830 hp (620 kW).
on an internal combustion engine prime mover, to be used in Iran.

Scenario 2: Nine EF7 engines (vehicle C) each having a maxi-
A numerical model was presented in order to estimate the power
mum power of 85 kW.
and heating behaviour of an internal combustion engine to be used
in CHP systems for residential and small and medium industrial
It was obtained from our analysis that using multiple light engi-
applications. Finally, a case study was depicted and the optimum
nes with emission standards of Euro4, defeated the first scenario in
scenario was chosen from existing ones using the proposed evalu-
9 parameters. In addition to higher exergy efficiency, technical cri-
ation parameters and the multi-criteria decision making process. A
teria have a higher weighting value due to the capability of elimi-
thermodynamic numerical model was presented in order to esti-
nating multiple engines out of the system while in partial load.
mate the power/heating characteristics of an IC engine and the
Also, in the second scenario, capital costs are lower, maintenance
results were validated by the numerical and experimental model
is easier and the cost efficiency and IRR are higher. The second sce-
conducted on a 15 kW engine at University of Mississippi.
nario defeated the first in environmental parameters, too. In gen-
Iran has high potentials for producing electrical energy, using
eral, a larger number of small engines with easier maintenance
distributed generation and cogeneration systems, due to a nation-
and lower emission levels are preferred over other options in
wide natural gas pipeline and availability of numerous natural gas
CHP systems. The results of the two presented scenarios for the
resources. Industrial growth, higher demands for more sustainable
case study are compared in Table 5.
electrical power and opening of political atmosphere improving
It has to be noted that the two simple presented scenarios were
industrial relations with European and American countries, all
introduced only to clarify the evaluation procedure and the multi-
together can be the cause of the growth of DG industry in this
criteria decision making process. Although, there are numerous
country. A sustainable numerical model can considerably decrease
scenarios that can be applied to result in a more efficient cogener-
the time and price costs of evaluating the engine. The presented
ation system, while they contain auxiliary equipment. A more real-
numerical model was produced using the Simulink environment
istic case study can include a thermal storage system to reduce the
of MATLAB software. This allows refinement of solution procedure
and access to different parts of solution. Thus one is able to derive
various diagrams and evaluate various parts of the engine. There-
Table 5
Comparison of scenarios in the case study.
fore this model is proper to be utilized not only for optimization,
but also determination of operation characteristics of the engine.
Parameters Scenario 1 Scenario 2
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