English Language Teaching Research

Summary of

CHAPTER 12: INSTRUMENTS AND DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

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Name : Maisyarah

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Class : TBI 6B/ C 4.6

Lecture by
Riswanto, M.Pd.,Ph.D

ENGLISH EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAMME

TARBIYAH AND TADRIS FACULTY
STATE INSTITUTE FOR ISLAMIC STUDIES (IAIN)
BENGKULU
2020
 CHAPTER 12
INSTRUMENTS AND DATA COLLECTION TECHNIQUES

A. Research Instruments     
Research instrument definition is a tool used to collect data or information that is
useful for answering research problems. Two things that affect the quality of research
results are the quality of research instruments and the quality of data collection. The
instruments in quantitative research can be in the form of tests, interview guidelines,
observation guidelines, and questionnaires. In qualitative research the instrument or
research tool is the researcher himself.
Qualitative researchers as human instruments, serves to determine the focus of
research, select informants as data sources, collect data, assess data quality, analyze data,
interpret data and make conclusions on its findings. In qualitative research everything
that will be sought from the object of research is unclear and the exact problem, the
source of the data, the expected results are all unclear. The research design is still
temporary and will develop after the researcher enters the object of research. Besides
that, in looking at reality, qualitative research assumes that reality is holistic, dynamic,
and cannot be separated into research variables. Even if it can be separated, the
variables will be many. Thus in this qualitative research instrument research cannot be
developed before the problem under study is clear at all. Therefore in qualitative
research "the researcher is the key instrument". So the researcher is a key instrument in
qualitative research.
In terms of qualitative research instruments, Lincoln and Guba (1986) state that: "The
instrument of choice in naturalistic inquiry is the human. We shall see that other forms
of instrumentation may be used in later phases of inquiry, but the human is the initial and
continuing mainstay, but if the human instrument has been used extensively in the earlier
stages of inquiry, so that an instrument can be constructed that is grounded in the data
that the human instrument has product "
According to Nasution (1988) the researcher as a harmonious research instrument for
similar research because it has the following characteristics:
1. Researchers as a sensitive tool and can react to any stimulus from the environment
that should be estimated meaningful or not for research.      
2. research as a tool can adjust to all aspects of the situation and can collect a variety
of data at once.      
3. Researchers as instruments can immediately analyze the data obtained, he can
interpret it, give birth to hypotheses immediately to determine the direction of
observation, to test hypotheses that arise instantly.      
 4. A situation that involves human interaction, cannot be understood with mere
knowledge. To understand it we need to feel it, dive it based on our knowledge .      
B. Data Collection Techniques     
Data collection techniques are the most important step in research, because the main
purpose of research is to get data, data collection can be done in a variety of settings  ,
various sources  , various ways . Various kinds of data collection techniques, in general
there are four kinds of data collection techniques namely observation, interview,
documentation, and combination or triangulation  .
 
1. Data collection by observation      
a. Types of Observation
1) Participatory observation     
In this observation the researcher is involved with the daily activities
of the person being observed or used as a source of research data. While
observing the researchers participate in doing what is done by the data source
and feel the joys and sorrows, the data obtained will be more complete and
sharp to know the level of meaning of each behavior that appears.

2) Continuous Observation or Disguising  

In this case, the researcher in collecting data stated bluntly to the
source of the data, so those who were investigated knew from the beginning to
the end about the researcher's activities but at one point the researchers also
did not frank or disguised in observation, this was to avoid if a data sought is
confidential data.

3) Unstructured Observation    
Unstructured observations are observations that are not prepared
systematically about what will be observed. In conducting observations
researchers do not use standard instruments but only in the form of
observation signs. In exhibitions of industrial products from various countries,
for example, researchers do not know for sure what will be observed.
Therefore, researchers can observe freely, analyze and then make conclusions
so researchers will make unstructured observations.
 
b. Benefits of Observation            
According to Patton in Nasution (1988), the benefits of observation are as
follows:
 1. By observing in the field the researcher will be better able to understand the
context of the data in the whole social situation, so that a holistic view can be
obtained 
2. By observation, direct experience will be obtained to enable researchers to use
the inductive approach 
3. With observation researchers can see things that are lacking or not addressed
by others 
4. With observation researchers can find things that are outside the perception of
respondents so that researchers obtain a more comprehensive picture.

c. Observation Object             
The object of research in qualitative research observed according to Spradley
is called a social situation, which consists of three components, namely:
1) Place or places 
2) Actor or perpetrator 
3) Activity or activities carried out 
These three elements can be expanded so that what we can observe is:
1. Space : space in its physical aspects                   
2. Actor : everyone involved                   
3. Activity : a set of activities carried out by people                   
4. Object : objects that are in place that                   
5. Act : certain actions or actions                   
6. Event : a series of activities done by people                  

7. Time : sequence of activities                   

8. Goal : goals that people want to achieve                   
9. Feeling : felt and expressed by people   
                
d. Observation Stages
According to Spradley (1980) there are three stages of observation, namely:
1. Descriptive observations
Descriptive observations made by researchers when entering certain
social situations as research objects. At this stage the researcher has not yet
brought the problem to be examined, so the researcher makes a description of
 all that is seen, heard and felt. All data is recorded, therefore the results of this
observation are concluded in an unorganized state. This observation stage is
often referred to as grand tour observation, and the researcher produces the
first conclusion. When viewed in terms of analysis, the researcher conducts
domain analysis, so that it is able to describe all that is encountered.
2. Focused observation
At this stage the researcher has conducted a mini tour observation,
which is an observation that has been narrowed to focus on certain
aspects. This observation is also called focused observation, because at this
stage the researcher carries out taxonomic analysis so that he can find focus.
3. Selected observation
At this observation stage researchers have described the focus found so
that the data are more detailed. By analyzing the component is focused on the
focus, then at this stage the researcher has discovered the characteristics,
contrasts / differences and similarities between categories, and found the
relationship between one category with another category. At this stage
researchers are expected to have been able to find a deep understanding or
hypothesis. According to Spradley, this selected observation is still called an
observation mini tor.

2. Data collection by interview / interview

Esterberg (2002) defines interview as follows. " a meeting of two persons to
exchange information and ideas through questions and responses, resulting in
communication and joint construction of meaning about a particular
topic". Interview is a meeting of two people to exchange information and ideas
through questions and answers, so that the meaning can be constructed in a particular
topic. Interviews are used as data collection techniques if the researcher wants to
conduct a preliminary study to find problems that must be examined, but also if the
researcher wants to know things from the respondents in more depth. This data
collection technique is based on self-report or self-report, or at least on personal
information and beliefs.
Susan Stainback (1988) argues that: interviewing the researchers' ideas a
means to gain a deeper understanding of how the participant interprets a situation or
phenomenon than can be maintained through alon observation. So by interviewing,
the researcher will find out more in-depth things about the participant in interpreting
the situations and phenomena that occur, where this cannot be found through
observation.
a. Types of interviews / interviews
Esterberg (2002 suggests several types of interviews, namely structured, semi-
structured, and unstructured interviews).
1) Structured interview     
Structured interviews are used as data collection techniques, if the researcher
or data collector already knows for certain what information will be
obtained. Therefore, in conducting interviews, data collectors have prepared
research instruments in the form of written questions whose alternative answers
have been prepared. With this structured interview each respondent is given
the same question , and the data collector records it a. With this structured
interview, data collection can use several interviewers as data collectors. So that
each interviewer has the same skills , training for prospective interviewers is
needed.
In conducting interviews, in addition to having to carry instruments as a guide
for interviews, data collectors can also use tools such as tape recorders, pictures,
brochures and other materials that can help the interview run
smoothly. Researchers in the field of development, for example, if they are going
to conduct research to find out the community's response to various developments
that have been directed to improve people's welfare, it is necessary to bring
photographs or brochures on various types of development that have been carried
out. For example the construction of school buildings, dams for irrigating rice
fields, construction of power plants and others.

2) Semistructure Interview (Semistructure Interview)     

This type of interview is included in the in-depth category in that its
implementation is freer when compared to structured interviews. The purpose of
this type of interview is to find problems more openly, where the parties invited
to the interview are asked for opinions, and ideas. In conducting interviews,
researchers need to listen carefully and record what is stated by the in formant.
3) Unstructured interviews     
Unstructured interviews, which are free interviews where researchers do not
use interview guidelines that have been arranged systematically and completely
for the collection of data. The interview guide used only outlines the issues
that will be asked. Unstructured or open interviews, often used in preliminary
research or even for more in-depth research on the subject under study. In a
preliminary study, researchers tried to obtain preliminary information on issues or
problems that exist in the object, so that researchers can determine the exact
problem or variables of what should be investigated.
To get a more complete picture of the problem, the researcher needs to
conduct interviews with parties representing various levels in the object. For
example, will conduct research on the company's working climate, it can be done
interviews with lower-level employees, supervisors, and managers. To get deeper
information about respondents, researchers can also use unstructured
interviews. For example, someone who is suspected of being a criminal, the
researcher will conduct an in- depth unstructured interview , until information
is obtained that the person is.
In unstructured interviews, researchers do not yet know exactly what data will
be obtained. so that researchers listen more to what the respondent tells. Based on
an analysis of each answer from the respondent, a criminal or not. then
the researcher can ask the following questions van is more focused on a goal. In
conducting interviews, researchers can use the method of "swirling just
swooping" means the beginning of the interview, what is discussed are things that
are not related to the objectives, and when there is an opportunity to develop
something that is the goal, then immediately asked.
Interviews whether conducted by face to face or using a telephone,
there will always be personal contact, therefore the interviewer needs to
understand the situation and conditions so that they can choose the right time
when and where to do the interview. When the respondent is busy working, has
severe problems, is resting, is not feeling well, or is angry, then he must be
careful in conducting interviews. If forced to interview in such conditions,
it will produce invalid and accurate data.
If the respondent to be interviewed has been determined then it is better before
the person, conducts an interview. the interviewer asks for time first, when and
 where to do the interview. In this way , the atmosphere of the interview will be
better, so that the data obtained will be more complete and valid. Information or
data obtained from interviews is often blunt. Bias is deviating from what it should
be, so it can be stated that the data is subjective and inaccurate. The habit of lim
data will depend on the interviewer, the interviewee (respondent and the situation
& condition at the time of the interview, interviewer who is not in a neutral
position, for example, there is a specific purpose, given sponsors to provide
interpretation of data that is different from what is delivered by the respondent.
Respondents will provide data the correct thing is, if the respondent is unable to
clearly capture what the researcher or interviewer is asking , the researcher should
not ask biased questions , then the situation and conditions as stated above greatly
influence the interview process, which in turn will also affect data validity.

b. Interview Steps
Lincoln and Guba in Sanapiah Faisal, said there are seven steps in the use of
interviews to collect data in qualitative research, they are:
1. determine to whom the interview will be conducted
2. prepare the main issues that will be discussed
3. start or open the interview flow
4. carry out the interview flow
5. confirm the summary of interview results and end it
6. Write the results of the interview into the field notes
7. Identifying follow-up interviews that have been obtained

c. Types of questions in the interview

Patton in Molleong (2002) classifies six types of interrelated questions, namely:
1. Questions relating to experience
This question is used to express the experience that has been
experienced by informants or subjects studied in the dup, both in life when
still a child, while at school, in the community, at work and others. The
results of this interview, then researchers can construct a person's life profile
from birth to the end of his life. Example: how is your experience while
serving as head of village here?
2. Questions related to opinions
There are times when researchers want to ask opinions of informants
on data obtained from certain sources. Therefore the researcher questions
asked to the informant regarding his opinion about the data. For example:
what is your opinion on the statement of the Lurah who stated that the
community here participated in the development was quite high. What is your
opinion on the policy to increase the price of fuel oil (BBM)?

3. Questions relating to feelings

Getting data about affective people's feelings is more difficult than
getting data that is cognitive or psychhomotor in nature. However, the feelings
of people who are difficult or happy can be seen from the expression on his
face. Therefore the questions used to express one's feelings use indirect
questions. Initially a normal conversation is carried out, and over time the
questions are used to express feelings. For example, there seems to be a
problem, what are you feeling? How does it feel to be a volunteer in Aceh?

4. Questions about knowledge

This question is used to express the knowledge of the informant was
chosen as a resource person because he allegedly involved in the
incident. Example question: how is the process of a tsunami earthquake ? how
many people here are affected? how many residential buildings and
government buildings have been damaged? a case or event that might be
known.

5. Questions regarding the senses

This question is used to reveal data or information because the person
concerned sees, listens, feels and smells an event. When you listen to the
Regent's lecture, how do farmers respond? When you look at the effects of the
earthquake on Nias Island, what is the role of the local
government. You kan have smelled perfume, how it smells? You kan have
eaten the fruit, how it feels?

6. Questions relating to Background or Demographics

 This question is used to reveal the background of the subject being
studied which includes socioeconomic status, educational background, origin,
place of birth, age, occupation and others. Example question: where was he
born? How old is she now? Where do you work? Incumbent what now? and so
on. Next Guba and Lincoln in Moleong (2002) classify the types of questions
for interviews as follows:
1. Hypothesis question: if foreign capital comes in here, what will be the
dynamics of people's lives?
2. Questions that question something ideal and the informant is asked to
provide a response. The education budget will be increased to 20% of the
APBN, what do you think? 
3. Questions that challenge informants to respond by providing alternative
hypotheses. Are there other alternatives to manage traffic so that it is not
jammed? How to recruit employees who are free from KKN?
4. Interpretive question is a question that advises the informant to provide
interpretation of an event. In your opinion, how is development in various
fields after regional autonomy?
5. Questions that give advice. What advice do you give in the context of direct
selection of regional heads?
6. Questions to get a reason. Why didn't you join the community service last
Sunday?
7. Questions to get arguments. What about your opinion when this place will
be built Mall?
8. Questions to uncover additional data sources. I have already asked the
incident to the Lurah, maybe there are others who know better?
9. Questions that express confidence in something? Are you sure that the
policy of raising fuel can improve the welfare of the poor?
10. Directing questions, in this case the informant is asked to provide additional
information. I have obtained data on juvenile delinquency here from the
RT, do you have additional information?
Furthermore, the types of questions for interviews according to
Spradley (1980) can be classified as shown in Figure 12.5 below. Based on the
picture 12.5 it is seen that. the types of questions for interviews are classified
into 3 namely: descriptive, structural and contrast questions. Then the
 descriptive questions are divided into: grand tour question, mini tour
question. nitve language question, experience question, and example
question. Grand tour questions are divided into: typical grand tour questions,
specific grand tour questions, guided grand tour questions, tasks related to
grand tour questions. The mini tour questions are divided into: typical mini
tour questions, specific mini tour questions, guided mini tour questions, task-
related mini tour questions. The native language question is
divided into: direct language questions, direct language questions, and typical
sentence questions.
 
d. Interview Tools
So that the results of the interview can be recorded properly, and the
researcher has evidence of having interviewed the informant or data source, then
the following tools are needed. 
1. Note book: functions to record all conversations with the data source. Now
there are many small computers, notebooks that can be used to help record
data from interviews
2. Tape recorder: functions to record all conversations or conversations. The use
of tap recorders in interviews needs to tell why the informant is allowed or not
3. Camera: to take pictures if the researcher is having a conversation with the
informant / data source. With this photo, it can increase the validity of
research will be more guaranteed. because researchers really do data
collection.

e. Record Interview Results

The results of the interview must be recorded immediately after they have
finished doing so that they are not forgotten or even lost. Because interviews are
open and not structured. So researchers need to make a more systematic summary
of the results of the interview. From various data sources, it should be noted which
data are considered important, which are not important, the same data
are grouped.
3. The technique of collecting data with documents
The document is a record of events that have already passed. Documents can
be in the form of writing, drawing, or monumental works from someone. D o kumen
form of writing, for example diaries, life histories, stories, biographies, regulations,
policies. Documents in the form of drawings, for example photos, live drawings,
sketches and others. Documents in the form of works such as works of art, which can
be in the form of drawings, film sculptures, and others. In the case of Bogdan's
document stating "In the most tradition of qualitative research the phrase personal
document is used broadly to refer to any first person narrative produced by an
individual which describes his or own actions, experience and belief.

4. Triangulation
Triangulation In data collection techniques, triangulation is defined as a data
collection technique that combines various existing data collection techniques and
data sources. When a researcher collects data by triangulation, the researcher actually
collects data which at the same time tests the credibility of the data, that is checking
the credibility of the data with various data collection techniques and various data
sources. Triangulation techniques, means researchers use different data collection
techniques to get data from the same source . The researcher uses participatory
observation. in- depth interviews , and documentation for simultaneous data
sources. Source triangulation means, to get the same data from different sources with
the same technique. This can be illustrated as follows 12.6a and 12.6b.
In the case of triangulation, Susan Stainback (1988) states "the aim is not to
determine the truth about some social phenomena, rather the purpose of triangulation
is to increase one's understanding of what ever is being investigated". The purpose of
triangulation is not to find out the truth about some fenomena, but rather to increase
researchers' understanding of "what has been discovered. Furthermore , Bogdan
stated “what the qualitative researcher is interested in not truth per total but her
perspectives. Thus, rather than trying to Determine the "truth" of people's
perceptions, the purpose of corroboration is to help Researchers increase of Reviews
their understanding and the probability that Reviews their finding will be seen as
credible or worthy of concideration by others "
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