Chapter 1

INTRODUCTION TO PLANT SYSTEMATICS

The study of kinds and diversity of organisms and the evolutionary relations among them is called
systematics or taxonomy. The study of systematics give order and relationships among the organism.
This order and relationship arise I evolutionary processes. These studies also give description of the new
species organizes the animals into groups (taxa). This grouping is based on degree evolutionary
relatedness. Some biologists differentiate between systematics taxonomy. They believe:

(a) Taxonomy: The original description of species is called taxonomy.

(b) Systematics: The assignment of species into evolutionary groups is called Systematics.

Taxonomy or systematics is based on two aspects:

(a) Morphology: The modern classification system has been given by Carolus Linna.This system of
classification is still used today. Carlys Linnaeus believed that differ species could be grouped into same
categories on the basis of similarities between the The group of animal with similar characteristics forms
a taxon. Carolus Linna recognized five taxa. Modern taxonomists use eight taxa including earlier five taxa
taxa are arranged hierarchically. These taxa are: Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Fami Genus, and
Species.

(b)Evolution: Carolus Linnaeus did not accept evolution. But still many of his groupir show evolutionary
relationships. Morphological similarities between two animals have genetic basis. It gives rise common
evolutionary history. Thus the animals are group according to similar characteristics. The members of
the same taxonomic group are m closely related to each other than to members of different taxa.

Plants have a great deal of diversity. It is estimated that there are more than 390,000 described species
of plants. This is a huge number. This number is increasing day by day.Systematists from all over the
world are working on the discovery new species. This huge number of plants needs some organizational
framework. Plant systematics provides this system of organization. It is a forum which provides
knowledge and system to describe, name and arrange the plants into group systematically.

The aims and objects of natural classification are to name, describe, and arrange plants.This
arrangement should show degree of relationship among plants. This degree of relationship is called
affinities. Thus the aim of systematies is to develop affinities among plants. The comparison of plants
gives resemblances and differences to varying degrees. It is obvious that the plants which have several
common characteristics must have common origin.
For example, angiosperm plants produce flowers. Their megasporangia (ovules) are Covered by ovary.
Ovary ripens to form fruit. All angiosperms have vessels in the xylem. These common characters show
that the angiosperms must have some common ancestor. Similarly, Angiosperms shares some
characteristics with the gymnosperms. Both are seed producing plants. They have similar internal
structure of stem. It shows that some kind of close affinities are present between these two groups.
These similarities are arised to due to common ancestry. Therefore, angiosperms and gymnosperms are
arranged very close to each other. These groups also share characteristics with Pteridophytes. All these
three groups, Pteridophytes. Gymnosperms and Angiosperms develop vascular tissues and they have
dominant sporophyte generations. Thus these three groups are placed in larger taxonomic group. In this
way, affinities are Developed between different groups of plants. They are arranged into taxonomic
hierarchy on the basis of these affinities. Certain aims of systematics are as follows:

1. Survey and study of international flora.

2. Devising standard methods to study and describe new species.

3. Creation of a well connected information sharing system among the systematists.

4. Creation of rules and system for classification of plants. 5. To link the evolutionary trends with
the diversity of plants.

5. To devise a system of scientific naming of different plants and their taxonomic

Groups.

IMPORTANCE OF PLANT SYSTEMATICS

Plant systematics has great importance for the study of botany. It is linked to every branch of botany.
Plant systematics provides a solid foundation for study of different aspects of plants like.physiology,
ecology, morphology, embryology, genetics etc. Plant systematics has following importance for
knowledge of biology.

1: It is used to describe different species. The description of each new species is Preserved. It is used for
comparison.
2. Plant systematics is used to name different plants. It sets rule for nomenclature nomenclature has
eliminated the confusion among different botanists knowledge of plants can be shared between
botanists of different countries wit problem of language and culture.

3. Plant systematics develops evolutionary relationship among the different group plants. It gives
evolutionary trends among the plants.

4. Plant systematics provides basis for the comparison of morphological, anatomical cytological
structures among different structures. It provides information comparison of different groups of plants.
It provides how plants have diffe vegetative, reproduction structures.

6. Plant systematics provides information about the geographical distribution of pl in different

regions of the world. Biogeography much depends on plant systema for obtaining information
about diversity of plants in the world. 6. It provides information about the pattern of geological
changes.

7. Plant systematics also provides ecological information about different interact among the plants.
Some of these interactions are like competition, grazing, parasit etc.

8. Role of plants in environmental problems is also illustrated by plant systematics

9. Plant systematics provides basis for biodiversity conservation in the world. It is most crucial issue of
the world today.

10. Plant systematics also provides basis of genetics Genetic analyses are performed of The basis of
systematics.

11. Plant systematics has great importance in agriculture and herbal medicines This provides us
economic importance of different plants.
Chapter 2

The arrangement of plants into groups and sub-groups on the basis of similarities is called classification.
The characters which are uses as basis of classification are called criteria of classification. The major
criteria of classification are morphology. Anatomy. Palynology (study of pollen grains). Karyology
(chromosome study) Embryology, Serology (chemical studies). Phytogeography (distribution),
Paleontolog and life histories. The criteria of classification are based on various field of study. It has been
changed many times. Criteria depend on new investigation. For example, earlier the criteria for
classification of algae were unicellularrity or simple multicellularity and presence of pigments.
Therefore, blue green algae (cyanobacteria) were placed in algae. But this criterion was changed after
the discovery of electron microscope. Now all algat were taken as eukaryotes. Cyanobacteria are
prokaryotic. Therefore, they were removed from algae and were placed in Monera. Many changes in
criteria have occurred during whole history of the classification. Basis of classification

There are three main bases for classification of organisms.

a) Morphology: The modern classification system has been given by Carolus Linnaeus.

This system of classification is still used today. Carlous Linnaeus believed that different species could be
grouped into same categories on the basis of similarities between them. The group of animal with
similar characteristics forms a taxon. Carolus Linnaeus recognized five taxa. Modern taxonomists use
eight taxa including earlier five taxa. The taxa are arranged hierarchically. These taxa are: Kingdom.
Phylum, Class. Order. Family, Genus, and Species.

b) Evolution: Carolus Linnaeus did not accept evolution. But still many of his groupings show
evolutionary relationships. Morphological similarities between two animals have a genetic basis.
It gives rise common evolutionary history. Thus the animals are grouped according to similar
characteristies. The members of the same

Taxonomic group are more closely related to each other than to members of different taxa.
C) Study of sequence of nucleic acids: It is modern approach. In this case, DNA or RNA sequences of
related groups of organisms are studied. Study of sequence of ribosomal RNA is very helpful in
organizing different groups of organisms. This a modern approach in taxonomy. It is changing the old
concepts of classification. Therefore, many traditional taxonomists oppose this approach. Basis of
classification system for plants

1. Earlier cell wall was basis of classification for plant kingdom. In two kingdom System, all organisms
containing cell wall were included in kingdom plantae. It includes bacteria, algae, fungi and plants

. 2. Later in five kingdom system, a new kingdom Monera for prokaryotes is formed. Bacteria and
cyanobacteria are placed in it. Similarity fungi are also given the status of kingdom. Algae are placed in
kingdom Protista. Plant kingdom includes all multicellular photosynthetic organisms.

3. The classifications of plants are based on vascular tissue and reproductive tissues.The plants lacking
vascular tissues were placed in bryophyta. The plants containing vascular tissues form tracheophyta.

4. Tracheophytes are divided into two groups: seed producing and non-seed producing Plants. Non-seed
producing plants form the group Pteridophyta. Seed producing plants form group embryophyta.

5. Embryophyta itself is divided into two groups. Naked seeded plants are included in Gymnosperms
and flowering plants are included in Angiosperms.

6. Angiosperms are themselves divided into monocot and dicot groups.

Units of Classification
The units of classification are called texa. Each taxa or category is more general than The taxa or
category below it. The members of lower category resemble more with one another than the higher
taxon. Initially, this classification was based on appearance or morphology. Later, there was
advancement in the knowledge of cytology, physiology. Genetics and molecular biology. So the
classification of the organisms has been modified.

Following units of classification are used in biology

: 1. Species: Species is the basic unit of classification. A species is a group of natural population which
can interbreed freely among them and produce fertile Offspring, but are reproductively isolated from all
other such groups For example all the potato plants belong to single specie called Solanum tubersum. In
nature. However, species formation by Inbreeding cannot be applied to asexually reproducing
organisms. Each species has its own distinct structural. Behavioural characteristics. Different species do
not exchange genes between them. So specie is an independent unit from the evolutionary unit.

There may be number of variations within a species. Thus species is further into sub-species, variety and
form.

A) Sub-species: The members of sub-species are capable of interbreeding Producing fertile offspring. But
they do not interbreed in nature due to geog isolation or other factors. The differences between sub-
species are usually
B)Variety is a taxonomic rank below species and subspecies but form. A variety will have an appearance
distinct from other varieties. Bu will hybridize freely with those other varieties.

C) Form is used for variation in single features within a variety. For example varietie Or wrinkle seed etc.

2. Genera: Genera are composed of one or more similar species. For example, So tubersum, Solanum
nigrum (mako) and Solanum melangena (Bhaigan) are pla single genera Solanum.

3. Families: Similar genera form a family. The genus Solanum, Lycopersicum (tor and Nicotiana (tobacco)
have common characteristics. So they are placedetc Family Solanaceae.

4. Order: Similar families form an order.

5. Class: Sigilar orders form a class. For examples, all the orders of flowering plants Are placed in single
class Angiospermae.

6. Phylum or division: Similar classes form phylum. Phylum is also called division plants ,algae and fungi

7. Kingdom: Similar phyla form a kingdom. There are two kingdoms: Animal kingdom And plant
kingdom.

IMPORTANCE OF CLASSIFICATION

Classification has great importance for botany and botanists.

1. Classification arranges the plants in different systematic groups. It makes easy for botanists or
taxonomist to study different plants.

2. Classification gives phylogenetic relationships among the plants. Plants can be studied from
classification.

3. Different members in taxonomic groups have similar characters. Thus the study 7 Morphology,
anatomy and cytology of one member gives the idea of structure of o members.

4. Classification also gives the Phytogeography of plants.

5. Different morphological and physiological characteristics classification of different Groups.

1. HISTORY OF ClASSIFUCATION
 1.Pre-Linnaeus Period :Organized plant classification system was absent in f Linnaeus period. The
Greeks classified plants on the basis of habits or econo importance. Their system is called Herbalist
classification system. Some of the Greek taxonomists were Theophrastus (370-287 B.C). Pliny the
Elder (23-79 A.D.) Dioscorides (1" century A.D.) Magnus (1193-1280). Bauhin (1541-1631), John Ray
(1628-1705).

Carlous Linnaeus (1707-1778): Carlous Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist. He is regarded as the
father of taxonomy. He introduced first classification system. This system is considered as the
beginning point. His classified the plants on the basis of characteristics of stamens. He classified the
plants into 24 classes. His system of classification was artificial. Therefore, his classification includes
quite unnatural groups. Linnaeus tried to correct his defect. He worked a lot on natural system. But
he failed to devise comprehensive natural groups of plants. Carolus Linnaeus devised a system for
naming and classifying the organisms. It is called binomial nomenclature. His system is used today
Internationally. He discarded the common names of the plants. He gave each plant a scientific
name. He took scientific names from Latin words. Linnaeus published the list of names of plants in
1753.

Bernard de Jussieu (1699-1777) and Laurent de Jussieu: They tried to improve the system of
classification of Linnaeus. They introduced the natural system of classification. They classified the
plants into 15 classes and 100 orders. They separated the seed producing plants from non-seed
producing plants. They also differentiate between monocot and di

Augustine Pyrame de Condolle (1718-1841): He tried to improve the classification system of

Jussieu. He divided the plants into 213 orders. According to him physiological characters were
useless for classification. Therefore, he used only morphological characteristics for classification. He
described many known species of plants. His work was completed by his son and grandson.

Robert Brown (1773-1849): He differentiated between angiosperm and gymnosperm plants. He

also discovered nucleus in cell.

Bentham and Hooker (1817- 1911): They were British Botanists. They gave their Own classification
system. Their system was based on de Condolle system of Classification. They divided the plants into 202
orders. They worked on phenomenon of alternation of generation in flowering plants.

Charles Darwin (1809-1882): He presented his theory of natural selection. It Introduced concept of
evolution in classification.

Wilhelm Hofmeister (1824-1877): He discovered the phenomenon of alternation of generation in the

lower plants. It helped in classification.

. Wilhelm Eichler (1839-1887): He introduced phylogenetic trend in plant classification. He divided the
plants in two major groups: Cryptograms (including all seedless plants) and Phanerograms (including all
seed producing plants). Cryptograms were further divided into three divisions: Tallophya, Bryophyta,
and Pteridophyta. Phanerograms includes two divisions: Gymnospermae and Angiospermae.

Adolph Engler and Karl Prantle (1849-1893): Their system of classificatio based on phylogenetic
consideration. They divided the whole plant kingdom basis of phylogenetic relationships.
 11.Charles Edwin Bessay: (1845-1915): He modified the Bentham Classification system and
made this system phylogenetic.

12. Robert Whitaker (1969): He introduced five kingdom systems. He removed Bacteria, and fungi from
plants.

13. Margulis and Schwartz (1988): They modified the criteria of Kingdom system.

SYSTEMS OF CLASSIFICATION
There are four systems of classification. These Systems are:

Artificial system: The classification system based on one or two morpholozi characters for the
identification of plants is called artificial system. The Of classification is too arbitrary. It is based on
observable characteristics. This grouped many unrelated plants. This classification does not show
affinities an different groups. Most of the earlier systems of classification were artif Linnaeus system of
classification is an example of artificial classification se of plants on the basis characteristes of
samens.Linnaeus used character of stamen for clasific of plants. He formed 24 cl place many unrelated
plans, Single groups due to common characteristics of stamens.

2. Natural system: The classification system which is based on set of character For grouping
similar plants is called natural system of classification. Vaiel Plants are grouped purely on the
basis of morphological similarities in this sym The plants in the groups share many natural
affinities. Darwin had proposed t theory of natural selection. According to this theory, ancient
plants were related I modern plants. It helped in developing affinities among different groups of
pl But evolutionary relations were not developed in this system. The classifica system of
Bentham and Hooker is example of natural system. Their system based on morphological and
reproductive characteristics.
3. 3. Phylogenetic system: The classification system which grouped plants on the bas of set of
morphological characteristics and phylogenetic relations is cal phylogenetic system of
classification. This system is based on affinities evolutionary relationships among plants. It was
most turning point in histo classification of plants. It include Darwinian concept of evolution.
Evolution joins different groups of plant into a tree of phylogenetic groups. This grouping is
simplest to complex. The classification system of Engler and Prantle classification system of
Bessey are example of phylogenetic system
4. Modern System: The classification system in which plants are grouped on basis of
morphological characters and modern studies like anatomy, palynol serology, karyology and
embryogy, phytogeography and paleontology is called Modern classification system. It is
based on new reformation in plant taxon

Now a day. DNA and RNA nucleotide sequences are also studied to arrange plants more scientifically. It
has made the taxonomy of plants more objective. The Takhtajans classification system is an example of
the modern system of classification.
19

Classification system of Carolus Linnaeus

(Artificial System) The classification system of Linnaeus was based on floral characteristics. He chiefly
used

Characters of stamens. Therefore, his system is called sexual system. This system is very convenient for
the identification of plants. He presented his classification system in two books. These books are Species
Plantarum and Genera Plantarum. Linnaeus was first to introduced some system of classification. It gave
some basic

Advantages of Linnaeus system

Knowledge of classification. So it was widely accepted by the taxonomists of that time. Provided a
reference work. He gave clear cut concept of species. This concept is still used

It

Today.

Disadvantage of Linnaeus system

Linnaeus declared his system as artificial or temporary. He realized that that this system should be
changed with some natural system. Linnaeus grouped some unrelated plants due to similarity in flower
structure. Similady. Linnaeus was a religious person. He opposed the concept of evolution in
classification.

Scheme of Linnaeus system

Linnaeus divided the plants into twenty four classes. He mostly used the characteristics of stamens to
differentiate between classes. He also used the conditions of perigynous. Pogynous, dynamous,
filaments fused or not fused. Number of fasicles anther