Introduction to Analog And Digital

Communications

Second Edition

Simon Haykin, Michael Moher

Chapter 10 Noise in Digital Communications

10.1 Bit Error Rate

10.2 Detection of a Single Pulse in Noise
10.3 Optimum Detection of Binary PAM in Noise
10.4 Optimum Detection of BPSK
10.5 detection of QPSK and QAM in Noise
10.6 Optimum Detection of Binary FSK
10.7 Differential Detection in Noise
10.8 Summary of Digital Performance
10.9 Error Detection and Correction
10.10 Summary and Discussion
 Two strong external reasons for the increased dominance of digital
communication
 The rapid growth of machine-to-machine communications.
 Digital communications gave a greater noise tolerance than analog
 Broadly speaking, the purpose of detection is to establish the
presence of an information-bearing signal in noise.

3
 Lesson 1: the bit error rate is the primary measure of performance quality
of digital communication systems, and it is typically a nonlinear function
of the signal-to-noise ratio.
 Lesson 2: Analysis of single-pulse detection permits a simple derivation of
the principle of matched filtering. Matched filtering may be applied to the
optimum detection of many linear digital modulation schemes.
 Lesson 3: The bit error rate performance of binary pulse-amplitude
modulation (PAM) improves exponentially with the signal-to-noise ratio in
additive white Gaussian noise.
 Lesson 4: Receivers for binary and quaternary band-pass linear modulation
schemes are straightforward to develop from matched-filter principles and
their performance is similar to binary PAM.
 Lesson 5: Non-coherent detection of digital signals results in a simpler
receiver structure but at the expense of a degradation in bit error rate
performance.
 Lesson 6: The provision of redundancy in the transmitted signal through
the addition of parity-check bits may be used for forward-error correction.
Forward-error correction provides a powerful method to improve the
performance of digital modulation schemes.

4
 10.1 Bit Error Rate
 Average bit error rate (BER)
 Let n denote the number of bit errors observed in a sequence of bits
of length N; then the relative frequency definition of BER is
n
BER = lim   (10.2)
N →∞
N
 Packet error rate (PER)
−2 −3
 For vocoded speech, 1 a BER of 10 to 10 is often considered
sufficient.
 For data transmission over wireless channels, a bit error rate of 10 −5 to
10 −6 is often the objective.
 For video transmission, a BER of 10 −7 to 10 −12 is often the objective,
depending upon the quality desired and the encoding method.
−11
 For financial data, a BER of 10 or better is often the requirement.

5
 SNR
 The ratio of the modulated energy per information bit to the one-sided noise
spectral density; namely,
Modulated energy per bit
SNR digital
ref =
Noise spectral density
E
= b
N0
1. The analog definition was a ratio of powers. The digital definition is a ratio of
energies, since the units of noise spectral density are watts/Hz, which is
equivalent to energy. Consequently, the digital definition is dimensionless, as
is the analog definition.
2. The definition uses the one-sided noise spectral density; that is, it assumes all
of the noise occurs on positive frequencies. This assumption is simply a matter
of convenience.
3. The reference SNR is independent of transmission rate. Since it is a ratio of
energies, it has essentially been normalized by the bit rate.

6
7
 10.2 Detection of a Single Pulse in Noise
1. The received signal r (t ) consists solely of white Gaussian noise w(t )
2. The received signal r (t ) consists of w(t ) plus a signal s (t ) of
known form.
 For the single-pulse transmission scheme
 The received signal :
s (t ) + w(t ), pulse present
r (t ) =  (10.3)
 w(t ), pulse absent

∫
T
Y = g (T − t )r (t )dt (10.4)
0

∫ ∫
T T
Y = g (T − t ) s (t )dt + g (T − t ) w(t )dt (10.5)
0 0

 The first integral on the right-hand side of Eq. (10.5) is the signal
term, which will be zero if the pulse is absent, and the second
integral is the noise term which is always there.

∫
T
N = g (T − t ) w(t )dt (10.6) Fig. 10.1
0

8
Fig. 10.1 Back Next

9
 ∫
T
E[ N ] = g (T − t )E[ w(t )]dt
0

=0 (10.7)
 The variance of the output noise
N0
∫∫
T T
E[ N ] =
2
g (T − t )g (T − τ ) δ (t − τ )dtdτ
0 0 2
N0 T
=
2 0 ∫
| g (T − t ) |2 dτ

NT
= 0 (10.9)
2

Var ( N ) = E[ N 2 ]

= E ∫ g (T − t ) w(t )dt ∫ g (T − τ ) w(τ )dτ 
T T

 0 0 
=∫ ∫ g (T − t )g (T − τ )E[w(t )w(τ )]dtdτ
T T
(10.8)
0 0

10
 ∫
T
| g (t ) |2 dt = T (10.10)
0

 The noise sample at the output of the linear receiver has

 A mean of zero.
 A variance of N 0T / 2.
 A Gaussian distribution, since a filtered a Gussian process is also
Gaussian (see Section 8.9).
 The signal component of Eq.(10.5)
S = ∫ g (T − τ ) s (τ )dτ (10.11)
T

 Schwarz inequality for integrals is

∞ 2 ∞ ∞

∫ g (T − t ) s (t )dt ≤ ∫ | g (T − t ) | dt ∫
2
| s (t ) |2 dt (10.12)
−∞ −∞ −∞

g (T − t ) = cs(t ) (10.13)

11
 ∫
T
Y = c s (t )r (t )dt
0

∞
Y (τ ) = c ∫
−∞
s (t )r (t − τ )dt

 With r (t ) defined by Eq.(10.1), the signal component of this

correlation is maximized at τ = 0. This emphasizes the importance
of synchronization when performing optimum detection.

12
 10.3 Optimum Detection of Binary PAM in Noise
 Consider binary PAM transmission with on-off signaling
∞

s (t ) = A ∑ b h(t − kT )
k =0
k (10.14)

 The output of the matched filter receiver at the end of the kth
symbol interval is
∫
kT
Yk = g k (T − t ) r (t ) dt
−∞

=∫
kT
h(t − kT )r (t )dt (10.15)
( k −1) T

 Since the matched filter h(t ) = 1 wherever it is nonzero, we have

 t − (k + 12 )T 
∫
kT
Yk = rect r (t )dt
( k −1) T
 T 

∫
kT
= r (t )dt (10.16)
( k −1) T
Fig. 10.2
13
Fig. 10.2 Back Next

14
 BER performance
H 0 : bk = 0 was transmitted
H 1 : bk = 1 was transmitted (10.17)
 Consider the probability of making an error with this decision rule
based on conditional probabilities. If a 1 is transmitted, the
probability of an error is
P[0 decided | H 1 ] = P[Y < γ | H 1 ] (10.18)
Y =S+N (10.19)

∫
T
S = Ab h(t )h(t )dt
0

= ATb (10.20)

1
fY ( y ) = exp{−( y − µ ) / 2σ 2 } (10.21) Fig. 10.3
2π σ
15
Fig. 10.3 Back Next

16
 1 γ
P[Y < γ | H 1 ] = ∫ − − µ σ
2 2
exp( ( y ) / 2 )dy
2π σ − ∞

 µ −γ 
= Q  (10.22)
 σ 
 Type II error.
 An error can also occur if a 0 is transmitted and a 1 is detected
γ 
P[Y > γ | H 0 ] = Q  (10.23)
σ 
 The probability regions associated with Type I and Type II errors
are illustrated in Fig. 10.5. The combined probability of error is
given by Bayes’ rule (see Section 8.1)
Pe = P[Y < γ | H 1 ] ⋅ P[ H 1 ] + P[Y > γ | H 0 ] ⋅ P[ H 0 ] (10.24)
Fig. 10.4
17
Fig. 10.4 Back Next

18
 A priori probability

P[ H 1 ] = P[ H 0 ] = 12 (10.25)

 The average probability of error is given

1  µ −γ  1  γ 
Pe = Q  + Q  (10.26)
2  σ  2 σ 

 Average probability of error

 µ 
Pe = Q  (10.27)
 2σ  Fig. 10.5
19
Fig. 10.5 Back Next

20
 Our next step is to express this probability of bit error in terms of
the digital reference model.
 To express the variance in terms of the noise spectral density, we have,
from Eq.(10.9), that σ 2 = N 0T / 2.
 To express the signal amplitude A in terms of the energy per bit Eb, we
assume that 0 and 1 are equally likely to be transmitted. Then the
average energy per bit at the receiver input is

Eb = E | s (t ) |2 dt 
∫
T

 0 

∫
T
= A E[b ] | h(t ) |2 dt
2 2

1 1 
= A2  ⋅ 0 + ⋅1T
2 2 
A2T
= (10.28)
2
21
  Eb 
Pe
on − off
= Q  (10.29)
 N0 
 2 Eb 
P e
bipolar
= Q  (10.30)
 N0 
 Nonrectangular pulse shapes
 The received signal
∞

∑ b p(t − kT ) + w(t )
r (t ) = A
k =0
k
(10.31)

 P(t) is a normalized root-raised cosine pulse shape

∞

∫−∞
p ( kT − t ) p (t − lT )dt = δ (k − l ) (10.32)

22
 Applying the matched filter for the kth symbol of r (t ) to Eq.(10.31),
we get
∞
Yk = ∫−∞
p( kT − t ) r (t )dt

∑ Ab ∫
∞ ∞
= Abk ∫
−∞
p ( kT − t ) p (t − lT )dt + N k +
l ≠k
l
−∞
p (kT − t ) p (t − lT )dt (10.33)

∞
Nk = ∫
−∞
p (kT − t ) w(t )dt (10.34)

 Under these conditions, Yk = Abk + N k , and the BER performance es

the same as with rectangular pulse shaping

Fig. 10.6
23
Fig. 10.6 Back Next

24
 10.4 Optimum Detection of BPSK
 One of the simplest forms of digital band-pass connunications is
binary phase-shift keying. With BPSK, the transmitted signal is

 Ac cos(2πf c t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ T if a 1 is sent
s (t ) = 
 Ac cos(2πf c t + π ), 0 ≤ t ≤ T if a 0 is sent

 Ac cos(2πf c t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ T if a 1 is sent
s (t ) =  (10.35)
− Ac cos(2πf c t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ T if a 0 is sent

s (t ) = Ac m(t ) cos(2πf c t ) (10.36)

m(t ) = ∑ b h(t − kT )
k =0
k (10.37) Fig. 10.7
25
Fig. 10.7 Back Next

26
 Detection of BPSK in noise
 The signal plus band-pass noise at the input to the coherent BPSK
detector
x(t ) = s (t ) + nI (t ) cos(2πf c t ) − nQ (t ) sin( 2πf c t ) (10.38)

 The output of the product modulator

v(t ) = x(t ) cos(2πf c t )

= 12 [ Ac m(t ) + nI (t )] + [12 ( Ac m(t ) + nI (t )) cos(4πf c t ) − 12 nQ (t ) sin( 4πf c t )] (10.39)

 The matched filter

g (T − t ) = h(t )
t −T / 2
= rect 
 T 
27
 The output of the integrate-and-dump detector in this
1 kT
Yk ≈ ∫ [ Ac m(t ) + nI (t )]dt
2 ( k −1)T
AT
= c bk + N k (10.40)
2
 The noise term in Eq.(10.40) is given by
1
∫
kT
Nk ≈ nI (t )dt (10.41)
2 ( k −1) T

1  kT kT
E[ N ] = E
2
∫ ∫ nI (t )nI ( s )dtds 
4  ( k −1)T ( k −1)T 
k

1  kT kT
= ∫ ∫ N 0δ (t − s )dtds 
4  ( k −1)T ( k −1)T 
1 kT
=
4 ( ∫
k −1 ) T
N 0 ds

NT
= 0
4 28
 In digital communications, the objective is to recover the
information, 0s and1s, as possible. Unlike analog communications,
there is no requirement that the transmitted waveform should be
recovered be recovered with minimum distortion.

 Performance analysis
 If we assume a 1 was transmitted and µ = AcT / 2,then the probability of
error is
Pe = P[Y < 0]
1 − ( y − µ )2 
∫
0
= exp dy (10.42)
2π σ −∞
 2σ
2

 The bit error rate

µ
Pe = Q  (10.43)
σ 
29
  2 Eb 
PeBPSK = Q  (10.44)
 N0 

 The analysis of BPSK can be extended to nonrectangular pulse

shaping in a manner similar to what occurred at baseband. For
nonrectangular pulse shaping, we represent the transmitted signal as
∞

s (t ) = Ac ∑ b p(t − kT ) cos(2πf t )
k = −∞
k c (10.45)

30
 10.5 detection of QPSK and QAM in Noise
 Detection of QPSK in niose
 That QPSK–modulated signal s (t )

s (t ) = Ac cos(2πf c t + φ (t )) (10.46)

 3π
 4 , dibit 00
π
 , dibit 10
φ (t ) =  4 (10.47)
π
 − , dibit 11
 4
− 3π , dibit 01
 4

s (t ) = Ac cos[φ (t )] cos(2πf c t ) − Ac sin[φ (t )] sin( 2πf c t )

= Ac mI (t ) cos(2πf c t ) − Ac mQ (t ) sin( 2πf c t ) (10.48)
31
 Using in-phase and quadrature representation for the band-pass
noise, we find that the QPSK input to the coherent detector of
Fig.10.8 is described by
x(t ) = s (t ) + n(t )
= ( Ac mI (t ) + n I (t )) cos(2πf c t ) − ( Ac mQ (t ) + nQ (t )) sin( 2πf c t ) (10.49)
 The intermediate output of the upper branch of Fig.10.8 is

vI (t ) = 12 ( Ac mI (t ) + nI (t ))
+ 12 ( Ac mI (t ) + nI (t )) cos(4πf c t ) − 12 ( Ac mQ (t ) + nQ (t )) sin( 4πf c t ) (10.50)

 The output of the lower branch of the quadrature detector is

vQ (t ) = − 12 ( Ac mQ (t ) + nQ (t ))
+ 12 ( Ac mQ (t ) + nQ (t )) cos(4πf c t ) + 12 ( Ac mI (t ) + nI (t )) sin( 4πf c t ) (10.51)
Fig. 10.8
32
Fig. 10.8 Back Next

33
 For the in-phase component, then the mean output is
AcT  ± 3π  AcT
µ= cos  = −
2  4  2 2

 The first bit of the dibit is a 1 then

AcT  ± π  AcT
µ= cos =
2  4  2 2

 The probability of error on the in-phase branch of the QPSK signal

is

| µ |
Pe = Q  (10.52)
 σ 

34
 The average energy by bit may be determined from
2 Eb = E  ∫ s 2 (t )dt 
T

 0 

∫
T
=A 2
c
cos 2 (2πf c t + φ (t ))dt
0

1 + cos(4πf c t + 2φ (t ))
∫
T
=A 2
c
dt
0 2
Ac2T
≈ (10.53)
2
 The bit error rate with v1 (t ) after matched filtering is given by
| µ |
PeQPSK = Q 
 σ 
 Ac T 2 2 
= Q 
 4 N 0T 
1

 2 Eb 
= Q  (10.54)
 N0  35
 In terms of energy per bit, the QPSK performance is exactly the same as
BPSK
 Double-sideband and single-sideband transmission, we found that we
could obtain the same quality of performance but with half of the
transmission bandwidth. With QPSK modulation, we use the same
transmission bandwidth as BPSK but transmit twice as many bits with the
same reliability.
 Offset-QPSK or OQPSK is a variant of QPSK modulation
 The OQPSK and QPSK, the bit error rate performance of both schemes is
identical if the transmission path does not distort the single.
 One advantage of OQPSK is its reduced phase variations and potentially
less distortion if the transmission path includes nonlinear components such
as an amplifier operating near or at saturation. Under such nonlinear
conditions, OQPSK may perform better than QPSK.

36
 Detection of QAM in noise
 The baseband modulated signal be represented by
∞

∑ c h(t − kT )
s (t ) = A
k =0
k (10.55)

Pe = P[ y < µ − A or y > µ + A]
1 µ−A − ( y − µ )2  1 ∞ − ( y − µ )2 
=
2π σ ∫ −∞
exp
 2σ 2 

dy +
2π σ ∫µ+A
exp
 2σ
2 dy

 A
= 2Q  (10.56)
σ 
Fig. 10.9
 M −1  A 
PePAM = 2 Q  (10.57)
 M  σ 
Fig. 10.10

37
Fig. 10.9 Back Next

38
Fig. 10.10 Back Next

39
 There are two important differences that should be noted :
1. Equation (10.57) represents a symbol error rate.
2. With binary transmission with levels of +A and –A, the average transmitted
power is A2 .
 The probability of symbol error in terms of the digital reference SBR is

 M − 1   6β Eb 
P PAM
= 2 Q  (10.58)
 M   M −1 N0 
e 2

 We may use independent PAM schemes on the in-phase and quadrature

components. That is to say, one PAM signal m1 (t ) modulates the in-
phase carrier cos(2πf c t ) and the second PAM signal mQ (t ) modulates the
quadrature carrier sin( 2πf c t ).
Fig. 10.11

 Due to the orthogonality of the in-phase and quadrature components, the

error rate is the same on both; and the same as the baseband PAM system.

40
Fig. 10.11 Back Next

41
 10.6 Optimum Detection of Binary FSK
 The transmitted signal for 0 ≤ t ≤ T is
 Ac cos(2πf1t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ T if a 1 is sent
s (t ) =  (10.59)
 Ac cos(2πf 2t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ T if a 0 is sent

 The two matched filters are

g1 (t ) = 2 cos(2πf1t )

g 2 (t ) = 2 cos(2πf 2t ) (10.60)

 The corresponding waveforms are orthogonal

∫ cos(2πf t ) cos(2πf t )dt = 0

T

1 2 (10.61)
0

Fig. 10.12
42
Fig. 10.12 Back Next

43
 Let the received signal be
r (t ) = s (t ) + w(t ) (10.62)

 Then the output of the matched filter corresponding to a 0 is

∫ r (t ) 2 cos(2πf t )dt
T
Y2 = 2
0

= ∫ ( A cos(2πf t ) + w(t ))
T

c 1 2 cos(2πf 2t )dt
0

= 0 + N2 (10.63)

 The noise component at the output of the matched filter for a 0 is

∫
T
N2 = w(t ) 2 cos(2πf 2t )dt (10.64)
0

44
 The output of the filter matched to a 1 is

∫ r (t ) 2 cos(2πf t )dt
T
Y1 = 1
0

= ∫ ( A cos(2πf t ) + w(t ))
T

c 1
2 cos(2πf1t )dt
0

AcT
≈ + N1 (10.65)
2
 The noise component of Eq.(10.65)

∫
T
N1 = w(t ) 2 cos(2πf1t )dt (10.66)
0

 By analogy with bipolar PAM in Section 10.3, the probability of

error for binary FSK is
| µ |
Pe = Q  (10.67)
 σ 

45
 The BER in terms of the digital reference model is
 Eb 
PeFSK = Q  (10.68)
 N0 

 In general, we see that antipodal signaling provides a 10 log10 2 = 3 dB

advantage over orthogonal signaling in bit error rate performance.

46
 10.7 Differential Detection in Noise
 band-pass signal at the output of this filter
x(t ) = Ac d k cos(2πf c t + θ ) + n(t ), (k − 1) < t ≤ kT (10.69)

 The output of the delay-and-multiply circuit is

v(t ) = x(t ) x(t − T )
= Ac2 d k d k −1 cos(2πf c t + θ ) cos(2πf c (t − T ) + θ ) + ω (t ) (10.70)

ω (t ) = Ac d k cos(2πf c t + θ ) + Ac d k −1 cos(2πf c (t − T ) + θ )n(t ) + n(t )n(t − T ) (10.71)

Ac2
v(t ) = d k d k −1{cos(2πf cT ) + cos(4πf c t − 2πf cT + 2θ )} + ω (t ) (10.72)
2
Fig. 10.13
∫
kT
Yk = v(t )dt
( k −1) T

Ac2T Fig. 10.14

= d k d k −1 cos(2πf cT ) + N k (10.73)
2
47
Fig. 10.13 Back Next

48
Fig. 10.14 Back Next

49
 Ac2T
Yk = d k d k −1 + N k
2
Ac2T
= bk + N k (10.74)
2

 E 
PeDPSK = 0.5 exp − n  (10.75)
 N0 

 Since in a DPSK receiver decisions are made on the basis of the

signal received in two successive bit intervals, there is a tendency
for bit errors to occur in pairs.

50
 10.8 Summary of Digital Performance
 Gray encoding
 Gray encoding of symbols where there is only a one-bit difference
between adjacent symbols.
 Performance comparison

Fig. 10.15

Table. 10.1

Fig. 10.16

51
Fig. 10.15 Back Next

52
Table. 10.1 Back Next

53
Fig. 10.16 Back Next

54
 Noise in signal-space models
 QPSK may be represented

s (t ) = ± Eb φ1 (t ) ± Eb φ2 (t ) (10.76)

 The basis functions are

2
φ1 (t ) = cos(2πf c t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ T (10.77)
T
2
φ2 (t ) = sin( 2πf c t ), 0 ≤ t ≤ T (10.78)
T

Fig. 10.17
55
Fig. 10.17 Back Next

56
 s (t ) = s1φ1 (t ) + s2φ2 (t ) + s3φ3 (t ) + s4φ4 (t )

 The remaining two orthonormal functions are given by

 0, 0<t ≤T

φ3 (t ) =  2 (10.79)
 T cos(2πf c t ), 0 < t ≤ 2T

 0, 0<t ≤T

φ4 (t ) =  2 (10.80)
 T sin( 2πf c t ), 0 < t ≤ 2T
 Under the band-pass assumption, the functions φ3 (t ) and φ4 (t )
are clearly orthogonal with each other and, since they are zero
whenever φ1 (t ) and φ2 (t ) are nonzero, they are also orthogonal to
these functions.

57
 10.9 Error Detection and Correction
 In radio (wireless) channels, the received signal strength may vary with
time due to fading.
 In satellite applications, the satellite has limited transmitter power.
 In some cable transmission systems, cables may be bundled together so
closely that there may be crosstalk between the wires.
 We can achieve the goal of improved bit error rate performance by adding
some redundancy into the transmitted sequence. The purpose of this
redundancy is to allow the receiver to detect and/or correct errors that are
introduced during transmission.
 Forward-error correction (FEC)
 The incoming digital message (information bits) are encoded to produce the
channel bits. The channel bits include the information bits, possibly in a
modified form, plus additional bits that are used for error correction.
 The channel bits are modulated and transmitted over the channel.
 The received signal plus noise is demodulated to produce the estimated channel
bits.
 The estimated channel bits are then decoded to provide an estimate of the
original digital message.

58
 Let bits be represented by 0 and 1 values.
 Let ⊕ represent mudulo-2 addition. When this operation is applied
to pairs of bits we obtain the results:0 ⊕ 0 = 1 ⊕ 1 = 0 and 0 ⊕ 1 = 1 ⊕ 0 = 1.
 The ⊕ operator may also be applied to blocks of bits, where it
means the modulo-2 sum of the respective elements of the blocks.
For example, [1001] ⊕ [0101] = [1100].
 Suppose we add the parity-check bit p such that
x1 ⊕ x2 ⊕ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⊕ xk ⊕ p = 0 (10.81)

 The error detection capability of a code as the maximum number of

errors that the receiver can always detect in the transmitted code
word.

Fig. 10.18
59
Fig. 10.18 Back Next

60
 Error detection with block codes
 Hamming weight of a binary block as the number of 1s in the block.
 Hamming distance between any two binary blocks is the number of
places in which they differ.

d H (A, B) = wH (A ⊕ B) (10.82)
d min = min
A, B
d H (A, B) (10.83)
C = A ⊕ E (10.84)
A ⊕ C = E (10.85)

max wH (E ) < d min (10.86)

 The single parity check code can always detect a single bit error in the
received binary block.
Table. 10.2

61
Table. 10.2 Back Next

62
63
 Error correction
d H (A, C) = d H (B, C) = d min / 2 (10.87)

max wH (E ) < d min / 2 (10.88)

 The objective when designing a forward error-correction code is to

add parity bits to increase the minimum Hamming distance, as this
improves both the error detection and error-correction capabilities
of the code.
 Hamming codes
 Hamming coeds are a family of codes with block lengths n = 2 m − 1
 There are mparity bits and 2 m −1 − m information bits.

64
65
 The first step
 The encoding that occurs at the transmitter; this requires the calculation
of the parity bits based on the information bits. The second step is the
decoding that occurs at the receiver; this requires the evaluation of the
parity checksums to determine if, and where, the parity equations have
been violated.
 K-by-n generator matrix

1 0 0 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 1
G=  (10.89)
0 0 1 0 1 1 0
0 1
 0 0 1 0 1

C = X ⋅ G (10.90)

66
 The elements ck of C are given by
4
ck = ⊕ x j G jk
j =1

 Hamming code we may define the (n - k)-by-n parity check matrix

H as

1 0 1
1 1 1
 
1 1 0
H = 0 1 1 (10.92)
1 0 0
 
0 1 0
0 0 1

67
 We compute the product of the received vector and the parity-check matrix
S = R ⋅H
= (C + E ) ⋅ H
= C ⋅ H + E ⋅ H (10.93)
 It satisfies the parity-check equations and C ⋅ H = 0.
S = E ⋅ H (10.94)
 More powerful codes
 Reed-Solomon and Bose-Chaudhuri-Hocquenghem (BCH) block codes.
 These are (n, k) codes where there are k information bits and a total of n bits
including n - k parity bits.
 Convolutional codes.
 the result of the convolution of one or more parity-check equations with the
information bits.
 Turbo codes
 Block codes but use a continuous encoding strategy similar to convolutional codes.

Table. 10.4

68
Table. 10.4 Back Next

69
70
71
Fig. 10.19
72
Fig. 10.19 Back Next

73
 Signal-space interpretation of forward-error-correction codes
 We could construct a four-dimensional vector with a signal-space
representation of
s = [ ± Eb ,± Eb ,± Eb ,± Eb ]
= Eb [±1,±1,±1,±1] (10.101)
 We can explain some of the concepts of coding theory geometrically as
shown in Fig.10.20.
 For a linear code we defined the minimum Hamming distance as the
number of locations where the binary code words differ.
 Euclidean distance
d 2 =|| s1 − s2 ||2
N

= ∑ (s
i =1
1i − s2 i ) 2

= d min (2 Eb ) 2 Fig. 10.20

= 4d min Eb (10.102) 74
Fig. 10.20 Back Next

75
 10.10 Summary and Discussion
 Analysis of the detection of a single pulse in noise shows the
optimality of matched filtering. We showed that the bit error rate
performance using matched filtering was closely related to the Q-
function that was defined in Chapter 8.

 We showed how the principle of matched filtering may be extended

to the detection of pulse-amplitude modulation, and that bit error
rate performance may be determined in a manner similar to single-
pulse detection.

 We discussed how the receiver structure for the coherent detection

of band-pass modulation strategies such as BPSK, QPSK, and QAM
was similar to coherent detection of corresponding analog signals.

76
 We showed how quadrature modulation schemes such as QPSK and
QAM provide the same performance as their one-dimensional
counterparts of BPSK and PAM, due to the orthogonality of the in-
phase and quadrature components of the modulated signals.

 Antipodal strategies such as BPSK are more power efficient than

orthogonal transmission strategies such as on-off signaling and FSK.

 We introduced the concept of non-coherent detection when we

illustrated that BPSK could be detected using a new approach where
the transmitted bits are differentially encoded. The simplicity of this
detection technique results in a small BER performance penalty.

77