AC variables in electric circuits

DC and AC voltages

Definition

Systematic research in the field of electricity began in the 19th

century with experiments purely on DC (direct
current) voltages. Separation of charge caused by friction
between two materials was one source of DC voltage. Early
machines generating (very low levels of) electric power such
as electrostatic machines, inductance machines and belt
generators as well as the batteries developed during this
period produced DC voltages as well, i.e. they gave rise to
direct current when resistive loads were connected. Today, DC
voltages are mainly used to supply electronic circuits, e.g. in
radios, pocket calculators and PCs. DC voltage and current
are defined as follows:

A DC voltage is a voltage of constant magnitude and

direction. For loads of constant resistance, this type of
voltage gives rise to direct current (DC).

The following animation provides an example of a direct current characteristic.

Large amounts of electrical energy are commonly produced by

converting mechanical (kinetic) energy into electrical energy by
means of electromagnetic induction using generators. The same
principle is employed on a smaller scale in bicycle dynamos, for
instance. In this case, the generator's rotation produces an AC
voltage, the magnitude and direction of which change over time.
Applying this voltage to a load like a bicycle lamp causes an
alternating current to flow through the lamp. AC voltage and
current are defined in general as follows:

An electrical potential, the magnitude and direction of

which change over time, is termed an AC voltage. The
current produced by such a voltage in a load is termed
alternating current (AC).

The animations below show two examples of alternating current. Whereas the current
in the upper example has a somewhat irregular characteristic, the lower current has a
periodic, rectangular characteristic. In this case, the current's amplitude remains
constant but its direction (or sign) changes periodically. During this course, any
current which changes over time (AC), will be represented in lower case, as opposed
to DC which will be indicated using a capital I.

Sinusoidal alternating quantities

Whereas in communications engineering and information technology, various shapes
of alternating voltage (such as the square wave considered earlier) can prove useful,
electrical energy technology is dominated by sinusoidal alternating voltage and
current, usually produced by generators and used for transmitting energy via high-
tension transmission lines. Such voltages and currents follow a sine-wave curve as
shown in the animation below.

Characteristic parameters of sinusoidal signals

The instantaneous value u(t) of a sinusoidal alternating voltage is given by the

equation

The diagram below shows the shape of such a signal.

u0 is termed the voltage's peak value; it represents the largest positive or negative
voltage and is also called signal amplitude. The variable  is the angular frequency
determined from the frequency of oscillation f using the equation
The product of the angular frequency and time ·t gives the instantaneous value of
the phase angle.

The time T taken to complete one oscillation is termed the period of oscillation. Its
inverse is equal to the frequency f, i.e. the number of oscillations per second:

The unit of frequency is named Hertz (abbreviated to Hz ) after the German physicist.
1 Hz corresponds to one oscillation per second. The period in the example above is T
= 0.02 s, i.e. the frequency is f = 1/T = 50 Hz. This is the figure for the mains
frequency usually used in Europe. The mains frequency in the US and most other
countries in the Americas is 60 Hz.

If, unlike the example above, the alternating voltage does not start at the coordinate
origins but is instead displaced along the time axis, this displacement can be
represented by adding a phase angle  to the argument of the sine function. The
instantaneous voltage value is then determined by the equation

All these equations apply in the same way to sinusoidal alternating current.

Root-mean-square value of voltage and current

Applying a sinusoidal voltage u(t) to a resistive load R causes the following current to
flow through the load according to Ohm's law:

Because the voltage and current are time-dependent variables, so is the power
produced in the resistor. It is defined by the following equation:
The diagrams below show the time characteristics of an AC voltage and current
(upper diagram) along with the power (lower diagram).

The area enclosed between the power curve and time axis is a measure of the
electrical energy converted by the resistor into heat. If a horizontal line is drawn
parallel to the time axis at a height of p0/2, the areas above and below this line
respectively (shaded in matching colours below) are equal in size. An average power
p0/2 ascertained in this manner over several periods of oscillation would perform the
same amount of work as the continuously changing instantaneous power p(t) does.
This is illustrated by the diagram below.

A DC voltage U that would be needed to develop the same power as the AC voltage
in the resistor is determined as follows:
Resolving this equation in terms of the DC voltage U gives

This voltage U is termed the root mean square value of the alternating signal.
Because it is a time-independent variable, it is designated in uppercase just like a
direct voltage. Root mean square values of alternating current are specified in the
same manner. In other words:

The rms values U and I of AC voltage and current in a

resistor R develop the same power P as a DC current I
and voltage U of equal magnitude.

The relationship between the rms and peak values of current and voltage in the case
of the sinusoidal variables considered here is given by the following equations:

Accordingly, the rms value of a voltage or current is about 70% of the peak value.

Example: a mains voltage with an rms value U = 220 V has a peak value

Naturally, the rms values of non-sinusoidal periodic signals like triangular and
rectangular forms can also be defined. In such cases, however, the mathematical
relationship (i.e. conversion ratio) between the rms and peak (amplitude) values
varies in accordance with the signal shape under consideration.
 Experiment: rms values of voltage and current

This experiment investigates the relationship between the peak and rms values of
different periodic signals. For this purpose, a periodic voltage is applied to a 100 
resistor (R5). The resulting current is determined indirectly by measuring the
voltage using ammeter B.

Assemble the circuit shown below.

Open the Function Generator virtual instrument from the menu under Instruments |
Voltage Sources | Function Generator or by clicking on the image below and make
the settings shown in the table. After that, switch on the instrument using its POWER
button.

Function generator settings

Mode: SINE
Amplitude: 1:1, 20%
Frequency: 100 Hz

Open the Oscilloscope virtual instrument from the menu under Instruments | Meters |
Oscilloscope or by clicking on the image below and make the settings shown in the
table.
 Oscilloscope settings
Channel
1 V/div
A
Channel
OFF
B
Time
5 ms/div
base:
Mode: X/T, AC
Trigger: Channel A / rising edge / pre-trigger 0%

Drag and drop the resulting oscilloscope trace into the placeholder below.

From the trace, determine the peak voltage value u0 and use it to calculate the rms
value U. Enter your results in the answer boxes below.

Close the oscilloscope and open the virtual instrument Voltmeter A from the menu
under Instruments | Meters | Voltmeter A or by clicking on the image below. Initially
make the settings shown in the table below in order to measure the peak voltage.
 Voltmeter A settings
Range: 5 V AC
Mode: P (peak value)

Switch over to RMS mode to read the rms value. Compare this reading with the value
determined from the oscilloscope trace. Open the virtual instrument Ammeter B from
the menu under Instruments | Meters | Ammeter B or by clicking on the image below
and make the settings shown in the table to read the peak current value.

Ammeter B settings
Range: 50 mA AC
Mode: P
Shunt: 100 ohms

Increase the function generator frequency in various steps to 1 kHz and read the
resulting rms voltage and current values.

Switch the function generator to TRIANGLE and RECTANGLE modes in succession

and read the rms voltage in each case.

Vector diagrams

The time characteristic of sinusoidal alternating voltages and currents can be

represented not only by means of the line diagrams we have seen so far, but also by
vector diagrams which can prove more appropriate in certain cases. The illustrations
below show the relationship between the line and vector diagrams of a sinusoidal
alternating voltage u with a peak value u0 and frequency f. The vector can be seen as
a line of length u0 rotating anti-clockwise at a frequency f or angular frequency  =
2··f about the coordinate origin.
The zero point in the line diagram at time t = 0 where the sinusoidal curve begins
corresponds to the vector's horizontal initial position where the direction arrow is
pointing to the right. The vector diagram also shows a second vector at a phase
angle of ·t = 60°. The perpendicular line (dashed blue) from the tip of this vector to
the horizontal axis represents the instantaneous value u of the voltage at that phase
angle according to the equation

If a voltage u1 with a peak value u10 exhibits an oscillation that is ahead of a voltage
u2 (peak value u20) by a phase angle , the corresponding diagram shows two
vectors, u2 displaced with respect to u1 by an angle of  (see the illustration below).
Vectors in a vector diagram are drawn at an initial position representing the phase
angle they would assume at time t = 0, i.e. a sort of snapshot during the continuous
rotation of the vector.

The main advantage of vector diagrams over line diagrams is that they can be used
very easily to represent sinusoidal alternating quantities. Vector diagrams prove
especially practical if several phase-displaced alternating quantities need to be
displayed at the same time as in the example above.

Instead of peak values, vector diagrams can also represent rms values U and I, both
differing simply by a factor of √2.

Sinusoidal alternating quantities of identical frequencies

can be visualised in vector diagrams where the vector
length indicates the voltage or current value, while the
angles between the vectors indicate the phase shift 
between the respective alternating quantities.

Addition of alternating quantities

If two sinusoidal alternating quantities like the voltages u1 and u2 considered on the
previous page need to be added, their instantaneous values at any point in a line
diagram are added algebraically (refer to the right-hand side of the diagram below). A
total voltage u is thus obtained. A line diagram also permits alternating quantities of
different frequencies to be added in this manner.
 Alternating quantities of any frequency in a line diagram
can be added algebraically in terms of their
instantaneous values.

If sinusoidal alternating quantities of the same frequency are added, the resultant
voltage is also sinusoidal. In this case, a vector diagram permits much more elegant
addition as demonstrated on the left-hand side of the illustration below. The two
vectors to be added (each displayed as a dotted line) are drawn as two sides of a
parallelogram, similar to the way that forces acting in different directions are added
using a parallelogram. The vector along the parallelogram's diagonal represents the
cumulative voltage u and has a peak value of u0. Such addition of directional
quantities is termed geometric addition.

It can be seen that the phase angle of this cumulative voltage lies between that of the
two added vectors.

Sinusoidal alternating quantities of identical frequency

are added via geometric composition of the
corresponding vectors in terms of value and direction.

Capacitors in AC circuits
 Sinusoidal alternating voltage for a capacitor

If a capacitor is subjected to a sinusoidal alternating voltage of the form

the resulting capacitor current i is also sinusoidal and leads the voltage by the
following angle:

The current is therefore determined by the equation

The voltage and current characteristics are displayed in the diagram below.

The capacitor voltage attains its maximum value at the instant when the current is
zero, and vice versa.

In a capacitor circuit, the current leads the applied voltage by  = 90°.

Reactance of a capacitor
The instantaneous value p(t) of the power consumed by a capacitor is the product of
the instantaneous current and voltage. Because these two variables are separated in
phase by 90° in a capacitor, however, the power consumption characteristic has a
frequency that is double that of the voltage and current themselves, as shown by the
green curve in the diagram below. This characteristic comprises regions in which the
voltage and current are in the same direction, causing the capacitor to act as a load,
and regions of equally long duration where the voltage and current oppose each
other so that the capacitor acts as a source of power (like a battery).

The diagram represents consumption of energy as a positive value and regions

where energy is being supplied as a negative value. In other words, the electrical
energy alternates between capacitor-like and battery-like modes. With a resistive
load, the power consumed is termed active power (in which case electrical energy is
simply converted into heat energy), whereas for a capacitor the consumption is
described in terms of reactive power. Instead of an ohmic resistance, the capacitor is
said to have a reactance XC defined as the quotient of the rms voltage U and rms
current I:

The unit of reactance is the same as for an ohmic resistance, the ohm (symbol ).

As indicated earlier, a capacitor's ability to "conduct" alternating current increases as

the frequency rises and the capacitance increases. The formula for capacitive
reactance is
In qualitative terms:

Capacitive reactance decreases as the frequency and

capacitance increase.

Example: at a mains frequency of f = 50 Hz, a 1 µF capacitor has a reactance of

Experiment: Reactance of a capacitor

This experiment seeks to determine a capacitor's reactance at different frequencies

for different capacitances. The rms values of the current and voltage are measured
for this purpose. Currents can be measured either indirectly via a shunt resistor in
combination with the virtual ammeter or directly with the help of a MetraHit
multimeter.

Note: For this experiment and the subsequent ones, it is advisable to incorporate the
Windows calculator usually located in the system32 directory of your Windows
installation (e.g. C:/WINDOWS/system32/calc.exe) into the L@Bsoft environment so
that it can be invoked conveniently for performing computations from time to time.
This can be done using the menu option Tools | Customize...

To measure current using a shunt and the virtual ammeter, assemble the experiment
circuit shown below.
Open the Function Generator virtual instrument from the menu under Instruments |
Voltage Sources | Function Generator or by clicking on the image below and make
the settings shown in the table. After that, switch on the instrument using its POWER
button.

Function generator settings

Mode: SINE
Amplitude: 1:1, 100%
Frequency: 100 Hz

Open Voltmeter A from the menu under Instruments | Meters | Voltmeter A or by

clicking on the image below and make the settings shown in the table.

Voltmeter A settings
Range: 20 V AC
Mode: RMS
To measure current with the virtual ammeter, open Ammeter B from the menu under
Instruments | Meters | Ammeter B or by clicking on the image below and make the
settings shown in the table.

Ammeter B settings
Range: 100 mA AC
Mode: RMS
Shunt: 100 ohms

At the set frequency of 100 Hz, determine the rms value U of the voltage at the
capacitor and the rms value I of the capacitor current. Enter both values in the first
row of the table below. Calculate their quotient in order to determine the reactance
(note that the current is specified in mA) and enter this value in the table too.

Switch the above table to Chart mode to view the reactance plotted against
the inverse of the frequency.

Reset to a frequency of 100 Hz, perform another series of measurements and enter
the results in the first row of the table below. This time, modify the experiment set-up
so that the capacitance C arises from a series connection of capacitors C4 and C5
(both 1 µF). Enter the total capacitance and the inverse of its value in the second row
of the table, measure the voltage and current, use them to calculate the capacitor's
reactance and enter all these values into the second row of the table. After that,
modify the experiment set-up once again by connecting C4 and C5 in parallel instead
of series.

Inductors in AC circuits

Sinusoidal alternating voltage for a coil

As observed during energising and de-energising of a coil, current starts to flow

through an inductor after a certain delay. Connecting a pure inductance (i.e. a coil
with an ohmic resistance of zero) to a sinusoidal alternating voltage of the form
results in a sinusoidal coil current i which lags behind the voltage by an angle

The current is thus described by the following equation:

The corresponding characteristic is shown in the diagram below.

The coil current attains its maximum value when the voltage is zero, and vice versa.

The current flowing through a coil lags behind the

applied voltage by an angle  = 90°.

Though able to conduct alternating voltage in a similar way to a capacitor, a pure

inductor only consumes reactive power due to the phase shift of 90°, causing the
coil's magnetic field to build up and decay periodically. In reality, however, coils also
have a very small ohmic resistance resulting in a phase shift slightly less than 90°
and a corresponding consumption of active power.

Reactance of a coil

As in the case of a capacitor, the current and voltage of an ideal inductor coil (i.e. one
with no active resistance) are displaced in phase by 90°, resulting in purely reactive
power. The coil's higher AC resistance compared with its DC resistance is due to the
inductive reactance X L. This reactance arises from an opposing, self-induced
voltage.

The higher the inductance L of a coil, the higher the opposing voltage and resulting
reactance. Also, the faster the change in current - i.e. the higher the frequency - the
higher the induced voltage. The formula for inductive reactance is:

In qualitative terms:

The higher the frequency and inductance, the larger the

inductive reactance.

Example 1: at a frequency of 50 Hz, a coil with an inductance of 2 H has the

following reactance

Example 2: at a frequency of 40 Hz, a coil with a reactance of 12.5  has the

following inductance

Experiment: Reactance of a coil

This experiment investigates a coil's reactance at different frequencies for different

inductances. The rms values of the current and voltage are measured for this
purpose. Currents can be measured either indirectly via a shunt resistor in
combination with the virtual ammeter or directly with the help of a MetraHit
multimeter.

To measure current with a shunt and virtual ammeter, assemble the experiment
circuit shown below.
The following animation illustrates this experiment set-up:

To measure current with a MetraHit multimeter, replace the shunt circuit with the
multimeter as in the previous experiments.

Open the Function Generator virtual instrument from the menu under Instruments |
Voltage Sources | Function Generator or by clicking on the image below and make
the settings shown in the table. After that, switch on the instrument using its POWER
button.

Function generator settings

Mode: SINE
Amplitude: 1:1, 100%
Frequency: 20 kHz

Open Voltmeter A from the menu under Instruments | Meters | Voltmeter A or by

clicking on the image below and make the settings shown in the table.

Voltmeter A settings
Range: 20 V AC
Mode: RMS
To measure current with the virtual ammeter, open Ammeter B from the menu under
Instruments | Meters | Ammeter B or by clicking on the image below and make the
settings shown in the table.

Ammeter B settings
Range: 100 mA AC
Mode: RMS
Shunt: 100 Ohm

With the frequency set to 20 kHz, determine the rms value U of the coil voltage and
the rms value I of the coil current and enter both values in the first row of the table
below. Calculate their quotient in order to determine the reactance (note that the
current is specified in mA) and enter this value in the table too.

Reset to a frequency of 20 kHz, perform another series of measurements and enter

the results in the first row of the table below. This time, modify the experiment set-up
so that the inductance L involves a series connection of coils L3 and L4 (both 1 mH).
Enter the total inductance in the second row of the table, measure the voltage and
current, use them to calculate the inductive reactance and enter all these values into
the second row of the table, too. After that, modify the experiment set-up once again
by connecting L3 and L4 in parallel instead of series. Enter the associated
measurements/calculation results into the third row of the table.

Switch the table above to Chart mode to view the reactance plotted against the
overall inductance.