SENIOR HIGH SCHOOL

General Biology- 2
Quarter 3 Module
Genetics, Evolution, and Taxonomy

Department of Education ● Filamer Christian University

General Biology- 2 Alternative Delivery Mode Quarter 3 Module : Genetics,
Evolution and Taxonomy First Edition, 2021

FILAMER CHRISTIAN UNIVERSITY

Roxas Avenue, Roxas City Philippines

Development Team of the Module

Prepared and modified by: MR. JOHN B. ITURALDE JR.

Layout Artist: MR. L MARIUS P. ALAYON
Evaluators:
MINNIE P. CHAN, PhD
Vice President for Academic Affairs
EXEQUIEL A. CALIMUTAN, MAT
Quality Assurance Officer
SHEILA C. SURESCA, MAT
Principal, High School Department
SHIRLEY F. TIPON, PhD
Assistant Principal, Senior High School

Members:
SHENILLYN B. BELUSO, EdD, Focal Person STEM; ELEONOR B. BECHAYDA, EdD,
Focal Person HUMSS; GLADYS L. RUFINO, MAT, Focal Person ABM; LILIBETH S.
BROCES, Focal Person TVL-ICT; JESSICA ESQUILLO, Focal Person TVL-HE

Copyright 2021 by Filamer Christian University

All rights reserved. No part of this module/learning material may be reproduced or

transmitted in any form of by any means, electronic or mechanical, including
photocopying, recording, or by any other information storage and retrieval system without
permission in writing from the Publisher.

Published and Printed in the Philippines by Filamer Christian University

Office Address: Roxas Avenue, Roxas City, Capiz, Philippines 5800 E-
mail Address: filamer_christian@yahoo.com

ii
 TABLE OF CONTENTS
Page No.
INTRODUCTION What I Need
to Know
Learning
Target
Tips to make
the most out
of this
Module:
FRAPPE’
Reach Out:
Don’t Be a
Stranger
What I Know
(Pre-test)

Lesson 1:
Recombin
ant DNA
What’
s In:
Weird
but
Amazi
ng
Appli
cation
s of
DNA

Lear
ning
Che
ck

15
What
I Have
Learn
ed
Acti
vity
1:
Flo
w
Cha
3|Page
 rt More:
2.1 Histor 3
17 y of 8
Reflect Life on Lear
ive Earth ning
Journal Learni Che
ng ck
W Check
h 39
a 2.2 Geolog 3.2 M
t ic e
Time c
I Scale h
24 a
C What I Have n
a Learned i
n Activit s
y 2: m
My s
D
Own o
o
Versio f
n of E
P v
Geolo
e gic o
r Time l
f scale u
o t
r Reflective i
m Journal o
a What I Can Do n
n Performance Task
c Enrichment 4
e Activity 1
Lear
T Lesson 3: Evidence ning
a & Mechanisms of Che
s Evolution ck
k What’s In: Why
44
do we study
What
Lesson 2: Evolution?
I Have
Geologic What’s More:
Learn
Time scale Learni
ed:
What’s ng
Check Ac
In: tiv
Where ity
did we 3.1 Eviden
ce of 3:
come Tr
from Evoluti
on ue
What’s /
4|Page
 F n
al t
s
e A
c
4 t
6 i
Reflect v
ive i
Journal t
y
W
h
a
t

C
a
n

D
o

P
e
r
f
o
r
m
a
n
c
e

T
a
s
k

E
n
r
i
c
h
m
e
5|Page
Lesson 4: Basic Taxonomic Concepts
What’s In: Think Like Linnaeus 49
What’s More:
4.1 Basics of Classification (Taxonomy)
Learning Check 52
4.2 Kingdoms of Living Things 53
Learning Check 55
4.3 Principles of Classification 57
Learning Check 61
What I Have Learned:
Activity 4: Venn Diagram 62
Reflective Journal 63
What I Can Do 65
Enrichment Activity

Summary 66
Assessment: (Post-Test) 67
References 69
 Quarter 3 Module
Genetics, Evolution, and Taxonomy

INTRODUCTION
Welcome to the 3rd Quarter Module in General Biology-2. This module is a
continuation of what you have learned in General Biology-1 but focusing more deeply on
the concepts of Genetics by how recombinant DNA can be used in many different ways
starting from glow-in-the-dark pet fish to formulating drugs that can heal thousands of
diseases. It will also cover topics in evolution by digging deeper into the general features of
the history of life on Earth, including the generally accepted dates and sequence of geologic
time scale and characteristics of major groups of organisms present during each period. It
will also unveil the different mechanisms that produce a change in a population from
generation to generation, such as artificial selection, natural selection, genetic drift,
mutation, and recombination. More so, this module will engage you in real-life contexts on
how the patterns of descent with modification from a common ancestor will produce the
organismal diversity that we observe today. It will also focus on tracing the development of
Evolutionary thought and the relevant shreds of evidence to better understand the concepts
of evolution. Lastly, this module will explain the basic Taxonomic concepts and Principles
through understanding how DNA sequences can be used in classifying living things,
identifying the unique/distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to other taxa,
and describing species’ diversity and cladistics by using the types of evidence and
procedures that can be used to establish evolutionary relationships.

So, what are you waiting for? Common and let's dive in the world of General
Biology-2

This module has four (4) lessons:

• Lesson 1- Recombinant DNA
• Lesson 2- Geologic Time scale
• Lesson 3- Evidence and Mechanisms of Evolution
• Lesson 4- Basic Taxonomic Concepts
What I Need to Know:
After going through this module, you are expected to:

1. Outline the processes involved in genetic engineering (STEM_BIO11/12-

IIIa- b-6)

2. Discuss the applications of recombinant DNA (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIa-b-7)

3. Describe general features of the history of life on Earth, including generally

accepted dates and sequence of the geologic time scale and characteristics of major
groups of organisms present during these time periods (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-8)

4. Explain the mechanisms that produce change in populations from generation to

generation (e.g., artificial selection, natural selection, genetic drift, mutation,
recombination) (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-9)

5. Show patterns of descent with modification from common ancestors to produce the
organismal diversity observed today (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-10)

6. Trace the development of evolutionary thought (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-11)

7. Explain evidences of evolution (e.g., biogeography, fossil record, DNA/protein

sequences, homology, and embryology) (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-12)

8. Infer evolutionary relationships among organisms using the evidence of

evolution (STEM_BIO11/12-IIIc-g-13)

9. Explain how the structural and developmental characteristics and relatedness of

DNA sequences are used in classifying living things (STEM_BIO11/12-lllhj- 14)

10. Identify the unique/ distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to other
taxa (STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-15)

11. Describe species diversity and cladistics, including the types of evidence and
procedures that can be used to establish evolutionary relationships
(STEM_BIO11/12IIIhj-16)
Learning Target:
Now that you were able to understand what’s in this module, kindly put
inside each box for the following objectives you are expected to learn at the end of this
Module:

at the end of this lesson, I should be able to…

Lesson 1: Recombinant DNA

describe how DNA is used in Genetic Engineering; outline the
processes or steps in Genetic Engineering; publish a review
paper related to genetic diseases.

Lesson 2: Geologic Time scale

examine the general features of the history of life on earth;
compare the characteristics of the major groups of organisms living on each geological
time period;
construct a diagram showing the evolution of domesticated crop.

Lesson 3: Evidence and Mechanisms of Evolution

infer the evolutionary relationships among organisms using the evidence and mechanisms of
evolution;
suggest concrete examples of the evidence and mechanisms of evolution; make a
timeline about the history of evolutionary thought.

Lesson 4: Basic Taxonomic Concepts

explain the system of classification from the 3-domain scheme to the 5-
kingdom scheme of classification of living things;
specify different types of evidence and procedures that can be used in
constructing evolutionary relationships;
participate in online games related to evolution and taxonomy.
Tips to make the most out of this module:

To achieve the learning competencies stated above, always remember the word which you
always drink- FRAPPE’
• FOCUS: Stay away from any distraction that may impede your learning.
• RELAX: Don’t rush and take your time by reading and understanding each lesson.
• ALLERT: Be alert in all directions/ instructions given for each activity and exercises.

• PRACTICE: Test your understanding by answering all the given tests and exercises.

• PONDER: At the end of each topic, write your reflection and learning insights.
• EXPERIENCE: Discover the importance of the lesson by trying to link all the ideas you
have learned from which you have experienced.

Reach Out: Don’t Be A Stranger:

If you have any questions and or concerns about this module, kindly message the author
through his page JOHNstorya at this link: https://www.facebook.com/happykalangJohn

You may e-mail your question also at jbituralde@gmail.com or text 096666-87475.

What I Know (Pre-test)

Part A: TRUE or FALSE

Directions: Read the following statements with comprehension and
understanding, then write TRUE in the blank if the statements are correct and FALSE if
not.

TRUE 1. Humans are still evolving

TRUE 2. Evolution can happen slowly, over long periods of time.
FALSE 3. The giraffe's long neck is an example of evolution.
TRUE 4. Evolution can cause an individual to change during their lifetime.
FALSE 5. Humans descended from monkeys.
TRUE 6. Evolution results in progress; organisms are always getting better through evolution.
FALSE 7. Evolution and religion are not necessarily incompatible.
TRUE 8. Evolution happens on a large and small scale.
FALSE 9. The fossils from the uppermost rock layers are most likely the oldest forms.
FALSE 10. The structure of the genetic code is almost different in all living things.

Part B: MULTIPLE CHOICE

Direction: Read the following statements with comprehension and
understanding, then ENCIRCLE the letter of your CORRECT answer.

1. It is the time of intensive evolution of terrestrial plants and animals.

a. Paleozoic Era b. Mesozoic Era c. Cenozoic Era d. Precambrian

2. What do you call is the circular piece of DNA used by the bacteria?
a. Nucleus b. Lysosome c. Plastids d. Plasmid

3. A large biomolecule that contains the complete genetic information for an organism.
a. DNA b. RNA c. Gene d. Nucleus

4. Which of the following IS NOT a Process or step used in Genetic Engineering?

a. Extracting the entire DNA from the organism.
b. Identifying an organism that contains a desirable gene.
c. Inserting the new gene to an existing organism's DNA.
d. Transporting molecules across membranes

5. The following are the application of recombinant DNA EXCEPT

a. Faster growth b. Longer shell life c. Isolated Gene d. Improved nutrition

11 | P a g e
 6. They are the largest intervals of geologic time and are hundreds of millions of years in
duration.
a. Eons b. Eras c. Periods d. Epochs

7. What is the most accepted theory in the disappearance of Dinosaurs during

Mesozoic Era?
a. Competition & Predation c. Artificial Selection
b. Asteroid collision d. Intensive Evolution

8. It supports the theory of evolution because it shows a descent of modern organisms from
common ancestors.
a. Embryology b. Paleontology c. Biochemistry d. Geography

9. What is the driving force for evolution to happen?

a. Gene flow b. Natural selection c. Mutation d. Genetic drift

10. The development of a similar anatomical feature in distinct species that lines after
divergence from a common ancestor is called .
a. Parallelism b. Divergence c. Analogies d. Convergence

Part C: IDENTIFICATION
Directions: Read the following statements and Identify the following
concepts/terms/ideas. Write your answers in the space provided.

Reproductive isolation. _1. They are the most commonly used criteria for identifying
species differences.
Cladistics 2. This involves making a distinction between derived and
primitive traits when evaluating the importance of homologies in
determining placement of organisms within the Linnaean
classification system.
Kingdom 3. It is the broadest category in the Linnaean system.
Species 4. They are group of individuals that share a number of
features and are able to interbreed with one another, producing
fertile (nonsterile) offspring.
Genetic Engineering 5. The direct altering of an organism's genome.

Cenozoic era 6. "Age of Mammals" The diversification of flowering plants,

insects, birds and mammals, and the appearance of humans.
Vestigial Organs 7. They are called as the useless organs or body parts.
Population 8. An interbreeding group of individuals of one species in a
given geographic area at the same time.
Natural selection 9. Occurs when populations of organisms are subjected to
the environment.
Derived Traits 10. Traits that have changed from the ancestral form and/or
functions.
 Lesson 1
Recombinant DNA

What’s IN: WEIRD BUT AMAZING APPLICATIONS OF DNA

The century of scientific research has helped us understand DNA’s structure and
function. Through it, scientists were able to know how DNA passes from generation to
generation. They can also manipulate DNA in many ways: copying it, figuring out its sequence
of nucleotides, switching it on and off, and searching for specific pieces of it inside a living
cell. They can also cut and paste it, transfer genes from one species to another. Another
amazing application of DNA technology tool is to produce outcomes that some might consider
frivolous such as glow-in-the dark pet fish. This animal contains a gene, originally isolated
from a sea anemone, that encodes a fluorescent protein. But other applications of DNA
technology are anything but silly. As you will learn in this lesson, the ability to manipulate
DNA can help us solve crimes, save lives, and learn more about our place in the tree of life,
among many other worthy goals.1

What’s MORE:

Figure 1 : Structure of DNA Source :https://cdn1.byjus.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/12/DNA-

Structure1.png)

13 | P a g e
WHAT IS DNA?

Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) is a large biomolecule that contains the complete genetic
information for an organism. Every cell of living organism and many viruses, contains DNA.
The basic building block of a DNA molecule is called a nucleotide, and a single strand of DNA
may contain billions of nucleotides. (Refer to Figure 1 to see the DNA structure with labeled
parts.) Although each DNA molecule contains many of these building blocks, only four unique
nucleotides are used to create the entire DNA sequence; these are written as A, G, C and T.
Analogous to how the 26 letters of the alphabet can be arranged to create words with different
meanings, these four nucleotides can be arranged in sequences to "spell" the genetic
instructions to create all of the different proteins organisms need to live.7

Because DNA contains instructions for an organism to create several different proteins,
it is useful to define another sub-unit of DNA called genes (shown in Figure 2). Each
gene is a small segment of DNA that contains a set of instructions for an organism to create a
single protein; a single organism may have thousands of different genes. Together, the entire
set of genes for an organism is called its genome. To use another analogy, think of the genome
as an entire cookbook for an organism, and each gene is an individual recipe in that cookbook.
When a single recipe is followed, the result is a specific protein.7

Figure 2. A gene is a section of a DNA molecule that

contains the information to build a single protein. Source:
https://www.teachengineering.org/lessons/view/uoh_genetic
_lesson01

WHY ARE PROTEINS IMPORTANT?

Proteins perform all of the work in organisms. Some functions of proteins include:
 Serving as catalysts for reactions
 Performing cell signaling
 Transporting molecules across membranes
 Creating structures7

When a protein is created by its gene, it is said that the gene is "expressed," or used. Most gene
expressions do not produce results visible to the unaided eye. However, some genes, such as
those that code for proteins responsible for pigment, do have visual expression. The
expression of a gene in an observable manner is called a phenotypic trait; one
example is an organism's hair color. In fact, everything you can see in an organism is a result
of proteins or protein actions.7

14 | P a g e
 HOW IS DNA USED IN GENETIC ENGINEERING?

New traits can be introduced into animals. Here’s how it works for animals engineered to produce a human pharmaceutica
Generation of the DNA Construct
Milk Protein Promoter DNA: Allows for expression only in goat mammary glands.
Therapeutic Protein Gene: Encodes a protein known to treat disease in people.
Terminator Sequence: Assures that only the gene of interest is controlled by A.
Other DNA Sequences: Helps with the introduction of the new combination DNA strand.

The DNA construct is created by combining A, B, C, and D

Native goat DNA

The drug to be used to treat human disease is purified from the goat’s milk.
Native goat DNA

This new DNA strand is then introduced by any of a number of methods into an animal cell, such as an egg, that is then used to produce a ge

f the first genetically engineered goats, referred to as production animals are milked. The milk is then transferred to a purification facility.
Thefirstgenetically engineered goat is produced.

Figure 3. An example of how the genetic engineering process can be used in drug production. Source:
https://www.alamy.com/stock-photo-genetic-engineering-is-a-targeted-and-powerful-method-of-introducing-
103992183.html)

By definition, genetic engineering is the direct altering of an organism's genome.

This is achieved through manipulation of the DNA. Doing this is possible because DNA is
like a universal language; all DNA for all organisms is made up of the same nucleotide
building blocks. Thus, it is possible for genes from one organism to be read by another
organism. In the cookbook analogy, this equates to taking a recipe from one organism's
cookbook and putting into another cookbook. Now imagine that all cookbooks are written in
the same language; thus, any recipe can be inserted and used in any other cookbook. In
practice, since DNA contains the genes to build certain proteins, by changing the DNA
sequence, engineers are able to provide a new gene for a cell/organism to create a different
protein. The new instructions may supplement the old instructions such that an extra trait is
exhibited, or they may completely replace the old instructions such that a trait is changed.7
 YOU WANT TO KNOW about
the difference between Recombinant DNA & Genetic Enginee

GENETIC ENGINEERING TECHNIQUE

The process for genetic engineering begins the same for any organism being modified
(see Figure 3 for an example of this procedure).

1. Identify an organism that contains a desirable gene.

2. Extract the entire DNA from the organism.
3. Remove this gene from the rest of the DNA. One way to do this is by using a
restriction enzyme. These enzymes search for specific nucleotide sequences where
they will "cut" the DNA by breaking the bonds at this location.
4. Insert the new gene to an existing organism's DNA. This may be achieved through a
number of different processes.7

Scan this Qr Code to Learn more about Genetic Engineering

When modifying bacteria, the most common

method for this final step is to add the isolated gene Bacterial plasmid
to a plasmid, a circular piece of DNA used by
bacteria. This is done by "cutting" the plasmid with Gene of interest
the same restriction enzyme that was used to
remove the gene from the original DNA. The new
gene can now be inserted into this opening in the
plasmid and the DNA can be bonded back together
using another enzyme called ligase. This process, Escherichia coli
shown in Figure 4, creates a DNA

recombinant plasmid. In this case, the Figure 4. Building a recombinant plasmid to modify
bacteria.Source:https://www.teachengineering.org/lesso
ns/view/uoh_genetic_lesson01)
recombinant plasmid is also referred to as a bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC). Refer to
the associated activity Bacteria Transformation to have students create a model to simulate and
learn about the process used by genetic engineers to modify bacteria.7

Once the recombinant DNA has been built, it can be passed to the organism to be
modified. If modifying bacteria, this process is quite simple. The plasmid can be easily inserted
into the bacteria where the bacteria treat it as their own DNA. For plant modification, certain
bacteria such as Agrobacterium tumefaciens may be used because these bacteria permit their
plasmids to be passed to the plant's DNA.7

LEARNING CHECK

Directions: Answer the following questions BRIEFLY using the concepts that you
have learned above. You may find a partner from your classmates to help you discuss some of
the difficult questions:

1. What is in the DNA that makes it useful for genetic engineering?

Answer: GENES

2. How different is recombinant DNA with genetic engineering?

Answer: When we say genetic engineering it is the process of using
recombinant DNA (rDNA) which simply means genectic make up of an organism,
While genetic engineering this is a direct manipulation of one or more genes, like
adding a gene to another organism's genome to give it a desired phenotype.

3. Why is Recombinant DNA important?

Answer: Recombinant DNA is important ever since then, because of its fact that
it is the reason behind why our lives begun to become more easier because of
the use of recombinant DNA, it causes most of the scientist to discover such
cure for cancer, genetic disorder and other illness that needed to be researched
in our society and also it enables the creation of multiple copies of genes and the
insertion of foreign genes into other organisms to give them new traits, such as
antibiotic resistance or a new color.

_
_
APPLICATIONS AND ECONOMICS
The number of applications for
genetic engineering are increasing as more
and more is learned about the genomes of
different organisms. A few interesting or
notable application areas are described
below.
How many of today's crops are
genetically modified? As of 2010, in the
U.S., 86% of corn produced was
genetically modified. Bt-corn is a common
GMO that combines a gene from the Bt
bacteria with corn DNA to produce a crop
that is insect-resistant. The bacteria gene
used contains a recipe for a protein that is
toxic when consumed by insects, but safe
when consumed by humans. A number of
other genes can be combined with crops to
produce desirable properties such as:
 Herbicide-, drought-, freeze- or
disease-resistance
 Higher yield
 Faster growth
 Improved nutrition
 Longer shelf life
The creation of genetically
modified crops provides many incentives
for farmers and businesses. When farmers
are able to plant a crop
What I HAVE LEARNED: FLOW CHART
Directions: Complete the Genetic Engineering Flowchart from this lesson. Apply as
many as possible ideas that you have learned from this topic. Make sure to explain your flow-
chart in the space provided.
that has a higher yield per acre, they can
significantly increase production, and thus
sales, with minimal cost. Disease, pest and
other resistances reduce crop loss, which
also helps to increase profits. Besides
farmers, other benefactors from modified
crops include seed, agrochemical and
agriculture equipment companies as well
as distributors and universities that are
involved in GMO research. In 2011, the
value of genetically modified seed was
$13.2 billion in the U.S. alone. The value
of the end products produced from these
seeds topped $160 billion. Due to their
simple structures, the most commonly
modified organisms are bacteria. The first
modified bacteria were created in 1973.
Bacteria can be modified to produce
desirable proteins that can be harvested
and used. One example is insulin or spider
silk, which is difficult to gather naturally.
Other modifications to bacteria include
making changes to the cellular respiration
process to alter the byproducts; typically,
CO2 is produced, however engineers have
made modifications so that hydrocarbon
byproducts such as diesel and
polyethylene (a fuel and a plastic) are
produced.7
Explanation:

Genetic engineering is a method which modify genes and also enables to insert new genes,
replacement of genes, removal of genes and mutation of existing genes, also it creates genetically
modified organism. GMOs use in bacteria to produce large amount of proteins to industrial use. Use
of GM Plants is for the improvement of nutritional content on the plant. Use of GM animals is use to
study function of genes for biological and industrial use..
Reflective JOURNAL:
Directions: Complete the following phrases/sentences with your insights regarding
what you have learned from this lesson.
1. I learned that Recombinant DNA means…

Molecules of DNA from two different species that are inverted into a host organism
to produce new genetic combination that are valuable to science, medicine, and
industry.

2. I have understood several steps/events in genetic engineering and these are…

The isolation of DNA fragments from a donor organism. The insertation of an isolated of
donor DNA fragments into a vector genetic and the growth of recombinant vector.

3. DNA recombination is applicable to. Joining of DNA molecules from two species..

4. One thing that I will remember most from this lesson is

Genetic engineering because it modify genes of species and gives a big use on biological
and industrial approach and gives more ideas on other scientist.

What I CAN DO:

Performance Task

REVIEW PAPER: (per group)- 5 members

1. Pick a unique topic related to genetic diseases
2. Submit the topic on or before March 12 and is subject to the approval. No
duplication of topics.
3. The review paper must include the following parts: background with a thesis
statement/research question, discussion, summary, and references. Observe proper in-text
citation and paraphrasing.
4. Format will be sent via FCU LMS.
5. Only articles published in peer-reviewed journals can be used as reference.
Using graphs, tables, diagrams, and illustrations is allowed provided proper citation is
observed.
6. The paper should at least be 5 pages in short bond paper, single spaced, font 10
Cambria, with 1" margin.
7. Submit soft copies only in PDF format to google classroom
8. Deadline of submission will be on March 27 until 11:59pm only
 Lesson 2
Geologic Time Scale

What’s IN: WHERE DID WE COME FROM?

Earth’s past has been shaped by numerous geologic events. These events started from
the earliest forms of life to the most complex and diverse species. Until now, the quest for
exploration is still ongoing. Thanks to the efforts made by our scientists, through their
relentless discoveries, that we were able to have an understanding of the origin of life.

g the top predator Anomalocaris, during the Cambrian Period 510 million years ago. By the end of the Cambrian, nearly all the major groups of animals we know today (t
-resources/life-science/early-life-earth-animal- origins)

2.1 History of Life on Earth

In the Beginning
Our ecosystems are structured by feeding
relationships like killer whales eating seals, which eat squid,
which feed
on krill. These and other animals require oxygen to extract
energy from their food. But that’s not how life on Earth used
to be. With an environment devoid of oxygen and high
in methane, for much of its history Earth would not have
been a welcoming place for animals. The earliest life forms
Source:https://scx2.b-
we know of were microscopic organisms (microbes) that left cdn.net/gfx/news/2020/sealeatingki.jpg

signals of their presence in rocks about 3.7 billion years old.

The signals consisted of a type of carbon molecule that is produced by living things.
Evidence of microbes was also preserved in the hard structures (“stromatolites”) they made,
which date to 3.5 billion years ago. Stromatolites are created as sticky mats of microbe trap
and bind sediments into layers. Minerals precipitate inside the layers, creating durable
structures even as the microbes die off. Scientists study today’s, rare living stromatolite
reefs to better understand Earth’s earliest life forms.6
 An Oxygen Atmosphere
When cyanobacteria evolved at least 2.4 billion years ago,
they set the stage for a remarkable transformation. They
became Earth’s first photo-synthesizers, making food using
water and the Sun’s energy, and releasing oxygen as a result.
This catalyzed a sudden, dramatic rise in oxygen, making
the environment less hospitable for other microbes that
could not tolerate oxygen.

Evidence for this Great Oxidation Event is recorded in

changes in seafloor rocks. When oxygen is around, iron
reacts chemically with it (it gets oxidized) and gets
removed from the system. Rocks dating to before the event
are striped with bands of iron. Rocks dating to after the
event do not have iron bands, showing that oxygen was
now in the picture.

After the initial pulse of oxygen, it stabilized at lower levels

where it would remain for a couple billion years more. In fact,
as cyanobacteria died and drifted down through the water,
the decomposition of their bodies probably reduced oxygen
levels. So, the ocean was still not a suitable environment
for most lifeforms that need ample oxygen.6
Source:http://www.ftexploring.com/me-
images/greenalga.gif

Multicellular Life
While they can process lots of chemicals, microbes did not have the specialized
cells that are needed for complex bodies. Animal bodies have various cells –
skin, blood, bone – which contain organelles, each doing a distinct job.
Microbes are just single cells with no organelles and no nuclei to package their
DNA. Something revolutionary happened as microbes began living inside
other microbes, functioning as organelles for them. Mitochondria, the
organelles that process food into energy, evolved from these mutually
beneficial relationships. Also, for the first time, DNA became packaged in
nuclei. The new complex cells (“eukaryotic cells”) boasted specialized parts
playing specialized roles that supported the whole cell. Cells also began living
together, probably because certain benefits could be obtained. Groups of cells
might be able to feed more efficiently or gain protection from simply being
bigger. Living collectively, cells began to support the needs of the group by
each cell doing a specific job. Some cells were tasked with making junctions to
hold the group together, while other cells made digestive enzymes that could
break down food.6
The First Animals
Source :https://www.sciencenewsforstudents.org/wp-
content/uploads/2019/11/860_main_questions_Dickinsonia.gif

These clusters of specialized, cooperating cells eventually became the

first animals, which DNA evidence suggests evolved around 800 million
years ago. Sponges were among the earliest animals. While chemical
compounds from sponges are preserved in rocks as old as 700 million years,
molecular evidence points to sponges developing even earlier.

Oxygen levels in the ocean were still low compared to today, but sponges
are able to tolerate conditions of low oxygen. Although, like other animals,
they require oxygen to metabolize, they don’t need much because they are not
very active. They feed while sitting still by extracting food particles from water
that is pumped through their bodies by specialized cells. The simple body plan
of a sponge consists of layers of cells around water-filled cavities, supported
by hard skeletal parts. The evolution of ever more complex and diverse
body plans would eventually lead to distinct groups of animals.

The assembly instructions for an animal’s body plan are in its genes. Some
genes act like orchestra conductors, controlling the expression of many
other genes at specific places and times to correctly assemble the components.
While they were not played out immediately, there is evidence that parts of
instructions for complex bodies were present even in the earliest animals.
Thanks to their hard skeletons, sponges became the first reef builders on
Earth.6

Ediacaran Biota Source :https://encrypted-

tbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSWl
g_cUEbOzgC4qHxGWeibYsKRFSASUBo7p
g&usqp=CAU

By about 580 million years ago (the Ediacaran Period) there was a
proliferation of other organisms, in addition to sponges. These varied seafloor
creatures - with bodies shaped like fronds, ribbons, and even quilts - lived
alongside sponges for 80 million years. Their fossil evidence can be found in
sedimentary rocks around the world.
However, the body plans of most Ediacaran animals did not look like
modern groups. Smithsonian’s Dr. Douglas Erwin, using comparative
developmental evidence, has examined whether any of the fossilized
Ediacaran animals were related to modern animals.
By the end of the Ediacaran, oxygen levels rose, approaching levels sufficient
to sustain oxygen-based life. The early sponges may actually have helped
boost oxygen by eating bacteria, removing them from the decomposition
process. Tracks of an organism named Dickinsonia costata suggest that it
may have been moved along the sea bottom, presumably feasting on mats of
microbes.6
The End-Ediacaran Extinction
However, about 541 million years ago, most of the Ediacaran creatures
disappeared, signaling a major environmental change that Douglas Erwin and
other scientists are still working to understand. Evolving animal body plans,
feeding relationships, and environmental engineering may have played a role.
Burrows found in the fossil record, dating to the end of the Ediacaran, reveal
that worm-like animals had begun to excavate the ocean bottom. These early
environmental engineers disturbed and maybe aerated the sediment,
disrupting conditions for other Ediacaran animals. As environmental conditions
deteriorated for some animals, they improved for others, potentially
catalyzing a change-over in species.6

The Cambrian Explosion

The Cambrian Period (541-485 million years ago) witnessed a wild
explosion of new life forms. Along with new burrowing lifestyles came hard
body parts like shells and spines. Hard body parts allowed animals to more
drastically engineer their environments, such as digging burrows. A shift
also occurred towards more active animals, with defined heads and tails for
directional movement to chase prey. Active feeding by well-armored
animals like trilobites may have further disrupted the sea floor that the
soft Ediacaran creatures had lived on.

Unique feeding styles partitioned the environment, making room for more
diversification of life. In 1909 the Smithsonian’s fourth Secretary, Charles
Doolittle Walcott, discovered the Burgess Shale fossils that revealed the
unprecedented biodiversity of Cambrian life. While Waptia scoured the ocean
bottom, priapulid worms burrowed into the sediment, Wiwaxia attached to
sponges, and Anomalocaris cruised above. Many of these odd-looking
organisms were evolutionary experiments, such as the 5-
eyed Opabinia. However, some groups, such as the trilobites, thrived and
dominated Earth for hundreds of millions of years but eventually went
extinct. Stromatolite reef-building bacteria also declined, and reefs made
by organisms called brachiopods arose as conditions on Earth continued to
change.

Today’s dominant reef-builders, the hard corals, did not emerge until a couple
hundred million years later. However, despite all the changes that were to
come, by the end of the Cambrian nearly all existing animal types, or phyla,
(mollusks, arthropods, annelids, etc.) were established, and food webs
were emerging, forming the foundation for the ecosystems on Earth
today.6
 LEARNING CHECK

Directions: Answer the following questions BRIEFLY using the concepts that you
have learned above. You may find a partner from your classmates to help you discuss some of
the following questions:

1. Based from the article, what evidences to understand or discover the origins of life on
earth were used by the scientists?

Answer: The evidence that we’re used by scientist are DNA evidences, the molecular
existence which point out to sponges devolping, and the fossils animals where used to
understand the origin of file.

2. CONCEPT REVIEW: Cite the paragraph that supports “Endosymbiotic theory”?

Answer: “The new complex cellls boasted, Specialized parts playing specialized
roles that support the whole cell” because the thoery is leading to the origin of
eukaryotic cells from prokaryotic organism

3. What important insight/s from the article do you agree with or contend? WHY?

Answer: The important insights from the arricle that I agree is with the firsy
animals because DNA evidence evolve and cooperating cells became the first
animal sponges were among the animals and also Im contend because of the
reason that it is from the evolved DNA evidence.

4. How did life on earth first start?

Answer: Life began under secluded and it is yours which are conducive to the
formation of organic molecules.
 5. What are the GENERAL characteristics
YOU WANT TO learnof the about what happened during the Cambrian Explosion o
more
major group of organisms present in each
significant event?

Answer: There ability to survive in their specific

Environments for example polar bears have
Thick fur coats that helps them to warm themselves
On their cold environment.

2.2. Geologic Time Scale

DIVIDING EARTH HISTORY INTO TIME INTERVALS

Geologists have divided Earth's

history into a series of time intervals.
These time intervals are not equal in
length like the hours in a day. Instead
the time intervals are variable in
length. This is because geologic time is
divided using significant events in the
history of the Earth.4

Examples of Boundary
"Events"

For example, the boundary

between the Permian and Triassic is
marked by a global extinction in which
a large percentage of Earth's plant and
animal species were eliminated.
Another example is the boundary
between the Precambrian and the
Paleozoic, which is marked by the first
appearance of animals with hard
parts.4
Figure 5: Geologic time scale with a linear time axis. Retrieved
from https://geology.com/time.htm. Date Retrieved February 20,
2021
 Eons

Eons are the largest intervals of geologic

time and are hundreds of millions of years in
duration. In the time scale above you can see
the Phanerozoic Eon is the most recent eon
and began more than 500 million years ago.4

Eras
Eons are divided into smaller time
intervals known as eras. In the time scale
above you can see that the Phanerozoic is
divided into three eras: Cenozoic, Mesozoic
and Paleozoic. Very significant events in
Earth's history are used to determine the
boundaries of the eras.4

Periods
Eras are subdivided into periods. The
events that bound the periods are widespread
in their extent but are not as significant as
those which bound the eras. In the time scale
above you can see that the Paleozoic is
subdivided into the Permian, Pennsylvanian,
Mississippian, Devonian, Silurian,
4
Ordovician and Cambrian periods.

Figure 6: Detailed geologic time scale. Retrieved from

https://geology.com/time.htm. Date Retrieved February 20, 2021

Epochs
Finer subdivisions of time are possible, and the periods of the Cenozoic are frequently
subdivided into epochs. Subdivision of periods into epochs can be done only for the most
recent portion of the geologic time scale. This is because older rocks have been buried deeply,
intensely deformed and severely modified by long-term earth processes. As a result, the history
contained within these rocks cannot be as clearly interpreted. Our geologic time scale was
constructed to visually show the duration of each time unit. This was done by making a
linear time line on the left side of the time columns. Thicker units such as the Proterozoic were
longer in duration than thinner units such as the Cenozoic. 4
SUMMARY OF THE GEOLOGICAL TIMESCALE and the CHARACTERISITCS OF
MAJOR GROUPS PRESENT
Lecture notes in EDSC 205 By Prof. Juliana C. Baylon,
University of the Philippines- Visayas

EARTH’S PAST DIVIDED INTO ERAS.

• Subdivided into periods.
• Subdivided into epochs.
• Subdivided into ages

• Virtually all major surviving groups of animals originated in the sea at the beginning of the
Paleozoic Era.
• First vertebrates (jawless fish) evolved 470 million years ago.

WHAT ARE THE FOUR ERAS?

1. Precambrian: The origin of life
2. Paleozoic "Ancient Life": The origin of plants, most invertebrate types, the first
vertebrates (back-boned animals, including fishes, amphibians, and reptiles).
3. Mesozoic "Age of Reptiles": The origin of flowering plants, dinosaurs, birds, and
mammals.
4. Cenozoic "Age of Mammals" The diversification of flowering plants, insects, birds and
mammals, and the appearance of humans.

Figure 7: An overview of the geologic timescale from the notes taken in EDSC 205 by Prof. Baylon
ANCIENT LIFE (PALEOZOIC); 600-230 M.Y.B.P. (million years before present) Cambrian

After 3 billion years of very little change, there was a frenzy of evolutionary innovation
that generated just about all of the existing major types (phyla and classes) of marine
invertebrates plus many others that no longer exist This is called the Cambrian explosion
which happened from 533 to 525 million years ago.

WHAT CAUSED THE CAMBRIAN EXPLOSION? (it is not known)

One plausible suggestion is that it followed shortly after marine animals evolved
protective shells and cuticles that allowed them to exploit new ecological niches. Another
possibility is that more complex body organization became possible after the atmospheric
oxygen reached a certain threshold.

Many of the important fossils telling the story of the Cambrian explosion were found in a fossil
bed in the Canadian Rockies called Burgess Shale, located in Yoho National Park in the Rocky
Mountains, near Field, British Columbia, Canada.
▪ Showed soft-bodied preservation of a wide diversity of fossil invertebrate
animals.
▪ The locality has been intensely studied since its discovery in 1909 by Charles
Walcott
▪ Declared a World Heritage Site

Figure 8: Some of the major groups of organisms present in each period from the notes taken in
EDSC 205 by Prof. Baylon
PALEOZOIC ERA Mass Extinctions –Four occurred during Paleozoic. End of:
Cambrian Ordovician Devonian Permian
• Estimated 96% of all marine species went extinct.
–Vacant niches allowed rapid evolution.

MESOZOIC ERA

• Time of intensive evolution of terrestrial plants and animals. – Amphibians

followed by reptiles.
• Evolved into three great lines of terrestrial vertebrates: –Dinosaurs, Birds,
Mammals »Dinosaurs dominated for over 150 million years.

MESOZOIC ERA
• Traditionally divided into three periods:
1) Triassic
2) Jurassic
3) Cretaceous
• Dinosaurs disappeared about 65 MYA at end of the Cretaceous (5th mass
extinction) –Mammals quickly evolved and rose to dominance.

FIFTH MAJOR EXTINCTION (C. 65 MYA): END OF CRETACEOUS

▪ It wiped out the remaining terrestrial dinosaurs and marine ammonites, as well as
many other species across the phylogenetic spectrum, in all habitats
▪ Caused by collisions between Earth and an extraterrestrial bolide (probably
cometary).
▪ Some geologists, point to the great volcanic event that produced the Deccan traps of
India as part of the chain of physical events that disrupted ecosystems so severely that many
species on land and sea rapidly succumbed to extinction.

MESOZOIC ERA

• Disappearance of Dinosaurs (See Figure 9) – Most widely accepted theory blames

asteroid collision.
• Alvarez Hypothesis - Large meteorite impacted earth, sending dense cloud of debris
into atmosphere, temporarily halting photosynthesis. –Large impact crater discovered off coast
of Yucatan peninsula, Mexico.
 Figure 9: Extinction of the dinosaurs. The line showing the time where they went extinct from the notes
taken in EDSC 205 by Prof. Baylon

CENOZOIC ERA

• First half of Cenozoic was very warm with jungle-like forest at the poles.
• As glaciation in Antarctica became fully established about 13 mya, regional
climates cooled dramatically. – Evolution of many large mammals.

What I Have Learned: ILLUSTRATION

Activity 2: MY OWN VERSION OF GEOLOGIC TIMESCALE

Directions: With what you have learned from the discussion, create an advance
organizer that shows/illustrates the whole concept about Geologic Timescale including
generally accepted dates and sequence of geologic timescale and the characteristics of major
groups of organisms present during these time periods. Use the space provided.
Reflective JOURNAL:
Directions: Complete the following phrases/sentences with insights regarding what you
have learned from this lesson. Use the space provided.

1.) If I were to describe the general features of the history of life on earth, it would be…
A type of decambrian there is no evidence of life it is the origin of life in
phanerozoic eon iy has 3 eras. First paleozoic era where marine species waent
extinct, second is mesozoic era where mammals evolved and rose in dominance
and lastly zenozoic era where the evolution ofarge mammals arise, This all
happens from 6.9 billion years ago to the present days.

2.) I realized that the generally accepted dates and sequence of geologic timescale are…
Should be started 3 years ago before cambrian explosion where origin of life
started. It carbrion happen 533 to 525 MYA it is the era of ralezvic. Then
mesozoic ended in 65 MYA and lastly evoulution of large mammal on 13 MYA in
zenozoic era.

3.) If I were to elucidate the major characteristics of major groups of organisms present
during each period it would be… I would present them based on my learnings and
based on the knowledge I learned in the module, First The precambrian is the
origin of earth and first-celled organism arise, Multicelled organism this is tge
organism with shell , First had plants and fishes dominant and first insect fossils
arise in silurian and devonian period , large amphibian are abundant in large coal
swamps this ones are the first reptile and extinctio of many marine animals, In
carboniverous to permian era, Dinasaur is dominant , also this where the first bird
and first flowering occur from plantriasic to credaceasic era extinctions of
dinasaur occur and many species, lastly mammals and humans develop and
continue to arise on earth by period.

4.) This lesson made me… I realize that the earth is so olds and many events happens already
in the history of earth till present day, it made me realize that there are classifications of
geologic scales in tge features or events that happen in the past.
 .

5.) The concepts which I am still muddled with are… The summary of geologic time scale I
found it last to complete my understanding because it is only a summary of geologic events,
Which made me understand it completely if one feature is present.

6.) In General, this lesson… This lesson is all about the past and the history of pur mother
earth, that was been shape by numerous of geological events.
.

What I Can Do:

Rubric for Assessing the Diagram

Poor Fair Good Excellent
2 pts 3 pts 4 pts 5 pts
Content Poor Fair Good Excellent

The diagram is Does not have all Diagram includes The poster includes
lacking in relevant of the relevant all relevant all information
information. information of the information; relevant to the topic
poster. There is not however, it is not in an organized
enough well-organized. fashion.
information
depicted.
Information was
not well-
organized.

Performance Task:
Make a diagram (e.g., pictogram, poster) showing the evolution of a
domesticated crop. You may only use one example of this crop for this output.
Please see rubric in rating your output. Deadline in submitting this output will be
announced during our online meeting.
.
 Work
quality/ Work is done with Work is done with The work was done The work done
effort little effort, quality is fair effort, but the with good effort that exceeds all
not what the learner is quality is still not shows what the expectations and
capable of. It is what the learner is learner is capable shows that the learner
evident that the work capable of. It is of. It is evident that is proud of his/her
was rushed and little evident that the time was put into work. The effort that
time was spent on the work was rushed. this poster and was put into this task
final product. presentation. is the
Work is incomplete. best it can be by the
learner.
Style/ The diagram does not The diagram The diagram is clear The diagram has an
Mechanics convey a clear lacks clarity of and contains few element of creativity
understanding of the information, mistakes. and style, and is not
subject matter and creativity and Good creativity just a list of facts.
there are many errors. neatness. and neatness. The diagram conveys
Poster is not creative. a clear understanding
of the
topic.
Presentation The student did a The student did a The student did The students did an
poor job presenting fair job presenting his/her presented excellent job
his/her project. his/her project. project very well. presenting his/her
project to the class.
Adapted from:https://www.rcampus.com/rubricshowc.cfm?sp=yes&code=H523B7&

Enrichment:
Watch this Video and learn more about Geologic Timescale .

Or you may Scan it here

Then do the following:

Prepare a list of the three concepts in this topic that you are most interested with.
Discuss why you are interested with those selected concepts.
Compile discussion labelled as Assignment 2.1 in your Gen. Biology- 1 Journal.
 Lesson 3
Evidence & Mechanisms of Evolu

What’s IN: WHY DO WE STUDY EVOLUTION?

Evolution happens on a large and small scale. It is a key in

Source:https://i.pinimg.com/originals/1b
/82/6b/1b826baa2d591211a584e207b
2fe9d4c.jpg
unifying the principles in biology. As Theodosius
Dobzhansky once said, “Nothing in biology makes sense
except in the light of evolution.” Evolution has a lot of
mechanisms and in order to understand it, Scientists have
used various lines of evidence. These evidences have
made some theories acceptable and have helped in
understanding the complexity and diversity of living
organisms.2
WatchashortIntroductionabout Evolution here:

What’s MORE:
Directions: Study this lesson from Cliff Notes Biology.com (2021) to understand the
evidences of Evolution. Answer the following questions after reading it.

EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

In his book, Darwin offered several pieces of evidence that supported evolution.
He attempted to convince the scientific community of the validity of his theory.

1. Paleontology

One piece of evidence offered by Darwin is found in the science of

paleontology. Paleontology deals with locating, cataloging, and interpreting the life
forms that existed in past millennia. It is the study of fossils—the bones, shells, teeth, and other
remains of organisms, or evidence of ancient organisms, that have survived over eons of time.

Paleontology supports the theory of evolution because it shows a descent of modern

organisms from common ancestors. Paleontology indicates that fewer kinds of organisms existed
in past eras, and the organisms were probably less complex. As paleontologists descend deeper
and deeper into layers of rock, the variety and complexity of fossils decrease. The fossils from
the uppermost rock layers are most like current forms. Fossils from the deeper layers are the
ancestors of modern forms.2

2. Comparative anatomy

More evidence for evolution is offered by comparative anatomy (see Figure 12- 1).
As Darwin pointed out, the forelimbs of such animals as humans, porpoises, bats, and other
creatures are strikingly similar, even though the forelimbs are used for different purposes (that is,
lifting, swimming, and flying, respectively). Darwin proposed that similar forelimbs have similar
origins, and he used this evidence to point to a common ancestor for modern forms. He
suggested that various modifications are nothing more than adaptations to the special needs of
modern organisms.2

Figure 10: The forelimbs of a human and four animals showing the similarity in construction. This similarity
was offered by Darwin as evidence that evolution has occurred. Retrieved at https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-
guides/biology/biology/principles-of-evolution/evidence-for-evolution. Date Retrieved: 02/22/21

Darwin also observed that animals have structures they do not use. Often these structures
degenerate and become undersized compared with similar organs in other organisms. The useless
organs or body parts are called vestigial organs. In humans, they include the appendix, the
fused tail vertebrae, the wisdom teeth, and muscles that move the ears and nose. Darwin
maintained that vestigial organs may represent structures that have not quite disappeared.
Perhaps an environmental change made the organ
unnecessary for survival, and the organ gradually became nonfunctional and reduced in size. For
example, the appendix in human ancestors may have been an organ for digesting certain foods,
and the coccyx at the tip of the vertebral column may be the remnants of a tail possessed by an
ancient ancestor.2

3. Embryology

Darwin noted the

striking similarity among
embryos of complex animals
such as humans, chickens,
frogs, reptiles, and fish. He
wrote that the uniformity is
evidence for evolution. He
pointed out that human
embryos pass through a
number of embryonic stages
inherited from their ancestors
because they have inherited the
developmental mechanisms
from a common ancestor.
These mechanisms are
modified in a way that is
unique to an organism’s way
of life.2
Figure 11: Comparative embryology of vertebrates.
Source:https://microbenotes.com/wp-
content/uploads/2019/12/homology_vertebrate_embryos.jpg

The similarities in comparative embryology are also evident in the early stages of
development. For example, fish, bird, rabbit, and human embryos are similar in appearance in
the early stages. They all have gill slits, a two-chambered heart, and a tail with muscles to move
it. Later on, as the embryos grow and develop, they become less and less similar. The branch of
biology that focuses on embryos and their development is called embryology.2

4. Comparative biochemistry

Although the biochemistry of organisms was not well known in Darwin’s time, modern
biochemistry indicates there is a biochemical similarity in all living things. This comparison of
biochemical processes with ancient species is called comparative biochemistry. For
example, the same mechanisms for trapping and transforming energy and for building proteins
from amino acids are nearly identical in almost all living systems. DNA and RNA are the
mechanisms for inheritance and gene activity in all living organisms. The structure of the
genetic code is almost identical in all living things. This
uniformity in biochemical organization underlies the diversity of living things and points to
evolutionary relationships.2

5. Domestic breeding

From observing the domestic breeding experiments of animal and plant scientists, Darwin
developed an idea about how evolution takes place. Domestic breeding brings about new
forms that differ from ancestral stock. For example, pigeon fanciers have developed many
varieties of pigeons through domestic breeding experiments. In effect, evolution has taken place
under the guidance of human hands. The development of new agricultural crops by farmers and
botanists provides more evidence for directed evolution.2

6. Geographic distribution

Darwin was particularly interested in the life forms of the Galapagos Islands. He noticed
how many of the birds and other animals on the islands were found only there. The finches were
particularly puzzling; Darwin found 13 species of finches not found anywhere else in the world,
as far as he knew. He concluded that the finches had evolved from a common ancestral group
that probably reached the island many generations earlier. In the isolation of the Galapagos
Islands, the original finches had probably evolved into the 13 species.2

The geographic distribution of species in geographic areas can help to explain

evolution. For instance, alligators are located only in certain regions of the world, presumably
because they have evolved in those regions. The islands of Australia and New Zealand have
populations of animals found nowhere else in the world because of their isolated environments.

LEARNING CHECK

Directions: Answer the following questions BRIEFLY using the concepts that you
have understood above. You may find a partner from your classmates to help you discuss some
of the following questions:

1. List the six (6) evidence for evolution as stated in Cliff Notes (or the article that you have
read above)

Answer: The 6 evidence of evolution as stated by Cliff notes are Paleontology,

Comparative anatomy, Embryology, Comparative biochemistry, Domestic
breeding, Geographic evolution.
 .

2. In 1-2 sentences, give an example for the first four (4) of your answers to #1

Answer: For the first four (4) of my answer first is Paleontology It is the study of
fossil, the bones, shells, teeth, and other remains of organisms, or evidence of
ancient organisms, that have survived over eons of time. Second is comparative
anatomy which deals with the forelimbs of such animals as humans, porpoises,
bats, and other creatures are strikingly similar, even though the forelimbs are
used for different purposes (that is, lifting, swimming, and flying, respectively).

3.1 Evidence of Evolution

 Directions: Watch the following YouTube Videos and answer the following questions.

1. What is the evidence for evolution? (Stated Clearly):

https://youtu.be/lIEoO5KdPvg
Or you may scan here:
 2. Another evidence for evolution (& one very relevant to the Philippines):
biogeography! Watch this video: https://youtu.be/2UQC5ts6hUs
Or you may scan here:

LEARNING CHECK

Directions: Answer the following questions BRIEFLY using the concepts that you
have understood above. You may find a partner from your classmates to help you discuss some
of the following questions:

1. List the eight (8) lines of evidence for evolution shown in the Stated Clearly video
Answer:

2. In 1-2 sentences, give an example for the first six of your answers to #1: for the first
four, explain the example given in the Stated Clearly video. For the 5th and 6th lines of
evidence, use the examples in the video about Biogeography. Answer:
 __

__

3. Study the map below: the island-aggregations in light blue are called the Pleistocene
Aggregate Island Complexes of the Philippines. They show how present-day
landmasses were connected during the last ice age, about 130,000 years ago. Now study
the distribution of the Philippine tarsier (Carlito syrichta) on the map on wikipedia:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippine_tarsier . Using these two maps, explain in your
own words why the tarsiers are found on certain Philippine islands but not on the
others.

Map of the Philippine archipelago, showing

the locations of modern islands in green,
Late Pleistocene (ice-age) islands in light
blue, and deep seas in dark blue. From “The
Mammals of Luzon Island: Biogeography
and Natural History of a Philippine Fauna,”
Johns Hopkins University Press. Image ©
Heaney, Balete and Rickart (2016).
Taken from:
https://news.mongabay.com/2019/08/like
-spaghetti-worm-slurping-hopping-rats-
discovered-in-the-philippines/
Answer:
3.2 Mechanisms of Evolution
Mechanisms of Evolution
Populations evolve, but individual
organisms do not. A population is an
interbreeding group of individuals of one
species in a given geographic area at the
same time. A population evolves because
the population contains the collection of
genes called the gene pool. As changes in
the gene pool occur, a population evolves.2
certain food materials. Over time, these
types of individuals survive, while those that
__
_
.
1. Mutation
Mutation, a driving force of
evolution, is a random change in an
organism’s genetic makeup, which
influences the population’s gene pool. It is a
change in the nature of the DNA in one or
more chromosomes. Mutations give rise to
new alleles; therefore, they are a source of
genetic variation in a population.2
Mutations may be harmful or benign,
but they may also be beneficial. For
example, a mutation may permit enzymes
that will allow them to use
don’t have the mutations are more likely to perish.
Therefore, natural selection tends to remove the
less-fit individuals, allowing more-fit
individuals to survive and form a
population.2
2. Gene flow
Another mechanism of evolution
may occur during the migration of
individuals from one group or location to
another. When the migrating individuals
interbreed with the new population, they
contribute their genes to the gene pool of the
local population. This establishes gene
flow in the population.
Gene flow occurs, for example, when
wind carries seeds far beyond the bounds of
the parent plant population. As another
example, animals may be driven off from a
herd. This forces them to migrate to a new
population, thereby bringing new genes to a
gene pool. Gene flow tends to increase the
similarity between remaining populations of
the same species because it makes gene
pools more similar to one another.2
3. Genetic drift
Another mechanism for evolution is
genetic drift, which can occur when a
small group of individuals leaves a
population and establishes a new one in a
geographically isolated region. For example,
when a small population of fish is placed in
a lake, the fish population will evolve into
one that is different from the original.
Fitness of a population is not considered in
genetic drift, nor does genetic drift occur in
a very large population.2
modern era is an example of directional
selection.2
5. Species development
4. Natural selection
Another mechanism for evolution is
natural selection, which occurs when
populations of organisms are subjected to
the environment. The fittest creatures are
more likely to survive and pass their genes
to their offspring, producing a population
that is better adapted to the environment.
The genes of less-fit individuals are less
likely to be passed on to the next generation.
The important selective force in natural
selection is the environment.2
Environmental fitness may be
expressed in several ways. For example, it
may involve an individual’s ability to avoid
predators, it may imply a greater resistance
to disease, it may enhance ability to obtain
food, or it may mean resistance to drought.
Fitness may also be measured as enhanced
reproductive ability, such as the ability to
attract a mate. Better-adapted individuals
produce relatively more offspring and pass
on their genes more successfully than less-
adapted individuals.
Several types of natural selection
appear to affect populations. One type,
stabilizing selection, occurs when the
environment selects against organisms of a
population with extreme versions of a trait.
Another type of natural selection is
disruptive selection. Here, the environment
favors extreme types in a population at the
expense of intermediate forms, thereby
splitting the population into two or more
subpopulations. A third type of natural
selection is directional selection. In this
case, the environment selects for an extreme
characteristic. The development of
antibiotic-resistant bacteria in the
A species is a group of individuals that
share a number of features and are able to
interbreed with one another, producing fertile (non-
sterile) offspring. (When individuals of one species
mate with individuals of a different species, any
offspring are usually sterile.) A species is
also defined as a population whose members
share a common gene pool.2
The evolution of a species is
speciation, which can occur when a
population is isolated by geographic
barriers, such as occurred in the isolation of
Australia, New Zealand, and the Galapagos
Islands. The variety of life forms found in
Australia but nowhere else is an example of
speciation by geographic barriers.
Speciation can also occur when
reproductive barriers develop. For example,
when members of a population develop
anatomical barriers that make mating with
other members of the population difficult, a
new species can
develop. The timing of sexual activity is
another example of a reproductive barrier.
Spatial difference, such as one species
inhabiting treetops while another species
lives at ground level, is another reason why
species develop.
6. Gradual versus rapid change
Darwin’s theory included the
observation that evolutionary changes take
place slowly. In many cases, the fossil
record shows that a species changed
gradually over time. The theory that
evolution occurs gradually is known as
gradualism.
In contrast to gradualism is the
theory of punctuated equilibrium, which is
a point of discussion among scientists.
According to the theory of punctuated
equilibrium, some species have long, stable
periods of existence interrupted by relatively
brief periods of rapid change.

Both groups of scientists agree that

natural selection is the single most important
factor in evolutionary changes in species.
Whether the change is slow and gradual or
punctuated and rapid, one thing is certain:
Organisms have evolved over time.2

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES
Instructions: Read sections 11.1 (Discovering how populations change) and
11.2 (Mechanisms of evolution) of the LibreTexts Biology textbook

You may Scan this Qr Code for this learning Resources

 LEARNING CHECK

Directions: Answer the following questions BRIEFLY using the concepts that
you have understood above. You may find a partner from your classmates to help you discuss
some of the following questions:

1. a. List down the three principles of natural selection as explained by Darwin (or from
the Cliffs Notes)
Answer:

b. Apply these 3 principles to a concrete example, specifically: the evolution of

antibiotic resistant bacteria or “Superbugs”. Explain how each postulate can apply to a
hypothetical population of bacteria that’s in the process of evolving into becoming
antibiotic resistant.
Answer: _

2. Explain genetic drift in your own words. Why is genetic drift a stronger force in
smaller populations?
 Answer:

3. What sort of traits are likely to spread via natural selection? What sort of traits are
likely to spread via genetic drift?

Answer:

Real-life Connections
Directions: Read this Timely article from the Understanding Evolution website: “Is
the coronavirus’ ability to spread evolving... or not?”
https://evolution.berkeley.edu/evolibrary/news/201005_covid19

Or you may scan here:

DIG DEEPER:
1. [based on the Understanding Evolution article] Since the beginning of the pandemic,
the D614G mutation has become more common. Does this mean that coronavirus has
evolved over the last nine months? Explain.
Answer: _ _

_
.
 2. What are two possible explanations for the rise of the D614G mutation over time?
Explain in your own words.
Answer: _

What I HAVE LEARNED: TRUE/ FALSE

Directions: Read each statement below carefully. Place a T on the line if you think
the statement is TRUE. Place an F on the line if you think the statement is FALSE.

_1. Organisms were probably more complex during past eras.

_2. Modern organisms descended from common ancestors.
_3. Fossils from the uppermost rock are most like current forms.
_4. Vestigial organs are structures that are no longer necessary for survival and are
thus gradually becoming nonfunctional and reduced in size.
_5. Developmental mechanisms are unique for every different type of life and share
no commonalities.
_6. Evolution occurs in Cells.
_7. Mutations give rise to new alleles that may be harmful or beneficial.
_8. Gene flow contributes to evolution by introducing new alleles into a
population.
_9. Disruptive selection happens when the environment favors extreme types in a
population at the expense of intermediate forms.
_10. In order for speciation to occur, there must be a change in climate.
Reflective JOURNAL:
Directions: Complete the following phrases/sentences with your insights regarding
what you have learned in this lesson. Use the space provided.

1. I used to think that evolution is_

_

,but I’ve realized that

2. Because of these (realizations in #1, I will

3. For these lessons, I still wish

_
because

4. I end this course thinking or feeling__ _

because_

.
 What I CAN DO:

tionary Thought . Our you may scan here:

Evolutionary thought. In your timeline, BRIEFLY explain (using your own words how each Scientist differ or support their own c
 Lesson 4
Basic Taxonomic Concepts

What’s IN: THINK LIKE LINNAEUS!

When you see an organism that you have never seen

before, you probably group it with other, similar organisms
without even thinking about it. You would probably classify it
on the basis of obvious physical characteristics. For example, if
an organism is green and has leaves, no doubt you would
classify it as a plant.
However, Scientists have explored different ways on
how to classify organisms starting from the father of
Taxonomy, Carolus Linnaeus! It helped a lot in describing,
naming, identifying, and classifying organisms. Today there are Source:https://ucmp.berk
so many significant applications and explorations on how to eley.edu/history/images/l
classify organisms based on their genomic/DNA sequences. i nnaeus.jpg
These helped a lot in understanding each organism’s place in
the convoluted tree of life.

What’s MORE
4.1 Basics of Classification (Taxonomy
Contributions of Linnaeus

Earth today is home to more than 8 million different

species. This number is constantly changing, however,
as new species are discovered at an outstanding
rate. Biologists called taxonomists have devised a
carefully developed scheme to organize these myriad
species. In the mid-1700s, Carolus Linnaeus (1707-
1778) is called the “father of taxonomy,” a Swedish
physician and botanist, published several books in
which he described thousands of plant and animal
species. Linnaeus grouped the species according to
their reproductive parts and
Figure 12 : Linnaean Classification
System.
Source: https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/
developed the two-part binomial taxonomy system of Linnaeus’s work remains valid. It has been
combined with the work of Charles Darwin in the field of evolution to form the foundation of
modern taxonomy. Darwin’s theory of evolution states that all modern species are derived from
earlier species and that all organisms, past and present, share a common ancestry. Darwin’s
theory of evolution, which has become a unifying theme in biology, is the organizing principle of
modern taxonomy.

“You may already be familiar with the classification system Linnaeus

introduced.”
Linnaean Classification System

You can see the main categories, or taxa (taxon, singular), of the Linnaean system in
Figure 12 an example, the figure applies the Linnaean system to classify our own species,
Homo sapiens. Although the Linnaean system has been revised, it forms the basis of modern
classification systems.

The broadest category in the Linnaean system is the kingdom. Figure 12 which shows the
Animal Kingdom because Homo sapiens belongs to that kingdom. Other kingdoms include the
Plant Kingdom, Fungus Kingdom, and Protist Kingdom.

Kingdoms are divided, in turn, into phyla (phylum, singular). Each phylum is divided into
classes, each class into orders, each order into families, and each family into genera
(genus, singular). Each genus is divided into one or more species. The species is
the narrowest category in the Linnaean system. A species is defined as a group of organisms
that can breed and produce fertile offspring together.

Binomial Nomenclature
Linnaeus is also famous for his method of naming species, which is still used today. The
method is called binomial nomenclature. Every species is given a unique two-word name.
Usually written in Latin, it includes the genus name followed by the species name. Both names
are always written in italics, and the genus name is always capitalized. For example, the human
species is named Homo sapiens. The species of the family dog is named Canis familiaris.

Coming up with a scientific naming method may not seem like a big deal, but it really is.
Prior to Linnaeus, there was no consistent way to name species. Names given to organisms by
scientists were long and cumbersome. Often, different scientists came up with different names
for the same species. Common names also differed, generally from one place to another. A
single, short scientific name for each species avoided a lot of mistakes and confusion.
 System of Classification

Taxonomists classify organisms in a way that reflects their biological ancestry. Because
the ancestral relationships are complex, the taxonomic schemes are also complex and often the
subject of revision. Despite their complexity, the taxonomic schemes provide considerable
insight into the unity and diversity of life. The term “classification” is synonymous with the word
“taxonomy.”

All organisms in the living world are classified and named according to an international
system of criteria that dates to the early part of the twentieth century. The rules of classification
establish a procedure to be followed when a new species is identified and named. (The rules of
classification apply only to formal scientific names, not to common names.)

The scientific name of any organism, called the binomial name, has two elements. For
example, humans have the binomial name Homo sapiens. The name of any species is two
words: the name of the genus, followed by the species modifier. For humans, Homo is the genus
and sapiens is the species modifier. The genus name is generally a noun, while the species
modifier is an adjective. Thus, Homo sapiens literally translates as “human knowing” (or, more
simply, “intelligent human.”

The generally accepted criterion for defining a species is that organisms of the same
species interbreed under natural conditions to yield fertile offspring. Individuals of different
species normally do not mate. If they are forced to mate, either the mating is unsuccessful or the
offspring are sterile. For example, a horse (Equus caballus) can be mated to a donkey (Equus
assinus), and the result will be a mule. However, mules are sterile and cannot reproduce. Thus,
the horse and donkey are classified as different species. A quarter horse and a thoroughbred can
mate and produce a fertile offspring. Therefore, both are classified as the same species: Equus
caballus.

For humans, there is only one living species: Homo sapiens. However, in past ages,
other species, such as Homo erectus, may have coexisted with Homo sapiens. Homo
erectus is considered a separate species because presumably it could not mate with Homo
sapiens.

The classification scheme provides a mechanism for bringing together various species
into progressively larger groups. Taxonomists classify two species together in the same genus
(the plural is genera). For example, the horse Equus caballus and the donkey Equus assinus
are both placed in the genus Equus. Similar genera are brought together to form a family.
Similar families are classified within an order. Orders with similar characteristics are grouped
in a class. Related classes are grouped together as divisions or phyla (the singular is
phylum). Divisions are used for plants and fungi, while phyla are used for animals and animal-
like organisms. The largest and broadest category used to be the kingdom, but this has been
usurped by the taxonomic category domain.
 The classification of a human shows how the classification scheme works. Working from
the top down, the human is classified first in the domain Eukarya because it is composed of
eukaryotic cells. Next is kingdom Animalia because it has the properties of animals. Animals are
then divided into at least 38 phyla, one of which is Chordata. Members of this phylum all have
backbones at some time in their lives.

Members of the phylum Chordata are then subdivided into various classes. Humans
belong to the class Mammalia, together with other mammals (all of which possess
mammary glands and nurse their young). The Mammalia are then divided into several orders,
one of which is Primata. Humans belong to the order Primata along with other primates, such
as gorillas and monkeys. The order Primata is subdivided into several families, one of which
is Hominidae, the family that includes humans and humanlike creatures. Within the family of
Hominidae is the genus Homo, which includes several species. One of
these species is Homo sapiens. (Source:
https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/biology/biology/the-unity-and-diversity-of-
life/basics-of-classification-taxonomy)

LEARNING CHECK

Directions: Answer the following questions BRIEFLY using the concepts that
you have understood above. You may find a partner from your classmates to help you discuss
some of the following questions:

1. What is Taxonomy and why is it Important?

Answer: Taxonomy or Scientific classification
could be a consider of different species of plants and creatures that are valuable in horticulture, ranger
service, Industry and in common it illuminated our bio-resources and their differences. Taxonomy is
important since it places microorganism in significant, valuable bunches with exact names so that
microbiologist can work with them and communicate proficiently.

_.

2. List the taxa in Linnaeus’ system of classification, from the broadest taxon to the
narrowest taxon
Answer: The text taxa in Linnaeus are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family,
genus, and species. _

_ .
DIG DEEPER:
What are the two (2) major contributions made by Carolus Linnaeus to taxonomy
and explain your answers using concrete examples (bullet form is OK).

Answer: To begin with

a various leveled classification framework where sections are organize based on a
few various leveled structure it incorporates kingdom, phylum, course, arrange, family,
class, and species. Moment the framework of binomial classification where the title of an
life form comprise of two words in latin. The primary word particular title and the moment
word is the bland title for binomial classification.

4.2 Kingdoms of Living Things

Source:https://science4fun.info/wp-
content/uploads/2020/04/kingdoms.jpg

57 | P a g e
 In his classification scheme,
Linnaeus recognized only two kingdoms
of living things: Animalia and Plantae.
At the time, microscopic organisms had
not been studied in detail. Either they
were placed in a separate category called
Chaos or, in some cases, they were
classified with plants or animals. Then in
the 1860s, the German investigator Ernst
Haeckel proposed a three-kingdom
system of classification. Haeckel’s
three kingdoms were Animalia, Plantae,
and Protista. Members of the kingdom
Protista included the protozoa, fungi,
bacteria, and other microorganisms.
Haeckel’s system was not widely
accepted, however, and microorganisms
continued to be classified as plants (for
example, bacteria and fungi) or animals
(for example, protozoa).

58 | P a g e
 In 1968, Robert Whittaker devised a system that was widely accepted by biologists for
many years. Whittaker’s classification scheme recognized five kingdoms: Monera,
Protista, Fungi, Plantae, and Animalia. Even though kingdoms Fungi, Plantae, Animalia,
and, to a lesser extent, Protista remain intact today, kingdom Monera is no longer considered a
valid category after genetic work shed new light on its phylogenic relatedness.

In the 1970s, genetic comparisons using small-subunit ribosomal RNA highlighted a

major problem with grouping all prokaryotic cells together under the single kingdom of
Monera. Some prokaryotic cells once considered bacteria were more closely related to
eukaryotes. This required a larger phylogenic category to be created: the domain. Two of the
three domains contain prokaryotic cells (domains Bacteria and Archaea), and all eukaryotic
organisms reside under domain Eukarya.

Comparison of the three domains of life

Trait Archaea Bacteria Eukarya

Yes except for many

Multicellularity No No
protists

Yes for plants, fungi,

Yes Yes
and some protists

Cell Wall Without With

No for animals and
peptidoglycan peptidoglycan
other protists

Cell Nucleus (DNA inside a

No No Yes
membrane)

Cell Organelles (other structures

No No Yes
inside membranes)

Table 1: The Archaea Domain includes only the Archaea Kingdom, and the Bacteria Domain includes
only the Bacteria Kingdom. The Eukarya Domain includes the Animal, Plant, Fungus, and Protist Kingdoms .
Source: https://www.ck12.org/book/ck-12-life-science-for-middle-school/section/2.3/

Domain Bacteria includes the vast majority of “everyday prokaryotes,” the ones we
interact with on a daily basis. This includes pathogenic strains that cause diseases and beneficial
species that populate our foods and inhabit our bodies. Domain Archaea, on the other hand,
includes those prokaryotes that prefer to live in very extreme environments, reminiscent of early
Earth conditions (thus their name, the “archaic” prokaryotes). The third domain includes all life
composed of eukaryotic cells. This vast array of life includes kingdoms Protista, Fungi, Plantae,
and Animalia.

59 | P a g e
 Kingdom Protista has itself been under intense revision, though it is still referred to as
its own kingdom. The protists include protozoa, algae, and slime molds. The cells of these
organisms are eukaryotic. They can be either unicellular or multicellular, and they may be
autotrophic or heterotrophic. Eukaryotic organisms have a nucleus and membrane-bound
organelles in their cytoplasm, possess multiple chromosomes, have large ribosomes, and
reproduce by mitosis.

The kingdom Fungi includes the yeasts, molds, mildews, mushrooms, and other similar
organisms. The cells of this kingdom are eukaryotic and heterotrophic. Yeasts are unicellular,
whereas other species form long chains of cells and are called filamentous fungi.
A cell wall strengthened by chitin is found in most members. Food is taken in by the absorption
of small molecules from the external environment; thus, fungi are deemed absorptive
heterotrophs.

The next kingdom is Plantae. Classified here are the mosses, ferns, and seed-producing and
flowering plants. All plant cells are eukaryotic and autotrophic. The organisms synthesize their
own foods by photosynthesis, and their cell walls contain cellulose. All the organisms are
multicellular.

The final kingdom, Animalia, includes animals. Animals without backbones (invertebrates) and
with backbones (vertebrates) are included here. The cells are eukaryotic; the organisms are
heterotrophic. All animals are multicellular, and none has cell walls. In the kingdom Animalia,
biologists classify such organisms as sponges, hydras, worms, insects, starfish, reptiles,
amphibians, birds, and mammals. The feeding form is one in which large molecules from the
external environment are consumed and then broken down to usable parts in the animal body.

(Source:https://www.cliffsnotes.com/study-guides/biology/biology/the-unity-and-
diversity-of-life/kingdoms-of-living-things)

Directions: Answer the following

LEARNING questions using the concepts that you have learned
CHECK
above. You may find a partner from your classmates to help you discuss some of the following
questions:

1. Which kingdom is no longer valid?

a. Fungi b. Monera c. Protista
 2. Anomalies in what genetic trait lead to splitting up the prokaryotes into two
separate domains?

a. Chromosomal DNA b. Mitochondrial DNA c. Ribosomal DNA

3. Two of the three domains contain what sort of organism?

a. Animals b. Eukaryotes c. Prokaryotes

4. Why are Archaea bacteria considered “archaic”?

a. They are descendants of prokaryotes that lived on early Earth.
b. They live a long time
c. They weren’t discovered until late in their evolutionary history.

DIG DEEPER
Discuss the different ways of classifying living organisms from the first
classification as plant and animal kingdom.

Answer: The classification of living things incorporates 7 categories

which are kingdoms, phylum, course, arrange, family, class and species. It
called classifications when the bunches are collectively specialized. The littler
bunches are on more debailed similitudes inside each bigger gather. By this
gathering framework it make less demanding for researcher to think about
certain bunches of life form. To include up in conclusion all living being are
classified into bunches based on exceptionally basic.
 4.3 Principles of Classification
Not surprisingly, biologists also classify organisms into different categories mostly by
judging degrees of apparent similarity and difference that they can see. The assumption is that
the greater the degree of physical similarity, the closer the biological relationship.5

On discovering an unknown organism, researchers begin their classification by looking

for anatomical features that appear to have the same function as those found on other species.
The next step is determining whether or not the similarities are due to an independent
evolutionary development or to descent from a common ancestor. If the latter is the case, then
the two species are probably closely related and should be classified into the same or near
biological categories.5

1. Homologies- are anatomical features, of

different organisms, that have a similar
appearance or function because they were Human arm bones
inherited from a common ancestor that also
had them. For instance, the forelimb of a bear, (common bird,
the wing of a bird, and your arm have the mammal, and
same functional types of bones as did our reptile
shared reptilian forelimb
ancestor. Therefore, these bones configuration)
are homologous structures. The more homologies two organisms possess, the more
likely it is that they have a close genetic relationship.5

2. There can also be nonhomologous structural similarities between species. In these cases,
the common ancestor did not have the same anatomical structures as its descendants.
Instead, the similarities are due to independent development in the now separate
evolutionary lines. Such misleading similarities are called homoplasies .
Homoplastic structures can be the result of parallelism, convergence, or mere chance.5

3. Parallelism- or parallel evolution, is a similar evolutionary development in different

species lines after divergence from a common ancestor that did not have the characteristic
but did have an initial anatomical feature that led to it. For instance, some South
American and African monkeys evolved relatively large body sizes independently of each
other. Their common ancestor was a much smaller monkey but was otherwise
reminiscent of the later descendant species. Apparently, nature
 selected for larger monkey bodies on both continents during the last 30 million years.5

4. Convergence or convergent evolution, is the development of a similar anatomical

feature in distinct species lines after divergence from a common ancestor that did not
have the initial trait that led to it. The common ancestor is usually more distant in time
than is the case with parallelism. The similar appearance and predatory behavior of North
American wolves and Tasmanian wolves (thylacines) is an example. The former is a
placental mammal like humans and the latter is an Australian marsupial like kangaroos.
Their common ancestor lived during the age of the dinosaurs 125 million years ago and
was very different from these descendants today. There are, in fact, a number of other
Australian marsupials that are striking examples of convergent evolution with placental
mammals elsewhere.5

Australian Tasmanian wolf or tiger

North American wolf
(now extinct)

Both parallelism and convergence are thought to be due primarily to separate species
lines experiencing the same kinds of natural selection pressures over long periods of
time.

6. Analogies- are anatomical features that have the same form or function in different
species that have no known common ancestor. For instance, the wings of a bird and a
butterfly are analogous structures because they are superficially similar in shape and
function. Both of these very distinct species lines solved the problem of getting off of the
ground in essentially the same way. However, their wings are quite different on the
inside. Bird wings have an internal framework consisting of bones, while butterfly wings
do not have any bones at all and are kept rigid mostly through fluid pressure. Analogies
may be due to homologies or homoplasies, but the common ancestor, if any, is
unknown.5
 Figure 13 : Concepts of homology, parallelism, convergence, and analogy. Source:
https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/animal/animal_2.htm

This website has several

examples to show how
appearances can be
misleading in understanding
the phylogenetic
PROBLEMS IN CLASSIFYING ORGANISMS relationships of organisms.

Listing characteristics that distinguish one species from another has the effect of making
it appear that the species and their distinctive attributes are fixed and eternal. We must always
keep in mind that they were brought about by evolutionary processes that operated not merely at
some time in the distant past, but which continue to operate in the present an d can be expected to
give rise to new forms in the future. Species are always changing. As a consequence, they are
essentially only a somewhat arbitrarily defined point along an evolutionary line.5

It is also important to realize that most species are

physically and genetically diverse. Many are far more varied than
humans. When you think of an animal, such as the jaguar shown on
the right, and describe it in terms of its specific traits (fur color
patterns, body shape, etc.), it is natural to generalize and to think of
all jaguars that way. To do so, however, is to ignore the reality of
diversity in nature.5 Jaguar
Another problem in classifying a newly discovered organism is in determining the
specific characteristics that actually distinguish it from all other types of organisms. There is
always a lively debate among researchers over defining new species because it is not obvious
what are the most important traits. There are two schools of thought in resolving this dilemma.
The first defines new species based on minor differences between organisms. This is the splitter
approach. The second tends to ignore minor differences and to emphasize major similarities.
This lumper approach results in fewer species being defined. Ideally, this dispute could be
settled by breeding experiments--if two
organisms can mate and produce fertile offspring, they are probably members of the same
species. However, we must be careful because members of very closely related species can
sometimes produce offspring together, and a small fraction of those may be fertile. This is the
case with mules, which are the product of mating between female horses and male
donkeys. About one out of 10,000 mules is fertile. Does this mean that horses and donkeys
are in the same species? Whatever the answer may be, it is clear that species are not absolutely
distinct entities, though by naming them, we implicitly convey the idea that they are.5

Breeding experiments are rarely undertaken to determine species boundaries because of

the practical difficulties. It is time consuming and wild animals do not always cooperate. Using
this kind of reproductive data for defining species from the fossil record is impossible since we
cannot go back in time to observe interspecies breeding patterns and results. Likewise, we
cannot carry out a breeding experiment between ourselves and our ancestors from a million years
ago. Comparisons of DNA sequences are now becoming more commonly used as an aid in
distinguishing species. If two animals share a great many DNA sequences, it is likely that
they are at least closely related. Unfortunately, this usually does not conclusively tell us
that they are members of the same species. Therefore, we are still left with morphological
characteristics as the most commonly used criteria for identifying species differences.5
Scan here if you want to understand more on how DNA sequencing are used in classifying living things

The Linnaean scheme for classification of living things lumps organisms together based
on presumed homologies. The assumption is that the more homologies two organisms share, the
closer they must be in terms of evolutionary distance. Higher, more inclusive divisions of the
Linnaean system (e.g., phylum and class) are created by including together closely related
clusters of the immediately lower divisions. The result is a hierarchical system of
classification with the highest category consisting of all living things. The lowest category
consists of a single species. Each of the categories above species can have numerous
subcategories. In the example below, only two genera (plural of genus) are listed per family
but there could be many more or only one.5

Order

family Family

Genus genus genus Genus

species species species species species species species species

Most researchers today take a cladistics approach to classification. This involves

making a distinction between derived and primitive traits when evaluating the importance of
homologies in determining placement of organisms within the Linnaean classification system.
Derived traits are those that have changed from the ancestral form and/or function. An example
is the foot of a modern horse. Its distant early mammal
ancestor had five digits. Most of the bones of these digits have been fused together in horses
giving them essentially only one toe with a hoof. In contrast, primates have retained the primitive
characteristic of having five digits on the ends of their hands and feet. Animals sharing a great
many homologies that were recently derived, rather than only ancestral, are more likely to have a
recent common ancestor. This assumption is the basis of cladistics.5

LEARNING CHECK

Directions: Answer the following questions using the concepts that you have
understood above. You may find a partner from your classmates to help you discuss some of
the following questions:

1. What are the different principles used in classifying organisms?

Answer: The different principle used in classifying organism are homologies,
homoplazies parallelism, convergence and analogies.

2. How do each Principle differ from one another? Explain using a concrete example.
Answer: The diverse between each rule from ano another is that how they
contributed to the environment. Life form are assembled together based on their
one of a kind characteristics.

3. Why do Most researchers today take a cladistics approach to classification? What

are its advantages and disadvantages?
Answer: Cladistics could be a biological classification framework based on
examination of characteristics that makes a difference to created modern
species. Most analyst these days take a cladistics approach to classification
since it incorporates making refinement between determined and primitive
characteristics when assessing significance of homologies in deciding situation
of life form inside the Linnaean classification framework, but on the other side it
has it's possess advantage and drawback which is the advantage is it has no
inclinations and the result can be replicated finally the drawbacks of cladistics is
thay the parallel advancement, can lead to misinterpretation, reversal on
character states can happen conjointly it is time expending.

__
 4. How do DNA sequences are used in classifying living things?

Answer: Researcher see the DNA grouping of the life form and differentiate it
with other living living being, at the point when it's free we utilize hereditary
information to decide how living things are distinguished with one another.

What I HAVE LEARNED: VENN DIAGRAM

Directions: Create a Venn Diagram to differentiate the 3-Domain Scheme from the 5-
Kingdom Scheme of classification of living things.
Reflective JOURNAL:
Directions: Complete the following phrases/sentences with your insights regarding
what you have learned in this lesson. Use the space provided.

1. The Basic Concepts and Principles of Taxonomy are

Answer: Domain kingdom, phylum, Class, order, family, genus, and species.

_.

2. I realized that DNA sequences are used in classifying living organisms by means of…
Deciding society on the off chance that they have species. Moreover the researcher
compares DNA arrangements from diverse life form it measures the number of
changing between them to induce on the off chance that species are closely or remotely
deviated.

_.

3. In order to identify the unique/distinctive characteristics of a specific taxon relative to

other taxa, taxonomists use…

DNA groupings since it truly makes a difference researcher to decide on the off chance
that they have found unused species. DNA arrangement is additionally compared from
distinctive life form.

4. If I were to describe species’ diversity and cladistics it would be…

Measuring instruments, Species differences is measured throughy deteemining the numbee of
species and cladistics csn be utilized to degree and follow parentage to shared common
precursor
 __

.
5. The types of evidence and procedures that can be used to establish evolutionary
relationships are…

_ DNA, Protein structure, fossils, Early advancement and body structure to decide the
developmental connections among species. DNA and protein groupings have affirmed
conclusions based on prior prove.

6.) This lesson made me think/feel that…

Taxonomy or Scientific classification can truly classify all living things and scientific
categorization employments progressive classification as a way of offer assistance to researcher
not as it were to get it but moreover to organize the differences of life on our planet

7.) In General, this lesson made me… Gain knowledge about taxonomy and In general it gives
me more idea of what’s happening around me and how living organism are classified.
What I CAN DO:

Enrichment Activities
Direction: Visit these useful links to help you understand more concepts on Evolution.
Introduction to Evolution 101: Games:

Or you may scan here

Then do the following:

Prepare a list of the three concepts in this topic that you are most interested with.
Discuss why you are interested with those selected concepts.
Compile discussion labelled as Assignment 4.1 in your Gen. Biology- 1 Journal.
Summary:

The four (4) lessons have helped us to understand how DNA contains specific
instructions for an organism to create several proteins, it is useful to define another sub- unit of
DNA called genes. It made us realize that DNA has been used for thousands of researches
which includes manipulation of DNA to alter an organism’s genome. This process is known as
genetic engineering which begins the same way for any organism being modified.

Nowadays, the number of applications for genetic engineering are increasing, as more
and more learned about the genomes of different organisms. This has resulted to numerous
positive applications from disease-resistance plants to longer shelf life. However, despite its
significant applications, countless ethical issues have also been considered. Some opposes it
but there are also who supports it.

Scientists use the geologic time scale to illustrate the order in which events on Earth
have happened. The geologic time scale was developed after scientists observed changes in the
fossils going from oldest to youngest sedimentary rocks. The geologic time scale is divided
into eons, eras, periods, and epochs. Every living organism are unique on such age with
defining characteristics but still share the common descent.

To investigate the concepts of evolution, scientists use different lines of evidence. Each
evidence shreds light to discovering new species and classifying them in the tree of life.
Various evidence also supports the characteristics and origin of species like for instance
Biogeography, which separates species in different geographic location that makes each
species unique and diverse.

Four factors can change the allele frequencies of a population: Natural selection works
by selecting for alleles that confer beneficial traits or behaviors, while selecting against those
for deleterious qualities. Mutations introduce new alleles into a population. Genetic drift stems
from the chance occurrence that some individuals have more offspring than others and results
in changes in allele frequencies that are random in direction. When individuals leave or join
the population, allele frequencies can change as a result of gene flow. These mechanisms of
evolution help us understand overall how Evolution happens on a large and small scale.

The science of classifying living things is called taxonomy. To make living things to
make sense of biodiversity and how living things are related, Linnaeus introduced the
classification system that forms the basis of modern classification. Taxa in the Linnaean system
include the kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus, and species. Linnaeus also developed
binomial nomenclature for naming species. More recently, scientists have added the domain to
the Linnaean system of classification. The domain is a broader taxon than the kingdom. There
are three widely recognized domains: Archaea, Bacteria, and Eukarya.
Assessment (Posttest)
Part A: MULTIPLE CHOICE
Direction: Read the following statements with comprehension and
understanding, then ENCIRCLE the letter of your CORRECT answer.

1. The development of a similar anatomical feature in distinct species that lines after
divergence from a common ancestor is called _ .
a. Parallelism b. Divergence c. Analogies d. Convergence

2. Which of the following IS NOT a Process or step used in Genetic Engineering?

a. Extracting the entire DNA from the organism.
b. Identifying an organism that contains a desirable gene.
c. Inserting the new gene to an existing organism's DNA.
d. Transporting molecules across membranes

3. It is the time of intensive evolution of terrestrial plants and animals.

a. Paleozoic Era b. Mesozoic Era c. Cenozoic Era d. Precambrian

4. What do you call is the circular piece of DNA used by the bacteria?
a. Nucleus b. Lysosome c. Plastids d. Plasmid

5. They are the largest intervals of geologic time and are hundreds of millions of years in
duration.
a. Eons b. Eras c. Periods d. Epochs

6. A large biomolecule that contains the complete genetic information for an organism.
a. DNA b. RNA c. Gene d. Nucleus

7. It is the most accepted theory in the disappearance of Dinosaurs during Mesozoic Era?
a. Competition & Predation c. Artificial Selection
b. Asteroid collision d. Intensive Evolution

8. It supports the theory of evolution because it shows a descent of modern organisms from
common ancestors.
a. Embryology b. Paleontology c. Biochemistry d. Geography

9. What is the driving force for evolution to happen?

a. Gene flow b. Natural selection c. Mutation d. Genetic drift

10. The following are the application of recombinant DNA EXCEPT

a. Faster growth b. Longer shell life c. Isolated Gene d. Improved nutrition
Part B: IDENTIFICATION
Directions: Read the following statements and Identify the following
concepts/terms/ideas. Write your answers in the space provided.

Vertical Organ 1. They are called as the useless organs or body parts.

Cladistics approach to classification 2. This involves making a distinction between derived and
primitive traits when evaluating the importance of homologies
in determining placement of organisms within the Linnaean
classification system.
Genetic engineering 3. The direct altering of an organism's genome.

4. Traits that have changed from the ancestral form and/or

functions.
Population 5. An interbreeding group of individuals of one species in a
given geographic area at the same time.
Morphological 6. They are the most commonly used criteria for identifying
species differences.
Species 7. They are group of individuals that share a number of
features and are able to interbreed with one another, producing
fertile (nonsterile) offspring.
Cenozoic era 8. "Age of Mammals" The diversification of flowering plants,
insects, birds and mammals, and the appearance of humans.
Natural selection 9. Occurs when populations of organisms are subjected to
the environment.
Kingdom 10. It is the broadest category in the Linnaean system.

Part C: TRUE or FALSE

Directions: Read the following statements with comprehension and
understanding, then write TRUE in the blank if the statements are correct and FALSE if
not.

False 1. Evolution happens on a large and small scale.

True 2. Evolution results in progress; organisms are always getting better through evolution.
True 3. Humans descended from monkeys.
False 4. The structure of the genetic code is almost different in all living things.
False 5. Evolution can cause an individual to change during their lifetime.
True 6. Humans are still evolving
False 7. The fossils from the uppermost rock layers are most likely the oldest forms.
True 8. Evolution and religion are not necessarily incompatible.
True 9. Evolution can happen slowly, over long periods of time.
True 10. The giraffe's long neck is an example of evolution.
References:
Book

[1] Hoefnagels, M. (2016). General Biology (Boooks I and II). Abiva Publishing
House, Inc., pp. 197

Online Resources:

[2] Cliff Notes.com (2021). Retrieved at Evidence for Evolution (cliffsnotes.com).

Date Retrieved: February 22, 2021

[3] CK-12 Curriculum Materials. (2021). Retrieved at Classification of Living Things

| CK-12 Foundation. Date Retrieved: February 22, 2021

[4] King, H.M. (2021). Retrieved at https://geology.com/time.htm. Date Retrieved:

February 20, 2021

[5] Palomar. Edu. (2021). Retrieved at Classification of Living Things: Principles of

Classification (palomar.edu). Date Retrieved: February 22, 2021

[6] Smithsonian Institution. (2021). Retrieved at

https://naturalhistory.si.edu/education/teaching-resources/life-science/early-life-earth- animal-
origins. Date Retrieved: February 22, 2021

[7] Teach Engineering. Org (2021). Introduction to Genetic Engineering and Its
Applications - Lesson - TeachEngineering. Date Retrieved: February 21, 2021

[8] https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a1/Genetic_engineering_logo.png
https://thumbs.dreamstime.com/z/young-casual-formal-male-character-sketch-pointing- pointer-
29952893.jpg

[9] http://www.ftexploring.com/me-images/greenalga.gif

[10] https://encryptedtbn0.gstatic.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcSWlg_cUEbOzgC4qHxGWei
bYsKRFSASUBo7pg&usqp=CAU

[11] https://i.guim.co.uk/img/media/598a7664bac2554b9bdbf17461d610ecbcc36e70/0
_10_1383_830/master/1383.jpg?width=1200&quality=85&auto=format&fit=max&s
=dbcc01a23a9ffadb019dbbaf9a2729ba

Notes from Prof. Juliana C. Baylon and Prof. Maria Celia Malay, University of the Philippines
Visayas, Iloilo City.