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Literature review on Design, Analysis and Fatigue Life of a Mechanical Spring

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 ISSN 0975-9638 (Print)
ISSN 2455-7110 (Online)

Global Sci-Tech
Al-Falah's Journal of Science & Technology
VOLUME - 8 NUMBER - 1 JANUARY-MARCH 2016
A -FA AH
UNIVERSITY
1997

CHIEF EDITOR
Prof. Z.H. ZAIDI

EDITORS
Prof. Khalil Ahmad
Global Sci-Tech., 8, 1 (1-60) January-March 2016

Prof. Z.A. Jaffery

Prof. Saoud Sarwar

EDITORIAL BOARD
Prof. Abdullah M. Jarrah, Jordan
Prof. Akhtar A. Khan, USA
Prof. Ash Mohd Abbas, India
Prof. Carlos Castro, USA
Prof. D. Bahuguna, India
Prof. H.P. Dikshit, India
Prof. H.R. Khan, Germany
Prof. Ishwar Singh, India
Prof. Lovely Agarwal, USA
Prof. M.S. Jamil Akhtar, India
Prof. Mohd Zulfiquar, India
Prof. Mohd. Sharif, India
Prof. Mursalin, India
Prof. Pankaj Maheshwari, USA
Prof. R.K. Pandey, India
Prof. R.M. Mehra, India
Prof. Tabrez Alam Khan, India
Prof. Vikram Kumar, India
Prof. Zahid A. Khan, India

Available at:
www.alfalahuniversity.edu.in
www.kurra.co.in

Published by
Al-Falah Charitable Trust, New Delhi
 CHIEF EDITOR
Prof. Z.H. ZAIDI

EDITORS
Prof. Khalil Ahmad
Al-Falah University, Faridabad

Prof. Z.A. Jaffery

Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi

Prof. Saoud Sarwar

Al-Falah University, Faridabad

EDITORIAL BOARD

Prof. Abdullah M. Jarrah, Jordan Prof. Mohd Zulfiquar, India

Prof. Akhtar A. Khan, USA Prof. Mohd. Sharif, India

Prof. Ash Mohd Abbas, India Prof. Mursalin, India

Prof. Carlos Castro, USA Prof. Pankaj Maheshwari, USA

Prof. D. Bahuguna, India Prof. R.K. Pandey, India

Prof. H.P. Dikshit, India Prof. R.M. Mehra, India

Prof. H.R. Khan, Germany Prof. Tabrez Alam Khan, India

Prof. Ishwar Singh, India Prof. Vikram Kumar, India

Prof. Lovely Agarwal, USA Prof. Zahid A. Khan, India

Prof. M.S. Jamil Akhtar, India

 Global Sci - Tech
Al-Falah’s Journal of Science & Technology

Volume 8 Number 1 January-March 2016

CONTENTS

1. A Review on-virtual Metrology Laboratory 1

Tasleem Ahmad and Ankita Agarwal

2. Literature review on Design, Analysis and Fatigue Life of a Mechanical Spring 7

S K Jha and Mohd. Parvez

3. Software Cost Estimation 15

Huda Saif

4. Security of Routing Protocols in MANETs: A Survey 22

Sher Jung and Rajinder kumar

5. Comparative study of Agile Business Intelligence and Agile Data Warehouse 37

Md. Deedar Shamsi

6. Intelligent Web Agent through Web Text Mining Techniques with Machine Learning 50
Md Barique Quamar

Owned and Published by J.A. Siddiqui (Chairman, Al-Falah Charitable Trust) -

Global Sci-Tech- 274-A, Al-Falah House, Jamia Nagar, Okhla, New Delhi-110 025.
Printed at Alpha Printers, WZ-35/C, Naraina, Ring Road, New Delhi-110 028.
Editors: Khalil Ahmad, Z.A. Jaffery and Saoud Sarwar, 274-A, Al-Falah House, Jamia Nagar,
New Delhi-110 025.
Global Sci-Tech, 8 (1) January-March 2016; Metrology
A Review on-virtual pp. 1-6 Laboratory
DOI No.: 10.5958/2455-7110.2016.00001.X

A Review on-virtual Metrology Laboratory

TASLEEM AHMAD1* and ANKITA AGARWAL2

1
Mechanical and Automation Engineering Department, Al-Falah University, Faridabad
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, CET-IILM-AHL, Greater Noida
*E-mail: tasleemahmad007@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

Measuring problems in Engineering need no introduction. From recent development

in computer field, it is very well understood that lack of awareness is one of the
contributing factors for huge errors. In order to increase the awareness about the
effects of measurement among professionals involved in industries construction, it
is necessary to make them understand the concepts of measurement in engineering.
To address this issue, some software companies (DCCC, The College of Davidson
and Davie Counties, The North Carolina, Advance Manufacturing Alliance.) have
developed a software tool named "Virtual Micrometer training Tool" "Virtual Calipers
Training Tool" for academic Laboratory. Using this tool, a person with some
knowledge of measurement in engineering can be able to learn by himself the
fundamentals of measurement. For convenience in explaining the concepts, we
divided this tool into two modules. Each module contains few experiments with
good G.U.I. In these experiments, user can find the explanation with virtual
instruments. At the end of module user can understand the measurement technique
of the machine parts. This software tool aims to help students, mechanical engineers
in understanding the principles of measurement.

Key words: measurement, virtual calipers training tool, Virtual micrometer.

1. INTRODUCTION industry-standard computer technologies

1.1. What Is Measurement and Virtual
Instrumentation?
You take measurements with
instruments. Instrumentation helps
science and technology progress. Scientists
and engineers around the world use
instruments to observe, control, and
understand the physical universe. Our
quality of life depends on the future of
instrumentation from basic research in life
sciences and medicine to design, test and
manufacturing of electronics, to machine
and process control in countless industries.
Virtual instrumentation is defined as
combining hardware and software with
to create user-defined instrumentation
solutions.
1.2. System Components for Taking
Measurements with Virtual Instru-
ments
Different hardware and software
components can make up your virtual
instrumentation system. Many of these
options are described in more detail
through manuals. There is a wide variety
of hardware components you can use to
monitor or control a process or test a device.
As long as you can connect the hardware
to the computer and understand how it
makes measurements, you can incorporate

1
 Tasleem Ahmad and Ankita Agarwal
it into your system.
1.3. History of Instrumentation
As a first step in understanding how
instruments are built, consider the history
of instrumentation. Instruments have
always made use of widely available
technology. In the 19th century, the jeweled
movement of the clock was first used to
build analog meters. In the 1930s, the
variable capacitor, the variable resistor, and
the vacuum tube from radios were used to
build the first electronic instruments.
Display technology from the television has
contributed to modern oscilloscopes and
analyzers. And finally, modern personal
computers contribute high-performance
computation and display capabilities at an
ever-improving performance-to-price ratio.
2. TRAINING TOOLS MODULES
For easy understanding of virtual
training tools, I have divided the tool in two
different modules. Name of different module
as listed below :
2.1. The Virtual Micrometer Training Tool
2.2 The Virtual Caliper Training Tool
2.1. The Virtual Micrometer Training
Tool
The simulation application is designed
to help educate and familiarize students
Fig. A1. Virtual Micrometer Training Tool
2
with the use of micrometer. Simulating the
operation of its real world counterpart to
exacting standards, this virtual micrometer
(Fig. A1) provides the opportunity to operate
a micrometer and learn its functions.
In addition to simulate the physical
function of the micrometer, it also provides
digital readouts of the current measured
location in eights and tenths of an inch. It
features both manual operation and a
snap-to-input system (Fig. A2 a) along with
barrel camera (Fig. A2 b) which allows the
user to specify an exact decimal measure-
ment. A built in mini manual (Fig. A4)
provides all the basic information need to
successfully operate The Micrometer
Training Tool, making it a great stand alone
training utility or an excellent in-class
educational aid.
Fig. A2 (a) Input Control
Fig. A2 (b) Barrel Camera
 A Review on-virtual Metrology Laboratory
2.1.1. Basic Functions
The Manual Control panel (Fig.A3 b) lets
you use the VM like you would in real life.
Course moves fast, Fine moves slowly but
accurately. The reset buttons snap the VM
to fully open or closed positions. The Cycle
Object button (Fig.A3 a) runs through a list
of objects you can measure, and then back
to nothing (empty)
Fig. A3 (a) Object Control Panel
Fig. A3 (b) Manual Control Panel
Fig. A4 Mini Manual
3
Special Restrictions :
• In order to cycle an object, the
micrometer must be fully open.
• You must not use Reset to Closed
while an object is present.
• Input measure must be between 0.0
and 1.0
• Input measure must be greater than
or equal to the size of the object loaded
into the micrometer.
Requirement :
Compatible with iPad. Requires iOS 4.3
or later, Size: 22.1 MB.
2.1.2. Least Count :
The working of all micrometers is based
on the use of a screw-and-nut mechanism
which transforms the rotary movement of
micrometer screw into axial movement. The
pitch of screw thread in all micrometers is
equal to 1/40". The tapered end of thimble
is provided with a circular scale having 25
divisions. Thus when rotated the thimble
moves along barrel by 1/40" per revolution.
When the thimble is rotated by one
division (i.e. 1/40 of a revolution) then the
 Tasleem Ahmad and Ankita Agarwal

Fig. B1 Virtual Caliper Training Tool

spindle moves axially by 1/40 × 1/25

=0.001".
It is the value of one division on the
thimble which is the least can be read
correctly with the help of a simple
micrometer, and is called the Least Count.

2.2. The Virtual Caliper Training Tool

The second tool in this series, The
Calipers Training Tool (CTT) is designed to Fig. B2 (a) Gauge Camera Fig. B2 (b) Rule Camera
help aid a student in the proper use of real
caliper measuring instrument. As with the
Micrometer Training Tool, the CTT is a
realistic simulation of an actual caliper tool,
working in the same manner as its real
world counterpart.
A free camera system allow the user to
pan around the work area and zoom in or
out, giving a better feeling of connection to
the tool as if it were in a work area. The
fixed Gauge (Fig. B2 a) and rule cameras (a). Input
(a). Object
(Fig. B2 b) provide consistent and accurate
measurement information, no matter where
the viewer may have focused his main view.
Usage is simulated by free interactive
measurement as well as a simulation mode
where the student can interact with two
objects measured in different ways each. A
"Ready-Check system is in place to avoid
overlapping inputs and prevent errors,
making the simulated caliper easy to use
and more intuitive to learn. (a). Main Camera

4
 A Review on-virtual Metrology Laboratory
Requirement :
Compatible with iPad. Requires iOS 4.3
or later, Size: 20.7 MB.
2.2.1. Least Count :
The dial caliper is consisting of main
scale with a circular dial. The dial carries
100 division equivalents to 0.1" of main
scale. The dial caliper is primarily intended
for measuring both inside and outside
diameter of shafts, thickness of parts etc.
to accuracy of 0.001".
3. MODULE "B" : THE VIRTUAL CALLI-
PER TRAINING TOOL EXPERIMENT
B1: Outer diameter measurement of disk.
5
4. CONCLUSIONS
In order to increase the awareness
about the virtual instrumentation among
professionals involved in measurement, it
is necessary to make them understand the
concepts of virtual measurements. To
address this issue, we have to develop
Virtual Measuring Training Tools or can
buy from the professionals supplying the
same. These are easy tools and cost
effective for trainee and users to under-
stand virtual measurement in a virtual
metrology lab. Total eight experiments were
explained to understand the fundamentals
of virtual measurements.
 Tasleem Ahmad and Ankita Agarwal
5. REFERENCES
[1] The Virtual Micrometer Training Tool
Davidson County Community
College (DCCC) and The North
Carolina Advance Manufacturing
Alliance (NCAMA). Updated: Jan 23,
2013. http://advancedmanufactur
ingalliance.org/ Date of access and
time : 20/03/2015 (10:30 pm).
[2] The Virtual Caliper Training Tool
Davidson County Community
College (DCCC) and The North
Carolina Advance Manufacturing
Alliance (NCAMA) Updated: Mar 19,
2013 http://advancedmanufactur
ingalliance.org/Date of access and
time : 20/03/2015 (10:30 pm)
[3] R. K. Jain, Engineering Metrology
6
Khanna Publishers, Delhi, 2009.
ISBN-13 9788174091536
[4] http://www.youtube.com/
watch?v=jNwiRLM3STA
[5] http://www.business-
standard.com/article/pti-stories/
super-technical-metrology-lab-
inuagurated-in-delhi-
115032700956_1.html, Date of
access and time: 20/03/2015
(10:40 pm)
[6] http://nptel.ac.in/courses/
112106138/2 date of access and
time: 20/03/2015 (10:40 pm)
[7] https://www.gov.uk/national-
measurement-system--2, Date of
access and time : 20/03/2015
(10:50 pm)
Global Sci-Tech,
Literature8review
(1) January-March 2016;and
on Design, Analysis pp.Fatigue
7-14 DOI
Life No.:
of a10.5958/2455-7110.2016.00002.1
Mechanical Spring

Literature review on Design, Analysis and

Fatigue Life of a Mechanical Spring

S K JHA1* and MOHD. PARVEZ2

1
Project Scientist, Indian Institute of Technology Delhi, INDIA
2
Mechanical Engineering Department, Al-Falah University, Faridabad
*E-mail: skj.iddc@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

In this paper are reviewed some papers on the design and analysis of spring
performance and fatigue life prediction of spring. There is also the analysis of
failure in spring. The aim of this paper is to represent a general study on the
analysis of spring. Compression springs are commonly used in the I.C. Engine
valves, 2 wheeler horn & many more and they are subjected to number of stress
cycles leading to fatigue failure. A lot of research has been done for improving the
performance of spring. Now the automobile industry has shown interest in the
replacement of steel spring with composite spring. In general, it is found that
fiberglass material has better strength characteristic and are lighter in weight as
compare to steel for spring. We can reduce product development cost and time
while improving the safety, comfort and durability of the vehicles produce. The
CAE tool has where much of the design verification is now done using computer
simulation rather than physical prototype testing.

Key words: Spring, finite element analysis, FEM, CAE tool.

1. INTRODUCTION safety. It has been reported by the

Springs are mainly used in the industry
as members absorbing shock energy as well
as for restoring the initial position of a part
upon displacement for initiating a given
function. Compression springs are coil
springs that resist a compressive force
applied axially. Compression springs may
be cylindrical, conical, tapered, concave or
convex in shape. Coil compression springs
are wound in a helix usually out of round
wire. Every two-wheeler has a provision
for a sounding a horn to be used while
communicating so as to warn the passer-
by of the approaching vehicle as well as a
signal for maintaining a safe distance or to
communicate for any other reasons for
warranty/ maintenance department that
frequent complaints are being received over
the failures of these springs well within
their intended life span. The springs must
be designed for reliability. The springs must
be designed to withstand the cyclic loading
during operation. Therefore in this
dissertation work it is proposed to carry out
the design and fatigue analysis of
compression spring used for Horn in a two-
wheeler so as to have better performance
in terms of longer life.
2. SOME OF THE IMPORTANT DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS IN SPRING WORK
To adhere to proper procedures and
design considerations, some of the

7
 S K Jha and Mohd. Parvez
important design considerations in spring
work are outlined here.
2.1 Selection of material for spring
construction
a. Space limitations : Do you have
adequate space in the mechanism to
use economical materials such as oil-
tempered ASTM A229 spring wire? If
your space is limited by design and you
need maximum energy and mass, you
should consider using materials such
as music wire, ASTM A228 chrome
vanadium or chrome silicon steel wire.
b. Economy : Will economical materials
such as ASTM A229 wire suffice for the
intended application?
c. Corrosion resistance : If the spring is
used in a corrosive environment, you
may select materials such as 17-7 PH
stainless steel or the other stainless
steels (301, 302, 303, 304, etc.).
d. Electrical conductivity : If you require
the spring to carry electric current,
materials such as beryllium copper and
phosphorous bronze are available.
e. Temperature range : Whereas low
temperatures induced by weather are
seldom a consideration, high-
temperature applications will call for
materials such as 301 and 302 stainless
steel, nickel chrome A286, 17-7 PH,
Inconel 600, and Inconel X750. Design
stresses should be as low as possible
for springs designed for use at high
operating temperatures.
f. Shock loads, high endurance limit,
and high strength : Materials such as
music wire, chrome vanadium, chrome
silicon, 17-7 stainless steel, and
beryllium copper are indicated for these
applications.
8
2.2 General spring design recommenda-
tions
a. Try to keep the ends of the spring, where
possible, within such standard forms as
closed loops, full loops to centre, closed
and ground, and open loops.
b. Pitch. Keep the coil pitch constant
unless you have a special requirement
for a variable pitch spring.
c. Keep the spring index [mean coil
diameter, between 6.5 and 10 wherever
possible. Stress problems occur when
the index is too low, and entanglement
and waste of material occur when the
index is too high.
d. Do not electroplate the spring unless it
is required by the design application.
The spring will be subject to hydrogen
embrittlement unless it is processed
correctly after electroplating.
Hydrogen embrittlement causes abrupt
and unexpected spring failures. Plated
springs must be baked at a specified
temperature for a definite time interval
immediately after electroplating to
prevent hydrogen embrittlement. For
cosmetic and minimal corrosion protection,
zinc electroplating is generally used,
although other plating such as chromium,
cadmium, and tin are also used as per the
application requirements. Die springs
usually come from the die spring
manufacturers with coloured enamel paint
finishes for identification purposes.
2.3 Special processing either during or
after manufacture
a. Shot penning improves surface
qualities from the standpoint of
reducing stress concentration points on
the spring wire material. This process
can also improve the endurance limit
 Literature review on Design, Analysis and Fatigue Life of a Mechanical Spring
and maximum allowable stress on the
spring.
b. Subjecting the spring to a certain
amount of permanent set during
manufacture eliminates the set problem
of high energy versus mass on springs
that have been designed with stresses
in excess of the recommended values.
This practice is not recommended for
springs that are used in critical
applications.
2.4 Stress considerations
Design the spring to stay within the
allowable stress limit when the spring is
fully compressed or "bo ttomed." This can
be done when there is sufficient space
available in the mechanism, and economy
is not a consideration. When space is not
available, design the spring so that its
maximum working stress at its maximum
working deflection does not exceed 40 to
45 percent of its minimum yield strength
for compression and extension springs and
75 percent for torsion springs. Remember
that the minimum tensile strength
allowable is different for differing wire
diameters; higher tensile strengths are
indicated for smaller wire diameters.
3. LITERATURE REVIEW
K. Michalczyk [1] The analysis of
elastomeric coating influence on dynamic
resonant stresses values in spring is
presented in this paper. The appropriate
equations determining the effectiveness of
dynamic stress reduction in resonant
conditions as a function of coating
parameters were derived. It was proved that
rubber coating will not perform in
satisfactory manner due to its low modulus
of elasticity in shear. It was also
demonstrated that about resonance areas
of increased stresses are wider and wider
9
along with the successive resonances and
achieve significant values even at large
distances from the resonance frequencies.
B. Pyttel, I. Brunner, et al. [2] Long-
term fatigue tests on shot peened helical
compression springs were conducted by
means of a special spring fatigue testing
machine at 40 Hz. Test springs were made
of three different spring materials - oil
hardened and tempe red SiCr- and SiCrV-
alloyed valve spring steel and stainless
steel. With a special test strategy in a test
run, up to 500 springs with a wire diameter
of d = 3.0 mm or 900 springs with d = 1.6
mm were tested simultaneously at different
stress levels. Based on fatigue
investigations of springs with d = 3.0 mm
up to a number of cycles N = 109 an
analysis was done after the test was
continued to N = 1.5 _ 109 and their results
were compared. The influence of different
shot peening conditions were investigated
in springs with d = 1.6 mm. Fractured test
springs were examined under optical
microscope, scanning electron microscope
(SEM) and by means of metallographic
microsections in order to analyse the
fracture behaviour and the failure
mechanisms. The paper includes a
comparison of the results of the different
spring sizes, materials, number of cycles
and shot peening conditions and outlines
further investigations in the VHCF-region..
For comparison the results for the springs
with d = 1.6 mm and d = 3.0 mm and Ps =
98% are summarised in Fig. 1. Except for
springs made of the stainless steel wire,
the fatigue strength of springs with d = 3.0
mm is higher than for springs with d = 1.6
mm. The size effect would imply higher
fatigue strength for smaller wire diameters.
Touhid Zarrin-Ghalami, Ali Fatemi [3]
Elastomeric components have wide usage
in many industries. The typical service
loading for most of these components is
 S K Jha and Mohd. Parvez

Fig. 1. Comparison of fatigue strength of springs made of various spring steel wires
with d = 1.6 mm and d = 3.0 mm at P5 = 98%.

variable amplitude and multiaxial. In this
study a general methodology for life
prediction of elastomeric components
under these typical loading conditions was
developed and illustrated for a passenger
vehicle cradle mount. Crack initiation life
prediction was performed using different
damage criteria. The methodology was
validated with component testing under
different loading conditions including
constant and variable amplitude in-phase
and out-of-phase axial-torsion experi-
ments. The optimum method for crack
initiation life prediction for complex
multiaxial variable amplitude loading was
found to be a critical plane approach based
on maximum normal strain plane and
damage quantification by cracking energy
density on that plane. Rain flow cycle
counting method and Miner's linear
damage rule were used for predicting
fatigue life under variable amplitude
loadings. The fracture mechanics approach
was used for total fatigue life prediction of
the component based on specimen crack
growth data and FE simulation results.
Total fatigue life prediction results showed
good agreement with experiments for all of
the loading conditions considered.
Wei Li, Tatsuo Sakai et al. [4] Very high
cycle fatigue (VHCF) properties of a newly
developed clean spring steel were
experimentally examined under rotating
bending and axial loading. As a result, this
steel represents the duplex S-N property
only for surface -induced failure under
rotating bending, whereas it represents the

10
 Literature review on Design, Analysis and Fatigue Life of a Mechanical Spring
single S-N property for surface-induced
failure and interior inhomogeneous
microstructure-induced failure under axial
loading. Surface small grinding defect-
induced failure is the predominant failure
mode of this steel in VHCF regime. The
surface morphology of the interior inhomo-
geneous microstructure with distinct
plastic deformation is much rougher than
that of the ambient matrix, which means
the stress concentration resulted from the
strain inconsistency between the micro
structural in homogeneity as soft phase and
the ambient matrix as hard phase plays a
key role in causing interior crack initiation.
Considering the effect of surface
compressive residual stress, the threshold
stress intensity factor for surface small
defect-induced crack propagation of this
steel is evaluated to be 2.04 MPam1/2,
which means that the short crack effect
plays a key role in causing the surface small
defect-induced failure of this steel in the
VHCF regime. From the viewpoint of defect
distribution, surface and interior failure
probabilities are equivalent under a fixed
characteristic value of defect density. If the
interior defect size is less than or even equal
to the surface defect size, surface defect-
induced failure will become the
predominant failure mode in VHCF regime,
especially under rotating bending.
Sid Ali Kaoua A, Kamel Taibi A et al.
[5] This paper presents a 3D geometric
modelling of a twin helical spring and its
finite element analysis to study the spring
mechanical behaviour under tensile axial
loading. The spiralled shape graphic design
is achieved through the use of Computer
Aided Design (CAD) tools, of which a finite
element model is generated. Thus, a 3D 18-
dof pentaedric elements are employed to
discrete the complex ''wired-shape" of the
spring, allowing the analysis of the
mechanical response of the twin spiralled
11
helical spring under an axial load. The
study provides a clear match between the
evolution of the theoretical and the
numerical tensile and compression normal
stresses, being of sinusoidal behaviour. The
overall equivalent stress isovalues
increases radially from 0_ to 180_, being
maximal on the internal radial zone at the
section 180_. On the other hand, the
minimum stress level is located in the
centre of the filament cross section.
B. Pyttel , D. Schwerdt, et al. [6 ] The
paper gives an overview of the present state
of research on fatigue strength and failure
mechanisms at very high number of cycles
(Nf > 107). Testing facilities are listed. A
classification of materials with typical S-N
curves and influencing factors like notches,
residual stresses and environment are
given. Different failure mechanisms which
occur especially in the VHCF-region like
subsurface failure are explained. There
micro structural in homogeneities and
statistical conditions play an important
role. A double S-N curve is suggested to
describe fatigue behaviour considering
different failure mechanisms. Investigated
materials are different metals with body-
centred cubic lattice like low- or high-
strength steels and quenched and
tempered steels but also materials with a
face-centred cubic lattice like aluminium
alloys and copper. Recommendations for
fatigue design of components are given.
Stefanie Stanzl-Tschegg [7] Ever since
high-strength steels were found to fail
below the traditional fatigue limit when
loaded with more than 108 cycles, the
investigation of metals' and alloys' very high
cycle fatigue properties has received
increased attention. A lot of research was
invested in developing methods and
machinery to reduce testing times. This
overview outlines the principles and testing
 S K Jha and Mohd. Parvez
procedures of very high cycle fatigue tests
and reports findings in the areas of crack
formation, non-propagating small cracks,
long crack propagation and thresholds.
Furthermore, superimposed and variable
amplitude loading as well as frequency
effects are reported.
Yuxin Penga, Shilong Wangb, et al. [8]
A stranded wire helical spring (SWHS) is a
unique cylindrically helical spring, which
is reeled by a strand that is formed of 2~16
wires. In this paper, a parametric modelling
method and the corresponding 3D model
of a closed-end SWHS are presented based
on the forming principle of the spring. By
utilizing a PC + PLC based model as the
motion control system, a prototype
machine tool is designed and constructed,
which improves the manufacturing of the
SWHS. Via the commercial CAD package
Pro/Engineering, numerical simulation is
carried out to test the validity of the
parametric modeling method and the
performance of the machine tool. The
scheme of the tension control system is
analyzed and the control mechanism is set
up, which have achieved the constant
tension of each wire. A human machine
interface is also proposed to achieve the
motion control and the tension control.
Experimental results show that the tension
control system is well-qualified with high
control precision.
A.Gonzalez Rodríguez, J.M. Chacon,
et al. [9] An adjustable-stiffness actuator
composed of two antagonistic non-linear
springs is proposed in this paper. The
elastic device consists of two pairs of leaf
springs working in bending conditions
under large displacements. Owing to this
geometric non-linearity, the global stiffness
of the actuator can be adjusted by
modifying the shape of the leaf springs. A
mathematical model has been developed in
order to predict the mechanical behaviour
12
of our proposal. The non-linear differential
equation derived from the model is solved,
obtaining large stiffness variations. A
prototype of the actuator was fabricated
and tested for different load cases.
Experimental results were compared with
numerical simulations for model
verification, showing excellent agreement
for a wide range of work.
Matjaz Mrsnik, Janko Slavic, et al.
[10] The characterization of vibration-
fatigue strength is one of the key parts of
mechanical design. It is closely related to
structural dynamics, which is generally
studied in the frequency domain, parti-
cularly when working with vibratory loads.
Fatigue-life estimation in the frequency
domain can therefore prove advantageous
with respect to a time-domain estimation,
especially when taking into consideration
the significant performance gains it offers,
regarding numerical computations. Several
frequency-domain methods for a vibration-
fatigue-life estimation have been developed
based on numerically simulated signals.
This research focuses on a comparison of
different frequency-domain methods with
respect to real experiments that are typical
in structural dynamics and the automotive
industry. The methods researched are:
Wirsching-Light, the a0.75 method, Gao-
Moan, Dirlik, Zhao-Baker, Tovo-Benasciutti
and Petrucci-Zuccarello. The experimental
comparison re searches the resistance to
close-modes, to increased background
noise, to the influence of spectral width,
and multi-vibration-mode influences.
Additionally, typical vibration profiles in the
automotive industry are also researched.
For the experiment an electro-dynamic
shaker with a vibration controller was used.
The reference-life estimation is the
rainflow- counting method with the
Palmgren-Miner summation rule. It was
foun d that the Tovo-Benasciutti method
 Literature review on Design, Analysis and Fatigue Life of a Mechanical Spring
gives the best estimate for the majority of
experiments, the only exception being the
typical automotive spectra, for which the
enhanced Zhao-Baker method is best
suited. This res earch shows that besides
the Dirlik approach, the Tovo- Benasciutti
and Zhao-Baker methods should be consid
ered as the preferred methods for fatigue
analysis in the frequency domain.
Nenad Gubeljaka, Mirco D. Chapettib,
et al. [11] High strength steel grade 51CrV4
in thermo-mechanical treated condition is
used as bending parabolic spring of heavy
vehicles. Several investigations show that
fatigue threshold for very high cycle fatigue
depends on inclusion's size and material
hardness. In order to determine allowed
size of inclusions in spring's steel the
Murakami's and Chapetti's model have
been used. The stress loading limit
regarding to inclusion size and applied
stress has been determine for loading ratio
R=-1 in form of S-N curves. Experimental
results and prediction of S-N curve by
model for given size of inclusion and R ratio
show very good agreement. Pre-stressing
and shot-penning causes higher compress
stress magnitude and consequently change
of loading ratio to more negative value and
additionally extended life time of spring.
4. CONCLUSIONS
From above papers it is to conclude
that rubber is not suitable material for
the coating due to too low value of its
modulus of elasticity in shear. Elastomeric
coating has a positive impact on the
reduction of dynamic stresses in the spring
but also contribute to lowering of resonant
frequencies. Shorter total life was observed
for out-of-phase loading compared to in-
phase loading at the same level for both
constant and variable amplitude loadings.
In finite element analysis of the mechanical
behaviour of the twin helical spring under
13
uniaxial tensile load is conducted &
findings are compared against those
obtained from a theoretical approach based
on a transformation of curvilinear
coordinates.
The characterization of the fatigue
properties of materials and components at
very high numbers of cycles necessitates a
careful selection of fatigue loading
machinery and measuring devices, as well
as a diligent application of testing and
evaluation procedures.
The present paper proposes a new
model of an adjustable-stiffness spring. The
proposed device has four leaf springs with
nonlinear elastic deformations. The
geometry of the leaf spring can be modified
by means of an electric motor that adjusts
the stiffness of the spring to the desired
value. This paper also proposes a
mathematical model that allows the leaf
springs to be dimensioned for every specific
purpose. A prototype of the spring has been
built and tested.
5. REFERENCES
[1] K. Michalczyk, Analysis of the
influence of elasto meric layer on
helical spring stresses in
longitudinal resonance vibration
conditions, archives of civil and
mechanical engineering, (2013).
[2] B. Pyttel, I. Brunner, B. Kaiser, C.
Berger and M. Mahendran, Fatigue
behaviour of helical compression
springs at a very high number of
cycles- Investigation of various
influences, International Journal of
Fatigue, (2013).
[3] Touhid Zarrin-Ghalami and Ali
Fatemi, Multiaxial,fatig ue and life
prediction of elastomeric compo-
nents, International Journal of
Fatigue, (2013).
 S K Jha and Mohd. Parvez
[4] Wei Li, Tatsuo Sakai, Masami
Wakitac and Singo Mimura,
Influence of microstructure and
surface defect on very high cycle
fatigue properties of clean spring
steel, International Journal of Fatigue,
(2013).
[5] Sid Ali Kaoua, Kamel Taibia,
Nacera Benghanem, Krimo
Azouaoui and Mohammed Azzaza,
Numerical modelling of twin helical
spring under tensile loading, Applied
Mathematical Modelling, (2011).
[6] B. Pyttel , D. Schwerdt and C.
Berger, "Very high cycle fatigue - Is
there a fatigue limit?, International
Journal of Fatigue, (2011).
[7] Stefanie Stanzl-Tschegg, Very high
cycle fatigue me asuring techniques,
International Journal of Fatigue,
(2013).
[8] Yuxin Penga, Shilong Wang, Jie
Zhou and Song Lei, Structural
14
design, numerical simulation and
control system of a machine tool for
stranded wire helical springs,
Journal of Manufacturing Systems,
(2012).
[9] A González Rodríguez, J.M.
Chacón, A. Donoso and A.G.
González Rodríguez, Design of an
adjustable-stiffness spring:
Mathematical modeling and
simulation, fabrication and
experimental validation, (2011).
[10] Matjaz Mrsnik, Janko Slavic and
Miha Boltezar, Fre quency-domain
methods for a vibration-fatigue-life
estimation - Application to real data,
Internat ional Journal of Fatigue
(2013).
[11] Nenad Gubeljaka, Mirco D.
Chapettib, Jozef Predana and
Bojan Sencic, Variation of Fatigue
Threshold of Spring Steel with
Prestressing, Procedia Engineering,
(2011).
Global Sci-Tech, 8 (1) January-March 2016;
Software Costpp. 15-21 DOI
Estimation No.: 10.5958/2455-7110.2016.00003.3

Software Cost Estimation

HUDA SAIF
Dux Concept, B-21, Jasola Vihar, New Delhi 110025
*E-mail: bloom.huda@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The development of a successfull software depends upon the accurate estimation,

as various factors are responsible for the overall assessment of any project. The
Sofware Cost Estimation is the most complicated and challenging task in software
industry. Many estimation models are introduced by the time, that concludes
estimation is not a precise science and demanding of new methodologies should be
proposed day by day. Software Cost Estimation of a project is vital to the acceptance
or rejection of the development of software project. Various techniques have been
introduced. This paper enlightens two categories of Software Cost Estimation
techniques ie Algorithimic and Non Algorithimic.This paper evaluates the Algorithmic
Models such as SLIM, COCOMO, Function Points and Non Algorithimic Models
such as Analogy,Expert Judgement which are used to estimate software costs.
Poor planning frequently leads to project failure and considerable outcomes for the
project team.Software project managers should be aware of the increasing of project
failures. In this paper, several existing methods for software cost estimation are
illustrated and their aspects will be discussed.

Key words: COCOMO, SLIM, Algorithimic.

1. INTRODUCTION • Project Planning and Control

As Software Engineers have expressed
concern over their inability to accurately
estimate costs associated with software
development. This concern has become
more crucial as costs associated with
development continue to increase. As a
result, considerable research attention is
now directed at gaining a better under-
standing of the software-development
process as well as constructing and
developing software cost estimation
techniques.
Software engineering cost estimation
techniques areused for a number of
purposes. These include:
• Budgeting
• Tradeoff and Risk analysis
• Software improvement investment
analysis
The software has one important
characteristic that its cost increases with
time that is as time grows the cost
increases. This section gives the
introduction of the paper.Section 2
introduces Estimation Techniques which
consists of Algorithimic and Non
Algorithimic models.Section 3 includes
Problem Identification that is problem
definition and solution.Section 4 includes
the Conclusion.
2. ESTIMATION TECHNIQUES
There are many models for software cost
estimation, which are divided into two

15
 Huda Saif

groups: Algorithmic and Non-algorithmic. FP = CFP × (0.65 + 0.01 × RCAF)

Using of the both groups is required for Relates to the following five software
performing the accurate estimation. If the components :
requirements are known better, their
• Number of user inputs.
performance would be better. Some popular
estimation methods are discussed below. • Number of user outputs.
• Number of user online queries.
2.1. Algorithimic Models • Number of logical files.
These models work on a special • Number of external interfaces.
algorithm. They need data at first and make Weighted factors are applied to each
results by using the mathematical components according to their complexity.
relations.Many software estimation
methods use these models. Algorithmic Table 1 : CFP Calculation Form
Models are classified into some different
Software system Complexity Level
models. Components
Simple Average Complex
2.1.1. Source line of code
User Inputs 3 4 6
SLOC is an estimation parameter that User Outputs 4 5 7
illustrates the number of all commands and User Online Queries 3 4 6
data definition but it does not include Logical Files 7 10 15
instructions such as comments, blanks, External Interfaces 5 7 10
and continuation lines. This parameter is
usually used as an analogy based on an Relative Complexity Adjustment
approach for the estimation. After Factor(RCAF) : Table below summarizes
computing the SLOC for software, its the complexity characteristics of the
amount is compared with other projects software system :
which their SLOC has been computed - assign grades (0 to 5) to the 14
before, and the size of project is estimated. subjects that substantially affect the
SLOC measures the size of project easily. development effort:
- RCAF = Σ(i=1 to 14) si
2.1.2. Function point estimates
The RCAF determines the technical
It was devised in 1979 by A. J. Albrecht, complexity factor (TCF) :
as a means of measuring software size and
TCF = 0.65 + 0.01 × RCAF
productivity.
FP = CFP × TCF
The function point estimation process
consists of : F1 Reliable back-up and recovery
F2 Distributed functions
Stage 1 : Compute the unadjusted F3 Heavily used configuration
(crude) function count (points) (UFC / CFP). F4 Operational ease
Stage 2 : Compute the relative F5 Complex interface
complexity adjustment factor (RCAF) for the F6 Reusability
project. RCAF varies between 0 and 70. F7 Multiple sites
F8 Data communications
Stage 3 : Compute the number of
F9 Performance
function points (FP). F10 Online data entry

16
 Software Cost Estimation
F11 Online update
F12 Complex processing
F13 Installation ease
F14 Facilitate change
2.1.3. COCOMO (Constructive Cost Model)
The COCOMO (COnstructive COst
MOdel) cost and schedule estimation model
was originally published in [Boehm 1981].
It became one of most popular parametric
cost estimation models of the 1980s. But
COCOMO '81 along with its 1987 Ada
update experienced difficulties in
estimating the costs of software developed
to new life-cycle processes and capabilities.
The COCOMO II research effort was started
in 1994 at USC to address the issues on
non-sequential and rapid development
process models, reengineering, reuse
driven approaches, object oriented
approaches, etc.
COCOMO II was initially published in
the Annals of Software Engineering in 1995
[Boehm et al. 1995]. The model has three
submodels :
• Applications Composition
• Early Design
• Post-Architecture
which can be combined in various ways to
deal with the current and likely future
software practices marketplace.
The Application Composition model is
used to estimate effort and schedule on
projects that use Integrated Computer
Aided Software Engineering tools for rapid
application development. These projects are
too diversified but sufficiently simple to be
rapidly composed from interoperable
components. Typical components are GUI
builders, database or objects managers,
middleware for distributed processing or
transaction processing, etc. and domain-
specific components such as financial,
medical or industrial process control
17
packages. The Applications Composition
model is 190 B. Boehm et al./Software
development cost estimation approaches -
A survey based on Object Points [Banker
et al. 1994; Kauffman and Kumar 1993].
Object Points are a count of the screens,
reports and 3 GL language modules
developed in the application. Each count
is weighted by a three-level; simple,
medium, difficult; complexity factor. This
estimating approach is commensurate with
the level of information available during the
planning stages of Application Composition
projects.
COCOMO II has some special features,
which distinguish it from other ones. The
Usage of this method is very wide and its
results usually are accurate.
2.1.4. Putnam’s Software Life-cycle Model
(SLIM)
Putnam's Software Life-cycle Model
(SLIM)
Larry Putnam of Quantitative Software
Measurement developed the Software Life-
cycle Model (SLIM) in the late 1970s
[Putnam and Myers 1992]. SLIM is based
on Putnam's analysis of the life-cycle in
terms of a so-called Rayleigh distribution
of project personnel level versus time. It
supports most of the popular size
estimating methods including ballpark
techniques, source instructions, function
points, etc. It makes use of a so-called
Rayleigh curve to estimate project effort,
schedule and defect rate. A Manpower
Buildup Index (MBI) and a Technology
Constant or Productivity factor (PF) are
used to influence the shape of the curve.
SLIM can record and analyze data from
previously completed projects which are
then used to calibrate the model; or if data
are not available then a set of questions
can be answered to get values of MBI and
PF from the existing database. In SLIM,
 Huda Saif
Fig. 1. The Rayleigh model
Productivity is used to link the basic
Rayleigh manpower distribution model to
the software development characteristics of
size and technology factors.
Productivity P, is the ratio of software
product size S and development effort E.
That is,
P = S/E
The Rayleigh curve used to define the
distribution of effort is modeled by the
differential equation
dy/dt= 2Kate-at2
An example is given in figure above
where K = 1:0, a = 0:02, td = 0:18 where
Putnam assumes that the peak staffing
level in the Rayleigh curve corresponds to
development time (td). Different values of
K, a and td will give different sizes and
shapes of the Rayleigh curve. Some of the
Rayleigh curve assumptions do not always
hold in practice (e.g., flat staffing curves
for incremental development; less than t4
effort savings for long schedule
stretchouts). To alleviate this problem,
Putnam has developed several model
adjustments for these situations.
18
2.2. Non Algorithmic Models
2.2.1. Analogy
In this method, several similar
completed software projects are noticed and
estimation of
effort and cost are done according to
their actual cost and effort. Estimation
based on analogy is accomplished at the
total system levels and subsystem levels.
By assessing the results of previous actual
projects, we can estimate the cost and
effort of a similar project.
The steps of this method are considered
as :
• Choosing of analogy.
• Investigating similarities and
differences.
• Examining of analogy quality.
• Providing the estimation.
2.2.2. Expert Judgment
Estimation based on Expert judgment
is done by getting advices from experts who
have extensive experiences in similar
projects. This method is usually used when
there is limitation in finding data and
gathering requirements.
Consultation is the basic issue in this
method. One of the most common methods
which works according to this technique,
is Delphi. Delphi arranges an especial
meeting among theproject experts and tries
to achieve the true information about the
project from their debates.
Delphi includes some steps :
i. The coordinator gives an estimation
form to each expert.
ii. Each expert presents his own
estimation (without discussing with
others).
iii. The coordinator gathers all forms
 Software Cost Estimation
and sums up them (including mean
or median) on a form and ask experts
to start another iteration.
iv. steps (ii-iii) are repeated until an
approval is gained.
2.2.3. Machine Learning Models
Most techniques about software cost
estimation use statistical methods, which
are not able to present reason and strong
results. Machine learning approaches could
be appropriate at this filed because they
can increase the accuracy of estimation
by training rules of estimation and
repeating the run cycles. Machine Learning
Methods could be categorized into two
methods namely :
2.2.3.1. Neural network
Neural Networks include several layers
where each layer is composed of several
elements called neurons.Neurons, by
investigating the weights defined for inputs,
produce the outputs. Outputs will be the
actual effort, which is the main goal of
estimation. Back propagation neural
network is the best selection for software
estimation problem because it adjusts the
weights by comparing the network outputs
and actual results. In addition, training is
done effectively.
2.2.3.2. Fuzzy Method
All systems, which work based on the
fuzzy logic try to simulate human behavior
and reasoning. In many problems, which
decision making is very difficult and
conditions are vague, fuzzy systems are an
efficient tool in such situations. This
technique always supports the facts that
may be ignored.
There are four stages in the fuzzy
approach :
Stage 1 : Fuzzification: to produce
trapezoidal numbers for the linguistic
19
terms.
Stage 2 : To develop the complexity
matrix by producing a new linguistic term.
Stage 3 : To determine the productivity
rate and the attempt for the new linguistic
terms.
Stage 4 : Defuzzification: to determine
the effort required to complete a task and
to compare the existing method.
3. PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION
3.1. Problem Definition
Estimation always remains difficult and
challenging task. As the review shows that
selection of techniques, models and metrics
are responsible for the inaccuracy and
overruns in the case of budgets and time.
This overruns effects the estimations and
that directly effects environment. Software
possesses characteristics that cost of any
product increase with increase in time.
Various models are developed but no single
is responsible for correct estimation. The
programmers and managers passes
through the phases of SDLC where each
process affects other. After this there might
be some escapes factors and those are
rework on same project, extension of
project and maintenance.
3.2. Solution Domain
The identification of problem clearly
defines the difficulties faced by the
researchers. To overcome this problem
there are some solutions as reuse can
become the key factor for reduction of cost
and effort.
1. Reusability concept of OOP can be
utilized by using the suitable technique
and metric.
2. As for the reusability estimation by
analogy is appropriate technique which
describes that the past project is
compared with new project and if the
 Huda Saif
code is matched then it can be reused.
3. LOC metric can be used to estimate
software size as others can cause the
overruns within time.
4. Analogy concept [13] needs searching
technique in the form of search engine
as past projects should be placed in
some code repository, and through this
method the historical projects can be
matched with new projects.
5. If the codes are matched then it can be
used in new project reduce the effort
which reduces the cost.
6. As tentative cost of new project should
be calculated and the old projects cost
are already known, it helps to asses
reduced cost in case of no. of lines used
by new project. Through this approach
the problems can be reduced as
estimating by analogy with use of LOC
as software size. And the retrieval
techniques like cosine similarity
Euclidean distance can be used such
that reduction of cost and effort.
4. CONCLUSION
Software development in this era is at
demanding phase, and estimation of cost
and effort in this filed always remains an
open challenge and considered to be a
complex task. Software engineering and
SDLC have their significance presence in
the estimation. The review also shows that
many reviewers and researchers state that
assessment of cost gradually increases or
decreases. Though it is an essential task
the ignorance is not acceptable. Awareness
of project managers and selection of
methods are responsible for over budget.
Each estimation techniques like COCOMO,
SLIM model have it own prospects to be
good and at the same time suffered with
pitfalls. Estimation by algorithmic, non
algorithmic, top-bottom approach or
bottom-up approach etc shows their own
20
significance in different manner in the field
of software cost estimation. The suggestions
of using combination of different techniques
and models can be much more efficient as
alone model and method are not much
effective in estimation Concept of reusability
helps in reducing the cost and effort with
use of analogy estimation and suitable
searching and retrieval techniques. Lastly,
gradual increment of new approaches and
the hybrid scheme of methods with models
can be used.
5. REFERENCES
[1] Geetika Batra and Kuntal Barua,
"A Review on Cost and Effort
Estimation Approach for Software
Development", M.Tech Scholar,
Department of Computer Science,
L.N.C.T, Indore, Asst Professor,
Department of Computer Science,
L.N.C.T, Indore.
[2] Vahid Khatibi and Dayang N. A.
Jawawi, "Software Cost Estimation
Methods: A Review".
[3] Attarzadeh and I. Siew Hock Ow,
"Proposing a New Software Cost
Estimation Model Based on Artificial
Neural Networks", IEEE International
Conference on Computer Engineering
and Technology (ICCET), 3, V3-487
(2010).
[4] Attarzadeh and I. Siew Hock Ow,
"Improving the accuracy of software
cost estimation model based on a
new fuzzy logic model", World
Applied science journal 8(2), 117
(2010-10-2).
[5] A.J. Albrecht and J. E. Gaffney,
"Software function, source lines of
codes, and development effort
prediction: a software science
validation", IEEE Trans Software
Eng. SE, 639-648, (1983).
 Software Cost Estimation
[6] M.R. Braz and S. R. Vergilio.
"Software Effort Estimation Based on
Use Cases". Computer Software and
Applications Conference, COMPSAC
'06. 30 th Annual International,
(2006).
[7] B.W. Boehm and R. Valerdi,
"Achievements and challenges in
cocomo-based software resource
estimation", IEEE Software, 25(5), 74
(2008).
[8] Boehm,"Software Engineering
Economics", Prentice Hall, (1981).
[9] N.H. Chiu and S.J. Huang, "The
adjusted analogy-based software
effort estimation based on similarity
distances", Journal of Systems and
Software 80(4), 628 (2007).
[10] J.J. Cuadrado-Gallego and Rodri,
et al. "Analogies and Differences
between Machine Learning and
Expert Based Software Project Effort
Estimation". Software Engineering
Artificial Intelligence Networking and
Parallel/Distributed Computing
(SNPD), 11 th ACIS International
Conference on, (2010).
[11] L. Fischman, K. McRitchie and
21
D.D. Galorath," Inside SEER-SEM",
CrossTalk, The Journal of Defense
Software Engineering, (2005).
[12] D.D. Galorath and M.W. Evans,
"Software sizing, estimation, and risk
management: When performance is
measured performance improves".
Boca Raton, FL: Auerbach, (2006).
[13] A. Idri and S. Mbarki, et al.
"Validating and understanding
software cost estimation models
based on neural networks".
Information and Communication
Technologies: From Theory to
Applications, 2004. Proceedings.
2004 International Conference on,
(2004).
[14] C. Jones, "Estimating software
costs: Bringing realism to estimating
(2nd ed.)". New York, NY: McGraw-
Hill, (2007).
[15] W. Jianfeng and L. Shixian, et al. "
Improve Analogy-Based Software
Effort Estimation Using Principal
Components Analysis and
Correlation Weighting". Software
Engineering Conference, 2009.
APSEC '09. Asia-Pacific, (2009).
Global Sci-Tech, 8 (1) January-March
Sher Jung
2016;
and Rajinder
pp. 22-36kumar
DOI No.: 10.5958/2455-7110.2016.00004.5

Security of Routing Protocols in

MANETs: A Survey

SHER JUNG* and RAJINDER KUMAR

Department of Computer Science and Engineering
Al Falah University, Faridabad, India
*E-mail: sherjung2005@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

A mobile ad hoc network or MANET is a wireless network that is dynamic and can
be formed without any fixed and pre existing infrastructure whereas each node
can play the role of a router. Security is an important requirement in mobile ad hoc
networks. This paper deals with two aspects of the security in MANETs one is
security attacks and the other is security in routing protocols of MANET. The
important purpose of the description of security aspects of MANET is to implement
security including authentication, confidentiality, integrity, anonymity, and
availability of services to the mobile users. In MANETs there are both legitimate
and malicious nodes. In this paper, various important security issues in MANET
have also been analyzed. The various routing attacks, such as black hole, gray
hole, impersonation, worm hole etc. are reviewed in this paper. These attacks are
one of the reasons of major problems in MANETs.

Key words: MANET, Security, Routing Protocol, Security attack.

1. INTRODUCTION mobile nodes which are powered by a

Many improvements in the field of
wireless are being introduced since the last
decades. As people are more eager and
needy to use more secured and robust
network, it is very much required to
establish a MANET equipped with secured
and reliable mechanisms in order to give
access of this technology to the current and
the future generation, we must facilitate a
secure and reliable MANET. The ad hoc
networks provide ubiquitous connectivity
without the need of fixed infrastructure
[12]. This makes them very suitable choice
when the communication has to be
provided temporarily such as in case of
battle field, disaster hit area or to create a
network between members of an interim
group. This type of network is made up of
battery. The traffic in an ad hoc network is
through the relay nodes so it is desirable
that participating node in the network
forwards the packets which it receives but
that is meant for some other node as
destination. These nodes may have two
reasons for their non cooperation:
malicious attitude or selfish attitude [3].
The malicious attitude of a node can be due
to the opponent's intervention in the
network where it intends to sabotage the
network activity. The selfish attitude may
be due to the various reasons where a
legitimate node in the network starts
avoiding the forwarding activity due to its
current low power status or it feels so over
utilized in the forwarding activity and it
fears that it will drain so much power that

22
 Security of Routing Protocols in MANETs: A Survey
Fig. 1. Architecture of MANET Example
it will not have enough energy to send or
receive its own packets in the future.
Architecture of MANET is given in the figure
1.
2. CLASSIFICATION OF ATTACKS
According to behavior of ad hoc
network, attacks are classified as Passive
attacks and Active attacks and according
to source, attacks are classified as internal
attacks and External attacks. A brief
description of attacks can be found in [5].
2.1 Passive and Active Attacks
A passive attack is that attack in which
the original message content and context
do not get changed and normal operations
on the network are not get disrupted. Here
the requirement of confidentiality gets
violated [8]. Detecting this kind of attack is
difficult because neither the system
resources nor the critical network functions
are physically affected to prove the
intrusions [5].
23
A more powerful and efficient encryption
algorithm that can be used to encrypt the
data under transmission process which is
impossible for the attacker to get the useful
and effective information.
An active attack attempts to change the
data which is being exchanged in the
network thereby destroys the functioning
of the network. Active attacks can be
internal or external. Most often, external
attacks are initiated from outside the
network. Internal attacks are initiated from
a node belonging to the network itself such
as impersonation, modification, fabrication
and replication. Since the attacker is part
of the network, internal attacks are more
difficult to detect as compared to the
external attacks [8]. Examples of active
attacks are the actions such as message
modifications, message replays, message
fabrications and the denial of service
attacks [12]. There are four types of active
attacks as mentioned below:
1. Masquerade - To pretend to be someone
 Sher Jung and Rajinder kumar
else. In this attack some user is logged
with different user account credentials
to get access to some authorized
account. For example, if a user knows
the password and user name of System
Administrator the user can pretend to
that he/she is the administrator.
2. Replay - To acquire information to send
it, or copy it elsewhere.
3. To make changes in the information or
data being sent or received.
4. Denial of service- To cause a disruption
of all services or some services to the
existing network.
2.2 Internal and External Attacks
The other severe attack in the ad hoc
networks known as internal attack
originates from the second source of
Fig. 2. Classification of Different Types of Attack
24
attacks. Internal attacks are initiated by
both compromised and misbehaving nodes
in the network. The objective of the mobile
ad-hoc network is to provide a security
such as data integrity, confidentiality and
authentication of the data. On the other
hand, if misbehaving nodes are authorized,
they can use the system resource and fails
to use resources when they are not
authorized [5]. Internal nodes might
misbehave to save the resources, such as
the power consumption, the processing
capabilities, and the communication
bandwidth.
External attacks are those attacks
where users are not initially authorized to
participate in the network operations.
These attacks cause network congestion,
denying access to particular network
function or to destroying the whole network
 Security of Routing Protocols in MANETs: A Survey
operations. Various external attacks are
bogus packets injection, denial of service,
and impersonation.
2.3 Other Attacks
There are various other attacks that are
associated with MANET. These are
explained below:
1. Snooping Attacks - This type of attack
arises when someone seeks in your file
with the hope of finding something
interesting whether electronically or in
paper. People might inspect our recycle
bins or file cabinets and may try to find
something interesting.
2. Distributed Denial-of-Service Attacks
- This attack is similar to Denial-of-
Service attack except the fact that the
environment is distributed. These
attacks amplify the DOS attack by using
multiple computer system to execute
the attack on an organization when
someone seeks in your file with the hope
of finding something interesting
whether electronically or in paper. In
this case people might inspect the
recycle bins or file cabinets. The
attacker can load different attacks to
dozens of computer systems that uses
cable modem. The attack signal is send
to different computer from the master
computer. This signal triggers the
system which launches an attack on the
target network and tries to find
something interesting.
3. Back Door Attacks -This type of attacks
have two different meanings; the
original term back door refers to
troubleshooting. The back doors allow
examining the operation inside the
program code at the time of running the
program. In another type of back doors,
the attacker gains access to the network
and insert a program or some other
utility in order to create entrance to the
25
network. With the help of the program
the user can log into a system without
an authentication test or gain
administrative privilege.
4. Man in the middle Attacks -This attack
is a type of an access attack, and it can
also be used as the initial point of a
modification attacks. In this a software
piece is placed between the server and
the client. Neither the sever side
administrator nor the client user is
aware of this. This software is firstly
intercepts the data and after that
forward the information to the server.
The server sends a response message
to the software thinking that it is
communicating with the client.
5. Password Guessing Attacks - This type
of attacks occurs when an account is
attacked repeatedly. This is possible
when possible password is send to the
account in the systematic manner.
Through these attacks we can guess the
password. The password guessing
attacks are of two types :
(a) Brute Force Attacks - This attack
allows you to guess a password until
a successful guess occurs. This
makes the password more difficult
to be guessed. It is also time
consuming.
(b) Dictionary Attacks - These types of
attacks use a dictionary type of
commonly used words for making
attempts to find user password.
These attacks are executed using
dedicated programs and tools which
exist in public domain. This is
possible when possible password is
send to the account in the
systematic manner. Through these
attacks we can guess the password.
3. SECURITY ATTACKS
Security is an important requirement in
 Sher Jung and Rajinder kumar
mobile ad hoc network (MANETs).This
paper deals with two aspects of the security
in MANET one is security attacks and the
other is routing protocols in MANET. The
main purpose of security solutions for
MANETs is to provide security solutions like
authentication, anonymity, integrity,
confidentiality and availability of services
to the mobile user. An attacker may aim to
do one of the following :
3.1 Modification
This attack is used to modify information
which is sent through the communication
channel between two or more users.
3.2 Interception
Interception is an attack to gain
unauthorized access to a system. It is a
simple eavesdropping during communi-
cation such as packet sniffing or copying
of information.
3.2 Fabrication
It is also known as counterfeiting. It
bypasses authentication checks, and is like
impersonating and adds new information
in a file.
3.3 Interruption
Interception attack is an attack that is
achieved due to unauthorized access to the
routing messages. Attacker tries to gain
access to some of the confidential
information available in the network.
3.4 Modification
Modification attack is used to modify
information which is sent through the
communication channel between two or
more users. In modification attack, attacker
modifies the routing messages, and hence
the packets integrity in the networks is
endangered. Nodes in the ad hoc networks
are free to move and might include the
26
malicious nodes [5]. Classified example of
attack under message modification is
impersonation attacks and packet
misrouting.
[1) Impersonation attacks -
Impersonation attacks are known as
spoofing attacks. The identity of a node
in the network is found out by the
attacker. Then the attacker can receive
messages sent to that node. This is the
first step to intrude into a network to
carry out some more attacks for
disruption of operations. The attacker
may also reconfigure the network in
order to let other attackers join the
network or remove security measures
from the network to allow a number of
subsequent attempts of various types
of attacks. A captured node can also be
used for encryption of keys and
authentication of information. In most
cases, a malicious node can deny proper
routing by injecting false routing
packets into the path or by false
updating routing information [2].The
impersonation attacks generally occur
in the mobile ad hoc network because
there is no authentication occurs of the
routing packet as a result change in the
original content.
(2) Packet misrouting attacks - In this
attack, malicious nodes again route
traffic from their original path to reach
to the undesirable destinations [9]. Here
Attackers can misroute the packet in
such a way so that a packet can stay
longer in the network than its original
lifetimes, this will results retransmi-
ssion of the lost packets from the source
which will required extra bandwidth and
because of that the overhead in the
network will increase [5].
3.5 Interception
Interception attackers are those attacks
 Security of Routing Protocols in MANETs: A Survey
which are achieved due to unauthorized
access to the routing messages that are not
sent. In this type of attack, attacker wants
to access some of the confidential
information in the network. The secret
information may be public key, private key
or password etc. This information should
be kept secure from the unauthorized user.
The packet could be analyzed before
passing to the destination which depicts
confidentiality. Classified example under
the interception attacks are wormhole
attacks and black hole attacks.
(1) Wormhole attacks - The wormhole
attacks are those attacks in which
shortcut is created with the external
attacker in the ad hoc network. By using
the shortcut, they could play the trick
of the source node to win over the route
discovery process and launch the
interception attacks later on [5]. The
attackers transmit the packet through
the wired medium in order to create the
fastest route from source to destination.
If the bogus routes are consistently
maintained by the wormhole node then
they could deny other routes from being
established. These results in a denied
route and intermediate nodes are
unable to participate in the network
operations [5].
(2) Black hole attacks - Black hole attacks
are those attack in which malicious
nodes tricks all their neighboring nodes
to attract all the routing packets to
them. In the wormhole attacks,
malicious nodes could launch the black
hole attacks by advertising themselves
to the neighboring nodes as having the
most optimal route to the requested
destinations. However, unlike in the
wormhole attacks where multiple
attackers colluded to attack one
neighboring node, in the black hole
attacks, only one attacker is involved
27
and it threatens all its neighboring
nodes [5].
3.6 Fabrication
This is also known as counterfeiting. It
bypasses authenti-cation checks, and is
like impersonating and adds new
information in a file. Attackers could launch
the message fabrication attacks by
introducing some big packets into the
network in the same manner as in the sleep
deprivation attack. The difference is that
the message fabrication attacks are not only
launched by malicious nodes but such
attacks also may come from the
misbehaving nodes within the network such
as in the route salvaging attacks [5].
(1) Sleep deprivation attacks - Sleep
deprivation attacks are those attacks
which aim to drain off limited resources
in the mobile ad hoc nodes (e.g. the
battery powers), by con-stantly make
them busy. These attacks are more
specific to the mobile ad hoc network.
In a routing protocol, sleep deprivation
attacks might be launched by flooding
the targeted node with unnecessary
routing packets. Flooding in the sleep
deprivation attacks is done by sending
a huge number of route request (RREQ),
route replies (RREP) or route error
(RERR) packets to the targeted node.
As a result, that parti-cular node is
unable to participate in the routing
mechanisms and rendered unreachable
by the other nodes in the networks [5].
(2) Route salvaging attacks - Route
salvaging attacks are those attacks
which launched by the greedy internal
nodes in the networks. In a mobile ad
hoc network, there is no guarantee that
each transmitted packet will
successfully reach the desired
destination node [14]. Packets might not
reach the destination node because of
 Sher Jung and Rajinder kumar
the network failures. Therefore,
misbehaving internal nodes retransmit
their packets although no sending error
messages received.
3.7 Interruption
Interruption attacks are those attacks
in which the routing packet does not reach
to the destination. Routing messages are
used to fetch the network messages. Mobile
nodes are also used for the purpose. Attacks
are initiated through the modification,
interception, and fabrication attacks by
interrupting the normal operations of the
ad hoc networks. For instance, adversaries
aiming to interrupt the availability service
in the networks might destroy all paths to
a particular victim node by using the
message modification attacks [5]. Examples
such of attacks that could be classified
under the interruption attacks category are
packet dropping attacks, flooding attacks,
and lack of cooperation attacks.
(1) Flooding attacks - Intermediate nodes
might interrupt the normal operations
in the packet forwarding process by
flooding the targeted destination nodes
with huge amount unnecessary
packets. In flooding attacks nodes are
unable to receive or forward any type of
packet in the network.
(2) Lack of cooperation attacks - In such
types of attacks, internal nodes are not
ready to cooperate in the network
operations that did not benefit them
because participating in such
operations will drain off their resources.
Different strategies might be used by
misbehaving internal nodes in order to
save their limited resources. The
internal nodes are not ready to forward
the packets to the other nodes, not even
send back the route error report to the
sender when failing to forward packets,
or might turn off their devices when not
28
sending any packet in the networks [5].
4. MANET VULNERABILITIES
A system is to be vulnerable when an
unauthorized data manipulation access is
provided to the users. In this case the
system does not verify a user's identity
before allowing data access. Some of the
vulnerabilities are being described as
follows:
4.1 Lack of centralized management
A centralized monitor server is not
available in MANETs. The absence of any
centralized management makes the
detection of attacks very difficult because
due to this the traffic will be highly dynamic
and very large in the network. Lack of
centralized manage-ment will impede the
trust management for nodes.
4.2 Resource availability
Availability of resources is a major issue
in MANETs. Availability of secure
communications in such environments
where changing the network topology and
protecting the network against particular
attacks will lead to the development of many
security schemes and respective
architectures.
4.3 Scalability
Scalability feature in ad-hoc networks
is required because of mobility of nodes in
MANETs, their topology and so the
connectivity keeps on changing all the time.
So scalability is one of the major issues
which concern the security aspect. Security
mechanisms should be able to handle a
varying size network [22].
4.4 Cooperativeness
Various routing algorithms for MANETs
assume that the nodes are cooperative
and non-malicious. This provides an
 Security of Routing Protocols in MANETs: A Survey
opportunity to a malicious attacker to
become a routing agent and thereby
enabling the attacker to interrupt the
network operations by disobeying the
specifications given in the protocol.
4.5 Dynamic topology
The dynamic topology in MANETs may
interrupt/disturb the trust relationship
among the nodes. The trust relationship
may also be interrupted/disturbed if some
of the nodes are detected as compromised.
Distributed and adaptive security
mechanisms are used to protect the
network having this dynamic behavior [22].
4.6 Limited power supply
The nodes in MANETs should be aware
of the limited power availability, which
creates many problems. As a result, a node
in MANET may behave in a selfish manner.
4.7 Bandwidth constrain
Variable links exists in wireless network
which are renderer towards noise,
interference and signal attenuation effects
[22].
4.8 Adversary inside the Network
The mobile nodes in the MANET can
freely join or leave the network. The nodes
in the network may also behave maliciously.
In MANET the node malicious behavior is
harder to detect. Thus this attack is more
dangerous than the external attack.
4.9 No predefined Boundary
In MANET physical boundary is not
allowed. The nodes performed the task in a
roaming behavior where the nodes can join
and exit the network. The communication
exists when the opponent comes in the
radio range of a node. This includes
tempering replay, denial of service eave
dropping impersonation.
29
5. MANET APPLICATIONS
In ad hoc networks the devices can
easily be added and removed from the
network for maintain the connection. The
applications of MANET are varied, ranging
from large-scale, movable. Typical
applications include [22, 24, 25].
5.1 Military
Military equipments may contain some
type of computer equipment. In military the
ad-hoc network technology (MANET) can
maintain an information network between
the soldiers and military information
headquarters.
5.2 Commercial Sector
MANET can be used in emergency or
salvage operations for natural calamity
efforts e.g. in fire, flood, or earthquake.
Salvage operations should be taken
place where rapid deployment of a
communication network and infrastructure
is damaged. Transfer of information should
take between two saving team members.
Other commercial scenarios include e.g.
ship-to-ship communication through
MANET.
5.3 Local Level
Local level application is mainly seen in
home networks where exchange of
information is directly done. Similarly in
other environment like sports stadium, taxi
cab and small aircraft, [22].
5.4 Personal Area Network (PAN)
Ad-hoc network can validate the inter-
communication between the various
portable devices (such as a, a laptop, a
cellular phone and PDA). The PAN is an
application field of MANET in the future
perspective computing context.
 Sher Jung and Rajinder kumar
5.5 MANET-VOVON
A MANET enabled different versions of
JXTA peer to peer, open platform is used to
support JXTA virtual network. Using
MANET JXTA a user can set up a call when
the path is available. Here XML messages
are exchanges over MANET JXTA
communication channel [22, 17].
6. ROUTING PROTOCOLS IN MANET
The routing protocol of MANET is
broadly divided in to 2 main categories as:
Table driven routing protocol and On-
demand driven routing protocol.
6.1 Table-driven routing protocols
Table driven routing protocol are also
called as proactive protocol because in this
protocol maintain the up to date and
consistent information of each and every
node in the network. Many tables are
maintained in order to store the routing
information of the network. These protocol
are differs on the basics of number of table
related and methods in the network
Fig. 3. Classification of Routing Protocols
30
structure. The various protocols in this
category are described as follows:
A. Destination-Sequenced Distance
Vector (DSDV) - In DSDV, Each node
maintains its own routing table of the
possible destination in the network. The
number f hops counts to each
destination are recorded. The sequence
numbers are assigned by the destination
nodes after the each entry. To maintain
the table Consistency routing tables are
updated periodically. The Destination-
Sequenced Distance Vector (DSDV)
routing protocol is a table-driven routing
Algorithm which is based on Bellman-
Ford routing mechanism [16] .The
improvements made in the Bellman-
Ford algorithm which includes freedom
from loops in routing tables.
The broadcast route has the format
contain number of hops for reaching the
destination, the address of the
destination, the sequence number
regarding the destination, and new
sequence number which is unique [20].
 Security of Routing Protocols in MANETs: A Survey
If in case the same sequence number
are arrived then the sequence number
which is smaller can be used in order to
optimize the path.
B. Optimized Link State Routing (OLSR)
Protocol - OLSR is a proactive routing
protocol .The main idea behind OLSR is
the use of multipoint relay (MPR) which
provides an effective flooding
mechanism by reducing the number of
transmissions [8].In OLSR, two types of
routing messages are used i.e. a HELLO
message and a topology control (TC)
message [8].
C. Wireless Routing Protocol (WRP) -
Wireless routing protocol (WRP) [13, 11]
is a path-finding algorithm. It is a type
of loop free routing protocol. In WRP
nodes are created in the network. Each
node maintains 4 tables: link cost table,
message retransmission list table
distance table, routing table. Update
messages are exchanged between
neighboring nodes by propagating link
from the link table. Typical Hello
messages are exchanged periodically
between neighbors.
D. Cluster Head Gateway Switch
Routing (CGSR) Protocol - The idea
behind CGSR protocol is cluster
movable wireless network with different
heuristic schemes [18]. In CGSR by
using a distributed algorithm the node
is selected within the cluster which acts
as cluster head. The cluster head
changes according to the routing
protocol performance
Using clustering algorithm the Cluster
head changes when two cluster heads
come into contact of each other or they
get out of contact of all other cluster
head [8]. Between two cluster head
there are some gateway nodes that are
within the coverage of two cluster head.
Here initially the packet is send to the
31
cluster head and then further forwarded
to another cluster head, with the help
of gateway node and this process is
continues till the destination node is
found.
6.2 On-Demand Driven Protocols
The second category is on demand
driven routing protocol. These types of
protocols are also known as reactive
protocols. This protocol is used to find the
route of destination and once the route is
found all possible route permutations are
examined. The route is maintained by a
route maintenance procedure after a route
is identified.
A. Ad Hoc On-Demand Distance Vector
(AODV) - It is an improvement of DSDV
algorithm explained above. To minimize
the broadcast route a route is created
on a demand. For example when source
A wants to deliver a packet to the
destination B and if no route is available
from A to B, Then B broadcast the
message to the neighboring nodes via
route request message then the
neighboring node rebroadcast the
message to its all neighbors. This
process is continued till the destination
node is identified. When the first arrived
RREQ is received, the destination node
sends a route reply (RREP) message to
the source node through the reverse
path through which the RREQ message
arrived.
B. Dynamic Source Routing (DSR) - In
this protocol the destination is identified
on the basis of source routing [19]. There
are two phases: route discovery and
route maintenance phases. When a
mobile node wants to send a packet to
the destination, it first checks its route
table so that it can identify availability
of destination. If the route is present in
the table, then the mobile node will use
 Sher Jung and Rajinder kumar
this route to send the packet. If the node
does not have such a route in the table,
then it will broadcast a route request
message. The format of the route request
contains the address of the destination
node along with the address of source
node and a UID number. All receiving
node which has packet will check the
destination route is known or not
known. A route reply is originated in the
network when the route request reaches
the destination. If the destination route
is not found in the network then node
initially adds its own address to the
route record and after that forwards the
packet
C. Temporary Ordered Routing
Algorithm (TORA) - The Temporally
Ordered Routing Algorithm (TORA) is
proposed to operate on highly dynamic
mobile networking environment. It
provides multiple routes of source/
destination in pair. The main idea of
TORA is localization of control messages
over small set of nodes [8]. To achieve
this goal, the routing information about
each and every node is maintained.
D. Relative Distance Micro Diversity
Routing (RDMAR) - Relative Distance
Micro Diversity Routing protocol
determines the distance between the
two nodes on the basis of relative
distance estimation algorithm in radio
loops. RDMAR is a source initiated
protocol and having features similar to
associative based routing protocol. The
RDMAR is based on the concept is
searching of route within the restricted
range in order to save flooding cost of
route request message in the network
[17, 19, 20]. It is assumed in RDMAR
that at the same fixed speed all ad hoc
hosts are migrated. These types of
assumptions can make good practical
estimation of relative distance.
32
6.3 Hybrid Protocol
Hybrid routing protocol is based on the
concept of aggregating of nodes in a group.
Then these nodes are assigned different
functionality in a zone of the network. These
different zones are portioned in the network.
The most popular way of building hierarchy
is to ensure that a group of nodes are
geographically close to each other and they
are grouped into clusters. For
communication from another node each
cluster has a cluster head. The ZRP( Zone
routing protocol) based on Hierarchical link
state(ZHLS) This type of protocol can also
provide a better trade-off between
communication over head, total number of
nodes and frequency of topology change.
7. CONCLUSION
In this paper, we introduce some type
of security attacks in mobile ad-hoc
networks, as in today's world security is the
major concern in the field of a network.
Individuals want to keep information secure
so that any unauthorized user can not
access their information. Then we have
discussed classification of attacks and
various characteristics of attacks to be
considered in designing any security
measure for ad hoc networks. After
analyzing the behavior of the attacks, one
can determine the various attacks which
could be launch against the ad hoc
networks. In this paper, we have discussed
most of the common attacks against the ad
hoc networks routing protocols. Then we
further classify the routing protocols in
mobile ad hoc network. In future, various
security solutions that have been proposed
to secure routing protocols will be
implemented and verified. The investigation
will include various techniques that might
be employed in protecting, detecting, and
responding to the attacks against the
routing message [5].
 Security of Routing Protocols in MANETs: A Survey
8. FUTURE SCOPE
The proactive approach attempts to
prevent security threats in the first place
and provides lower latency than that of on
demand protocols because they have to
maintain routes to all the nodes in the
network all the time but the problem in this
is about excessive routing overhead. On the
other hand, the reactive protocols identify
routes only when they are needed. The
reactive approach seeks to detect threats a
posterior (derived by reasoning from
observed facts) and react accordingly.
• Before an attack: To defend their
network, organizations must be
aware of what's on it: devices,
operating systems, services,
applications, users, and more.
Additionally, they must implement
access controls, enforce security
policies, and block applications and
overall access to critical assets.
However, policies and controls are
only a small piece of a bigger picture.
These measures can help to reduce
the surface area of attack, but there
will always be gaps that attackers
will find and exploit to achieve their
objectives.
• During an attack: Organizations
must address a broad range of attack
vectors with solutions that operate
everywhere that a threat can
manifest itself on the network, on
endpoints, from mobile devices, and
in virtual environments. With
effective solutions in place, security
professionals will be better
positioned to block threats and help
to defend the environment.
• After an attack: Invariably, many
attacks will be successful. This
means organizations need to have a
formal plan in place that will allow
them to determine the scope of the
33
damage, contain the event,
remediate, and bring operations
back to normal as quickly as
possible.
Cybercriminals continue to develop new
ways to monetize victims, while nation-state
hackers compromise companies,
government agencies, and non-
governmental organizations to create
espionage networks and steal information.
To better understand and combat threats
associated with these changes, the
developed and developing countries must
continue to support investigative and
defensive research. Researchers from
academia, the private sector, and
government must continue to work together
and share information on emerging threats
and innovate ways to combat them.
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Global Sci-Tech, 8 (1)study
Comparative January-March 2016;Intelligence
of Agile Business pp. 37-49 DOI
and No.:
Agile10.5958/2455-7110.2016.00005.7
Data Warehouse

Comparative study of Agile Business

Intelligence and Agile Data Warehouse

MD. DEEDAR SHAMSI*

G.B. Pant Institute of Technology, Okhla, New Delhi-110 020
*E-mail: deedar2s@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

In a rapidly changing business oriented economy, Business Intelligence solutions

have to become more agile. This paper attempts to compare and contrast between
Agile BI and Agile DW based on different analytical Agile driven technologies. Agile
software development is a set of principles and practices that was influenced by
practitioners of Extreme Programming, SCRUM, DSDM, Adaptive Software
Development and others. It was driven out of the need for an alternative to
documentation driven, heavyweight software development processes. Agile
development processes can take a lot of pain out of building data warehouses and
enable project teams to deliver functionality, and business value, on a rolling basis.
Rapidly gaining in popularity, the Agile approach to data warehousing solves many
of the thorny problems typically associated with data warehouse development-
most notably high costs, low user adoption, ever-changing business requirements
and the inability to rapidly adapt as business conditions change. The Agile approach
can be used to develop any analytical database, the two mechanisms that uses
agile approach are Data Warehouse and Business Intelligence. Also, this paper
briefly looks at technologies that can be used for enabling an agile BI solution.

Key words: Agile Analytics, Agile Project Management Methodology, Agile

techniques, Data integration, Scrum.

1. INTRODUCTION documentation driven, heavyweight

Agile methodologies are becoming
increasingly popular for software
development projects of all kinds, but what
considerations must be made when
developing business intelligence
applications? Agile Analytics is defined as
an approach to Business Intelligence and
Data Warehousing. Agile software
development is a set of principles and
practices that was influenced by
practitioners of Extreme Programming,
SCRUM, DSDM, Adaptive Software
Development and others. It was driven out
of the need for an alternative to
software development processes.
Agile software development refers
to a group of software development
methodologies that are based on similar
principles[1]. Agile methodologies generally
promote:
1. A project management process that
encourages frequent inspection and
adaptation;
2. A leadership philosophy that encoura-
ges team work, self-organization and
accountability;
3. A set of engineering best practices that
allow for rapid delivery of high-quality

37
 Md. Deedar Shamsi
software;
4. And a business approach that aligns
development with customer needs and
company goals.
Business Intelligence (BI) was defined
in different ways. The Data-Warehousing
Institute has defined Business Intelligence
as "the tools, technologies and processes
required to turn data into information and
information into knowledge and plans that
optimize business actions" [6]. Turban has
defined BI as "a broad category of
applications and techniques for gathering,
storing, analyzing and providing access to
data to help enterprise user make better
business and strategic decisions." [16]. The
range of capabilities that can be defined as
business intelligence is very broad. Most
enterprises have hundreds of internal and
external data sources such as: databases,
e-mail archives, file systems, spreadsheets,
digital images, audio files and more.
Traditional Business Intelligence systems
use a small fraction of all the data available.
Also, traditional BI systems use only
structured data. The core components of a
Fig. 1. Agile Business Intelligence Architecture
38
traditional BI architecture are: ETL tools,
an enterprise data warehouse with
metadata repository and business analytics
(Figure1).
1.1 Performance Characteristics
49% Lack understanding of the benefits,
47% Lack of IT resources, 43% End-user
needs not clearly defined [5]. Aberdeen's
Maturity Class Framework uses three key
performance criteria to distinguish the
Best-in-class in the industry:
1. Availability of timely management
information : IT should be able to
provide the right and accurate
information in timely manner to the
business managers to make sound
business decisions. "This performance
metric captures the frequency with
which business users receive their
information they need in the timeframe
they need it"[5].
2. Average time required to add a
column to an existing report :
Sometimes new columns need to be
InformationQuality
Management (IQM)
Components
 Comparative study of Agile Business Intelligence and Agile Data Warehouse
added to an existing report to see the
required information. "If that
information cannot be obtained within
the time required to support the
decision at hand, the information has
no material value. This metric measure
the total elapsed time required to modify
an existing report by adding a
column"[5].
3. Average time required to create a new
dashboard : This metric considers the
time required to access any new or
updated information and it measures
the total elapsed time required to create
a new dashboard[5].
2. PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS
2.1 Five Steps To Agile BI
1. Agile Development Methodology :
"need for an agile, iterative process that
speeds the time to market of BI requests
by shortening development cycles"[8].
2. Agile Project Management
Methodology : continuous planning
and execution. Planning is done at the
beginning of each cycle, rather than one
Fig. 2. BI performance analysis and Efficiency
(source: The Aberdeen group BI performance analysis)
39
time at the beginning of the project as
in traditional projects. In Agile project,
scope can be changed any time during
the development phase.
3. Agile Infrastructure : The system
should have virtualization and
horizontal scaling capability. This gives
flexibility to easily modify the
infrastructure and could also maintain
near-real-time BI more easily than the
standard Extract, transform, load (ETL)
model[8].
4. Cloud & Agile BI : Many organizations
are implementing cloud technology now
as it is the cheaper alternative to store
and transfer data. Companies who are
in their initial stages of implementing
Agile BI should consider the Cloud
technology as cloud services can now
support BI and ETL software to be
provisioned in the cloud[8].
5. IT Organization & Agile BI : To achieve
agility and maximum effectiveness, the
IT team should interact with the
business, but also address the business
problems and should have a strong and
cohesive team[8].
 Md. Deedar Shamsi

3. MEASURES OF POPULARITY still follow a waterfall approach within the

iterations.
3.1 How is Agile different from Waterfall
Agile methodologies started to become
and Spiral methodologies?
widely published and promoted in the
But before we answer the question 2000-2001 timeframe by developers of
whether or not an Agile approach can or operational systems. These methodologies
cannot be used with EDW/BI, let's first do not recognize a service request for a new
examine the major differences of these system to be the final set of requirements.
three categories of methodologies. Instead, the developers view the service
request as a vision for a system that may
Waterfall methodologies were
or may not end up looking the same when
developed in the 1970s for managing
it is finally delivered. With the participation
operational systems projects. These
of the user, the developers dissect the
methodologies are organized by phases that
requirements into desired features, which
follow traditional engineering practices:
are put on a product backlog. The user (not
planning, requirements, analysis, design,
IT) controls the product backlog where he
construction, and deployment. Each phase
or she can add or remove features at will.
must be completed before the next phase
The user is also responsible for prioritizing
can begin. The majority of development
the features on the product backlog. The
time is spent on paper, creating a
developers select a few features from the
requirements document, external design
prioritized list for the first (or next) sprint
models, internal design specifications, and
(software release). Rather than come up
so on. Even with operational stovepipe
with estimates that are cast in concrete,
systems, this type of methodology has been
the developers speculate how long it might
a problem because estimates are highly
take to turn the selected features into
unreliable since each system is different,
working code based on what is known to
each project team is different, and each set
them at that point in time. Progress for
of users is different. In addition, users don't
developing the requested features is
see their system until acceptance testing,
measured by the number of features
at which time they frequently notice errors
delivered and not by the number of tasks
and omissions that have to be corrected
performed. When it becomes evident that
with future enhancements.
the trajectory of current (used up) effort in
Spiral methodologies became popular time will miss the deadline, the project is
in the 1990s to support building large immediately re-scoped.
systems iteratively. These methodologies
are popular in enterprise data warehousing
where we build the EDW one BI application
at a time. This type of methodology has an
enterprise perspective. That means that
spiral EDW methodologies have many
additional tasks that need to be performed
and some of these tasks involve
stakeholders other than the primary user 3.2 Scrum and XP
of the BI application. But, with the Two of the most popular Agile software
exception of developing the EDW in development methodologies are Scrum and
iterations, spiral methodologies basically XP.

40
 Comparative study of Agile Business Intelligence and Agile Data Warehouse
Scrum is a term borrowed from Rugby
and XP stands for eXtreme Programming.
The authors of these methodologies, as
well as most other prominent Agile
practitioners, are project managers and
seasoned developers with decades of
experience in developing stand-alone
operational systems - most written with
object-oriented code. They are not EDW/
BI practitioners, and thus, Scrum and
XP were not developed specifically for
enterprise data warehousing. Writing
software to create stand-alone operational
systems does not require data integration
efforts like data standardization, enterprise
data modeling, business rules ratification
by major business stakeholders,
coordinated ETL data staging, common
metadata, collectively architected
(designed) databases, and so on. Instead,
the basic premise behind Scrum and XP is
to write and deliver quality software (code)
in short prescribed intervals, but inherently
without significant regard or focus on data
standardization and data architecture from
an enterprise perspective.
3.3 Can Agile be used for BI?
That brings us to the next question: Can
Agile be used for BI? Well, that depends on
what you call BI. There are a growing
number of companies that boast to be using
Agile methodologies on BI projects. This
analysis shows that most of those
companies restrict their development effort
mostly to writing code for stand-alone BI
applications. In other words, the BI
application developers don't deal with data
standardization and integration - or at least
not very effectively and rarely from an
enterprise perspective. Many complain
about the dirty data negatively affecting
their aggressive deadlines, evidently not
realizing that cleaning up dirty data,
standardizing data, and integrating data
across the enterprise are - or should be -
41
three key objectives of delivering BI.
However, as long as the primary goal is to
build separate BI solutions for individual
users or departments, the popular Agile
software development methodologies like
Scrum or XP can certainly be made to work.
Some BI teams try to wait for the data
to be ready in the EDW (placed there by a
separate EDW team) before they develop
selected BI features using Scrum or XP.
Many companies using this approach have
gone so far as to separate their BI team
from their EDW team and have both teams
report to different managers. This
organizational change not only disrupts the
cohesion of the total EDW/BI effort, but
also creates an unfair competition and ill
feelings between the two teams. I hear BI
teams complain bitterly about their EDW
team being too slow, and I hear the EDW
teams complain bitterly about their BI team
not understanding their data efforts and
thus having unreasonable expectations
about the speed at which cleansed,
standardized, and integrated data can be
loaded into the EDW. I also see many of
the BI teams trying to force their
counterpart EDW teams to adopt Scrum or
XP. Most EDW teams resist, recognizing
that their projects are data-intensive and
not code-intensive, and that the prescribed
Agile rules in Scrum and XP cannot work
for them. Other EDW teams try to adhere
to the strict rules of these Agile
methodologies and fail.
3.4 Can agile be used for EDW?
Can agile be used for enterprise data
warehousing? Let's first agree on what we
mean by enterprise data warehousing.
If your definition of BI includes building
or expanding the necessary EDW
components and having that effort be part
of every project that delivers BI
applications, and if you want to apply an
 Md. Deedar Shamsi
Agile method to building the entire end-to-
end solution (including data cleansing, data
standardization, enterprise data modeling,
coordinated EDW ETL, and meta data
repository), then - in my opinion - using
the popular Agile software development
methodologies Scrum and XP will not work.
Remember that these methodologies were
never designed for data-centric business
integration projects. However, that does not
mean that you cannot go Agile.
3.5 Extreme Scoping™
Extreme Scoping™ uses all of the agile
principles that can be used on business
integration projects and discards those
agile principles that don't apply. It does not
seek to replace the Agile coding method-
ologies Scrum and XP. Instead, it provides
the necessary Agile EDW umbrella for the
entire project effort, not just the coding.
Extreme Scoping™ has several distinct
project planning steps, which are
performed by a 4-5 member core team, not
by a single project manager. The core team
members start out by reviewing their EDW
methodology and selecting the tasks into a
preliminary WBS. Using this WBS as a
guide, the core team members create a
high-level project roadmap to give an
understanding of the overall effort,
resources, cost, schedule, risks, and
assumptions for the entire new BI
application. This is necessary in order to
come up with the right number of software
releases, the right sequence of those
releases, the dependencies among the
requirements, and thus, the deliverables
and scope for each release. Without this
crucial step, the process of breaking an
application into software releases would be
completely arbitrary.
Once the core team members are
comfortable with the scope and sequence
of the proposed software releases and are
42
confident that each software release can
be accomplished within the allotted time-
box (deadline), they create a detailed project
plan with weekly milestones for the first
software release. Starting with the deadline
and working backwards, the core team
members determine how far along they
must be the week before the deadline in
order to make the deadline. Put another
way, they determine in what state the
project or deliverable must be the week
before the deadline. They repeat this
process by backing up another week and
another week and so on. If they pass the
project start date, the core team members
must determine if the scope is too large for
the release deadline or if the activities
between the milestones are overestimated.
After the project activities for the first
software release are organized into weekly
basis, the core team members self-organize
themselves into the appropriate number of
work teams. Knowing the makeup of the
work teams and knowing the weekly
milestones, the core team members decide
on the detailed tasks and task deliverables
for each milestone, referring to the work
breakdown structure they created earlier.
They also decide which tasks and
deliverables are assigned to what person
on what work team. The detailed daily task
assignments and task deliverables are
documented on a white board, a flip chart,
a spreadsheet, or other informal media,
which can be modified quickly and easily.
The core team members use this informal
detailed project plan on a daily basis to
guide the day-to-day work activities,
manage the change control process during
prototyping, and monitor the progress of
the project. They do not use this detailed
plan to report the project status to
management. Instead, they create a short
one-page Milestone Chart showing whether
weekly milestones have been completed,
delayed, or eliminated.
 Comparative study of Agile Business Intelligence and Agile Data Warehouse
If the first software release was
completed on time and without problems,
the core team members can plan the second
software release in the same manner.
However, if there were problems with the
first software release, such as
underestimated tasks, incomplete
deliverable, friction on the core team,
constant adjustments to the scope, and so
on, the core team members must review
and adjust the high-level project roadmap
produced in the first step. They must revisit
their understanding of the overall effort,
resources, cost, schedule, risks, and
assumptions for the entire application.
Then they must make the necessary
adjustments to the remaining software
releases. That can include changing the
scope for the second software release,
changing the number of software releases,
reprioritizing and changing the sequence
of the software releases, changing the
deliverables for one or more software
releases, changing the deadlines, or
changing resources. Only then can the core
team proceed with the detailed planning of
the second software release.
3.6 Twelve Agile Principles
There are 12 Agile Principles (Manifesto)
Agile Manifesto grouped as Process, People,
and Other.
3.6.1 Process
1. Our highest priority is to satisfy the
customer through early and continuous
delivery of valuable software[9].
2. Welcome changing requirements, even
late in development. Agile processes
harness change for the customer's
competitive advantage[9].
3. Deliver working software frequently,
from a couple of weeks to a couple of
months, with a preference to the shorter
timescale[9].
43
4. Working software is the primary
measure of progress[9].
3.6.2 People
5. Agile processes promote sustainable
development. The sponsors, developers,
and users should be able to maintain a
constant pace indefinitely[9].
6. Business people and developers must
work together daily throughout the
project[9].
7. Build projects around motivated
individuals. Give them the environment
and support they need, and trust them
to get the job done[9].
3.6.3 Other
8. The most efficient and effective method
of conveying information is face-to-face
conversation[9].
9. At regular intervals, the team reflects
on how to become more effective, then
tunes and adjusts its behavior[9].
10. Continuous attention to technical
excellence and good design enhances
agility[9].
11. Simplicity-the art of maximizing the
amount of work not done-is essential[9].
12. The best architectures, requirements,
and designs emerge from self-
organizing teams[9].
3.7 Data Virtualization
Data Virtualization accomplishes this by
decoupling reports from data structures,
by integrating data in an on-demand
fashion, and by managing meta data
specifications centrally without having to
replicate them. This makes data
virtualization the ideal technology for
developing agile business intelligence
systems. This is the primary reason for the
increased agility.
 Md. Deedar Shamsi
When data virtualization is applied, an
abstraction and encapsulation layer is
provided which hides for applications most
of the technical aspects of how and where
data is stored; Because of that layer,
applications don't need to know where all
the data is physically stored, how the data
should be integrated, where the database
servers run, what the required APIs are,
which database language to use, and so
on. When data virtualization technology is
deployed, to every application it feels as if
one large database is accessed.
The concepts of data consumer and data
store are key to the definition of data
virtualization:
Data virtualization is the technology
that offers data consumers a unified,
abstracted, and encapsulated view for
querying and manipulating data stored in
a heterogeneous set of data stores.
Typical business intelligence application
areas that experience an increased level
of agility are virtual data marts, self-service
reporting and analytics, operational
reporting and analytics, interactive
prototyping, virtual sandboxing,
collaborative development, and disposable
reports.
To summarize, deploying data
virtualization in BI systems leads to more
light weights architectures with a smaller
data footprint, resulting in more agile
systems.
4. COMPLEXITY ANALYSIS
4.1 BI Performance Reports and Analy-
sis
Most companies today use Business
Intelligence (BI) reports and dashboards to
measure business performance at strategic,
tactical and operational levels. However
today, business is demanding much more
44
than just descriptive BI. Many organiza-
tions today want to go beyond this by
implementing predictive and prescriptive
analytics. To that end, many companies are
now establishing advanced analytics teams
in business departments to help develop
new advanced and predictive analytics that
can be deployed in real-time and in
historical environments to produce new
insights for competitive advantage. This is
happening both in traditional Data Ware-
house and in new Big Data environments
where data scientists are analyzing new
multi-structured data sources to produce
new models and insights. Also business
analysts are using these analytics in visual
data discovery tools to help predict and
forecast the future. In addition analytics
are being embedded in applications to help
embed recommendations, alerts and
forward looking insights in processes and
applications to optimize business
operations.
Another challenge is the number of data
sources that companies are now accessing
to capture data for analysis to produce
deeper insights. Clickstream data, social
network interaction data, weather data,
sensor data, location data and news feeds
are just a few of these. The question is what
should companies do with this data? How
should it be organized and stored? The
emergence of Hadoop has seen data
cleansing and integration being offloaded
from Data Warehouses, to cheaper lower
cost Hadoop environments but is this at
the expense of Data Governance? How do
you govern data in Big Data environments
and traditional Data Warehouses with
confidence? What if structured data is
brought into Hadoop?
4.2 Recreating BI and DW: new architec-
ture and advanced technologies
The original Data Warehouse
 Comparative study of Agile Business Intelligence and Agile Data Warehouse

architecture of the 1980s separated

"decision support" from day-to-day
business operations [15]. This supported
Decision-Making needs at the time and was
easily implemented on then emerging
technologies, such as relational databases.
However, today's Business needs fully
integrated processes, closely linking
information and activities from all areas of
the Enterprise. Decision-Making and
Action-Taking are tightly bound. Business
cycles are dramatically shorter and span
company boundaries. So far, Enterprise IT,
including Business Intelligence, has
responded slowly and incoherently.
Business Integrated Insight (BI2) is a
new architecture that reintegrates all
Decision-Making and Action-Taking into
the overall processes of the Business.
the millennium; and the subsequent
Starting from the Data Warehouse, it
emergence of the web mega-fauna-Google,
incorporates a variety of technological
Facebook, eBay and more. The financial
advances, such as SOA, distributed access,
crisis of 2008 and the subsequent Euro
Web technologies, Content Management
sovereign debt crisis. The Arab Spring.
and specialised relational databases. BI2
General Motors, from world's largest
thus provides a comprehensive structure
automobile maker for 77 years to
for the full Enterprise IT integration
bankruptcy in 2008 and re-emergence at
demanded by modern Businesses. In
the top spot in 2011. From three
addition, it directly addresses the current
companies-Nokia, Research in Motion, and
Data Warehousing issues, such as
Motorola-dominating the smartphone
operational BI, executive Decision-Support,
market in 2006 to none of them among the
comprehensive information discovery and
leaders by last year. If there is one single,
innovation, and Enterprise-Wide Decision
common factor in all this tumultuous
Management. And, although novel, BI2 is
change, it is technology and its intersection
designed as an evolution from current Data
with business and people. Allow me to
Warehouse, operational and collaborative
introduce you to an important evolution in
technologies.
the business world. A new species of
The delegates will also receive a copy business is emerging. It has been vaguely
of the book "Business Intelligence: Insight visible for some time now. But its time has
and Innovation beyond Analytics and come. A new environment in which people
According to some interpretations, the end live and work.
of the Mayan Calendar on 21 December,
The initial technological signs can be
2012 signifies the end of the world.
seen as far back as the 1980s. The
And how business, and the world in difference now, 30 years later, is that these
general, has changed in the last decade! seeds have matured and grown into a highly
Dotcom boom to bust in the early years of diverse and interdependent technology

45
 Md. Deedar Shamsi
jungle that today's business users dare to
enter in significant numbers. And they are
ready and able to do so; having grown up
with computing and communications
technology that, thirty years ago, would
have been seen as magic by the vast
majority of business people.
There are three key characteristics of
the biz-tech ecosystem as it has emerged
in the past few years:
1. Interdependence: Business and
technology are each driven, one by the
other, in a tight loop. New technology
enables new business possibilities; new
business opportunities drive advances
in technology
2. Reintegration: The silos within and
across both business and IT have grown
increasingly uncomfortable to main-
tain; they deliver inefficiencies,
miscommunications and errors. The
cracks can no longer be hidden from
Web-savvy customers; coherence is
becoming mandatory
3. Cross-over: Business people need the
skill to understand sufficient technology
to envision how new advances could be
used to recreate the business. Similarly,
IT people need the business acumen to
see how business needs can be satisfied
in new ways by emerging technology
In many ways, these characteristics are
diametrically opposed to the way business
and IT have operated for five decades
already-business determines their
requirements, hands them over to IT and
waits for an application to be delivered,
determines that it was incomplete or
incorrect and goes around the loop again.
That era is coming to a close and, with it,
our entire approach to business intelligence
is set to change. In the coming few years,
successful businesses will be those that
create a high degree of synergy between
business and IT. They will break down the
46
barriers between business intelligence,
operational systems and office support
(collaborative) environments. They will
integrate external data directly into their
business systems. Business intelligence
will become Business Integrated Insight
(BI2).
Business Integrated Insight in action
Just as BI set the scope for much of the
advances in information usage in the 1990s
and the Web the 2000s, big data looks set
to dominate information thinking in the
2010s. The term big data covers a multitude
of sins. But, here, I focus on one aspect of
the topic, sensor-generated data and,
specifically, vehicle telemetric-the process
of transmitting and receiving computer-
generated data derived from electronic
sensors, typically through an on-board
controller/computer and the use of this
data to remotely monitor a range of
conditions and events occurring in the
vehicle.
4.3 Idea
Business Integrated Insight: What It
Means for 2012 and Beyond. From the point
of view of the biz-tech ecosystem and BI2,
a number of messages are clear.
First, we've seen a consistent move in
BI towards operational BI-analysis and
action-taking based on near real-time data-
over the past decade. While this will
continue, it will, at best, only partially meet
demands for extreme business innovation.
New data sources, big data in most cases,
will be used operationally to drive new
business processes. Business and IT must
cooperate closely to understand how new
information and technologies can be used
to create new business processes and how
such changes can be incorporated into
existing IT systems-the interdependence,
reintegration and cross-over characteristics
described above.
 Comparative study of Agile Business Intelligence and Agile Data Warehouse

Second, the distinction between what examines how organizations should

we traditionally call "operational" and manage and govern all this data going
"informational" processing is becoming forward.
increasingly unclear as the business
In summary, Extreme Scoping™ is an
demands real-time reaction to a rapidly
EDW-specific Agile project planning
changing environment. This demand,
process, which is based on my robust
together with exploding data volumes,
methodology Business Intelligence
severely restricts the old approach of
Roadmap. It uses all of the Agile principles
copying/cleansing data into a data
that work for EDW/BI projects, and it does
warehouse and data mart environment. Of
not force you to use other Agile principles
course, that approach will remain valid for
that do not work for EDW/BI projects.
statutory and regulatory reporting where
the highest level of accuracy and The biggest challenge facing the
consistency is mandatory. But, beyond business intelligence industry today is how
that, minimizing the number of copies of to develop business intelligence systems
data and accessing one, original data set that have an agility level that matches the
for multiple purposes will be the norm. This speed with which the business evolves. If
is discussed in a number of papers on BI2 the industry fails in this, current business
available on my website. intelligence systems will slowly become
obsolete and will weaken the organization's
Third, not only are data volumes
decision-making strength. Now that the
increasing rapidly but much of this "new"
economic recession is not going to pass
data we will be handling differs in some
soon and now that businesses have to
key characteristics from that which we
operate more competitively, the need to
traditionally used. The new data sources
increase the agility of the business
are external and of ill-defined quality. They
intelligence systems should be number one
have very different and often less formalized
on every organization's list of business
structures. They have been collected for
intelligence requirements. Agility is
other purposes than how we want to use
becoming a crucial property of each and
them. Ownership and privacy will be
every business intelligence system.
serious concerns.
Most of the current Business Intelli-
Data virtualization is a technology that
gence systems are not agile. It's not one
can help make business intelligence
aspect that makes them static. But
systems more agile. It simplifies the
undoubtedly one of the dominant reasons
development process of reports through
is the database-centric solution that forms
aspects such as unified data access; data
the heart of so many Business Intelligence
store independency; centralized data
systems. The architectures of most
integration, transformation, and cleansing;
Business Intelligence systems are based
consistent reporting results, data language
on a chain of data stores; Examples of
translation, minimal data store
such data stores are production databases,
interference, simplified data structures,
a data staging area, a data warehouse,
and efficient distributed data access.
data marts, and some personal data stores
(PDS). The latter can be a small file or a
5. CONCLUSION
spreadsheet used by one or two business
This paper examines trends in Business users. In some systems an operational data
Analytics and Business Intelligence and store (ODS) is included as well. These data

47
 Md. Deedar Shamsi
stores are chained by transformation logic
that copies data from one data store to
another. ETL and replication are commonly
the technologies used for copying. We will
call systems with this architectyre classic
Business Intelligence systems in this
article.
The reason why so many Business
Intelligence systems have been designed
and developed in this way, has to do with
the state of software and hardware of the
last twenty years. These technologies had
their limitations with respect to
performance and scalability, and therefore,
on one hand, the reporting and analytical
workload had to be distributed over
multiple data stores, and on the other hand,
transformation and cleansing processing
had to be broken down into multiple steps.
6. REFERENCES
[1] BI_Principles_for_Agile_Develop
ment_12-0 http://www.allabout
agile.com/what-is-agile-10-key-
principles/
[2] Bruni, Margherita. "5 Steps To Agile
BI", Informationweek.com, June 13,
2011 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Agile_Business_Intelligence#cite_ref-
5_Steps_To_Agile_BI_8-1.
[3] http://www.agiledata.org/essays/
dataWarehousingBestPractices.html
[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Agile_Business_Intelligence#cite_note-
What_Agile_Business_Intelligence_
Really_Means-10.
[5] M. Mircea, B. Ghilic-Micu and M.
Stoica, "Combining Knowledge,
Process and Business Intelligence to
Delivering Agility in Collaborative
Environment". L. Fischer, ed. (2010).
[6] BPM and Workflow Handbook,
Spotlight on Business Intelligence.
48
Florida: Future Strategies Inc. &
Workflow Management Coalition, 99-
114 (2010).
[7] M. Mircea and A. I. Andreescu,
"Agile Systems Development for the
Management of Service Oriented
Organizations". In: 11th International
Conference on Computer Systems
and Technologies, Comp. Sys. Tech.'
10, Sofia, Bulgaria, 17-18 June,
341-346 (2010).
[8] A. Andreescu and M. Mircea ,
"Actual Trends in Software Systems
for Business Management", Comp.
Sys. Tech.' 08, The Bulgaria
Academic Society of Computer
Systems and Information
Technologies, (2008).
[9] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/
Agile_Business_Intelligence#cite_ref-
Three_ Steps_to_Analytic_Heaven_5-
0.
[10] M. Mircea, B. Ghilic-Micu and M.
Stoica, "Combining Business
Intelligence with Cloud Computing
to Delivery Agility in Actual
Economy".
[11] Journal of Economic Computation and
Economic Cybernetics Studies, 45(1),
39-54 (2011).
[12] M. Mircea and A. I. Andreescu,
"Extending SOA to Cloud Computing
in Higher Education". In: K. S.
Soliman (ed.), The 15 th IBIMA
conference on Knowledge
Management and Innovation: A
Business Competitive Edge
Perspective, Cairo, Egypt 6-7
November, 602-615 (2010).
[13] http://www.agiledata.org/essays/
dataWarehousingBestPractices.html
rhayati A.Jawawi
[14] M. Cunningham, "Cloud Computing
 Comparative study of Agile Business Intelligence and Agile Data Warehouse

Enables Self-serve BI", 2010, http:/ [15] B. Ghilic-Micu, M. Mircea and M.

/www.dashboardinsight.com/artic Stoica, The Audit of Business.
les/business-performance- [16] http://www.technologytransfer.eu/
management/cloud-computing- event/1365/Recreating_BI_and_
enables-self-serve-bi.aspx. DW_new_architecture_and_adva.

49
Global Sci-Tech, 8 (1) January-March
Md 2016;
Bariquepp.
Quamar
50-55 DOI No.: 10.5958/2455-7110.2016.00006.9

Intelligent Web Agent through Web Text Mining

Techniques with Machine Learning

MD BARIQUE QUAMAR
CyberQ Consulting Private limited
#622, DLF Tower A, Jasola, New Delhi-110025, India
*E-mail: barik011@gmail.com

ABSTRACT

The simply the web, is the most dynamic environment. The web has grown steadily
in recent years and his content is changing every day. web is recognized as the
largest data source in the world. In this paper, we present a Web Mining process
able to discover knowledge in a distributed and heterogeneous multi organization
environment. The Web Text Mining process is based on flexible architecture and is
implemented by four steps able to examine web content and to extract useful hidden
information through mining techniques. An important aspect in Web Mining is
played by the automation of extraction rules with proper algorithms. Machine
Learning techniques have been successfully applied to Web Mining and
Information Extraction tasks thanks to the generalization and adaptation capabilities
that are a key requirement on general content, heterogeneous web pages In order
to keep the recognition speed high enough for real-world applications an additional
algorithm is proposed which lets the approach to boost both in speed and quality.

Key words: Web mining, machine learning, unstructured data, and intelligent web
agent.

1. INTRODUCTION emerging field of web mining aims at finding

The advent of the World Wide Web
(WWW) has overwhelmed home computer
users with an enormous flood of
information. To almost any topic one can
think of, one can find pieces of information
that are made available by other internet
citizens, ranging from individual users that
post an inventory of their record collection,
to major companies that do business over
the Web.
Many of these systems are based on
machine learning and Data Mining
techniques. Just as Data Mining aims at
discovering valuable information that is
hidden in conventional databases, the
and extracting relevant information that is
hidden in Web-related data, in particular
in (hyper-text) documents published on the
Web. Like Data Mining, web mining is a
multi-disciplinary effort that draws
techniques from fields like information
retrieval, statistics, machine learning,
natural language processing, and others.
Web mining is commonly divided into
the following three sub-areas:
• Web Content/text Mining: application
of Data Mining techniques to
unstructured or semi-structured text,
typically HTML- documents.
• Web Structure Mining: use of the

50
 Intelligent Web Agent through Web Text Mining Techniques with Machine Learning
hyperlink structure of the Web as an
(additional) information source.
• Web Usage Mining: analysis of user
interactions with a Web server.
2. WEB MINING
Web mining is the use of data mining
techniques for automatic discovery and
knowledge extraction from documents and
Web services. This new area of research was
defined as an interdisciplinary field (or
multidisciplinary) that uses techniques
borrowed from: data mining, text mining,
databases, statistics, machine learning,
multimedia, etc.
Web mining has three operations of
interests - clustering (finding natural
groupings of users, pages etc.), associations
(which URLs tend to be requested together),
and sequential analysis (the order in which
URLs tend to be accessed). As in most real-
world problems, the clusters and
associations in Web mining do not have
crisp boundaries and often overlap
considerably. In addition, bad exemplars
(outliers) and incomplete data can easily
occur in the data set, due to a wide variety
of reasons inherent to web browsing and
logging. Thus, Web Mining and Personali-
zation requires modeling of an unknown
number of overlapping sets in the presence
of significant noise and outliers, (i.e. bad
exemplars). Moreover, the data sets in Web
Mining are extremely large.
In this paper, the web mining process
is divided into the following five subtasks:
(1) Resource finding and retrieving;
(2) Information selection and pre-
processing;
(3) Patterns analysis and recognition;
(4) Validation and interpretation;
(5) Visualization.
51
The Web is a critical channel of
communication and promoting a company
image. E-commerce sites are important
sales channels. It is important to use data
mining methods to analyze data from the
activities performed by visitors on websites.
Web mining methods are divided into
three categories:
2.1 Web Content Mining :
Web Content Mining is the way of
retrieving useful information from Web. The
retrieved information may contain text,
images, audio and video.
Text Mining : Text Mining is a type of
mining where data is extracted only in text
format from the data bases. Text mining
can be said as an extension of Data mining.
Here the data can be retrieved by specifying
the attributes or key words. Text mining or
text data mining, the process of finding
useful or interesting patterns, models,
directions, trends, or role from
unstructured text, is used to describe the
application of data mining techniques to
automated discovery of knowledge from text
[5].
Image Mining : Image mining is the
concept used to detect unusual patterns
and extract implicit and useful data from
images stored in the large data bases.
Therefore, we can say that image mining
deals with making associations between
different images from large image databases
 Md Barique Quamar

shown in Fig 3. Image mining is used in

variety of fields like medical diagnosis,
space research, remote sensing,
agriculture, industries and also handling
hyper spectral images. Images include
maps, geological structures, and biological
structures and even in the educational
field, explained in [6].
Video Mining : Mining of video data is
complicated than mining an image data.
Video is a collection of moving images like
animation. There are three types of videos
in video mining.
1. The produced (includes movies, news
videos and dramas).
2. The Raw (includes traffic videos, Fig. 2. The Progress of Web Content Mining
surveillance videos etc…).
used for the four types of web documents
3. The Medical Video (includes ultra sound are listed below in the table 1. Table 1
videos including echocardiogram etc…) techniques of web content mining for
The Fig. 4 given below clearly represents various web documents.
how the video mining takes place in a
multimedia retrieval using web mining 2.2 Web Structure Mining :
concept. Web Structure Mining is the way of
discovering the structure information from
Audio Mining : Audio is a continuous
the Web, which is further divided into two
media type as video the techniques used
types based on the structure information.
in audio are similar to the video data
Web structure mining aims at developing
extraction. Audio can be in the form of
techniques to identify quality of web page
radio, speech, etc… To mine audio data,
which can be find out with the help of
first it has to be converted into text using
hyperlinks. For example, from the links, we
speech transcription techniques. Audio
can discover important Web pages, which,
data can also be mined directly by using
incidentally, is a key technology used in
audio information techniques and then
search engines. We can also discover
mining selects the audio data. Audio
communities of users who share common
mining is very simple in designing when
interests. Traditional data mining does not
compared to video mining.
perform such tasks because there is
2.1.1 Methods of Web content Mining: usually no link structure in a relational
table.
The figure 2 shows the web content
mining process and the information 2.3 Web Usage Mining:
retrieved in the structured format.
Web Usage Mining is the application of
Based on the documents in the web the Data mining techniques in order to obtain
traditional methods are partitioned into the useful patterns from the Web, Which
four parts [3] [7]. The techniques that are is a huge repository of different patterns.

52
 Intelligent Web Agent through Web Text Mining Techniques with Machine Learning

Table 1 : Techniques for Web Content Mining

Document Techniques Process

Unstructured Information Extraction Extracting information from unstructured data and converts
into structured data. Pattern matching and transformation
are used.
Topic Tracking Tracks the topics searched by the user and predicts the
documents and produce to the user that of interest.
Prediction techniques are used.
Summarization Reduce the length of documents by minimizing the length of
the documents. Analyzing the semantics and interprets the
meaning of words.
Categorization Documents are placed into a predefined group.
Clustering Used to group the similar documents Grouping based on
the properties are identified.
Information Visualization To build a graphical representation to the user Feature
extraction, indexing techniques are used.
Structured Web crawlers Traverse the hypertext structure of the web. Internal crawlers
go through internal web pages of sites. External web crawlers
go to the unknown links or sites.
Wrapper Generation Set of information extraction rule to extract the useful data
from web pages. Provides a lot of meta information Page
ranking is used.
Page Content Mining Extracts the content of a page. Page ranking is used to display
the results according to the rank.
Using OEM Object Exchange Model. To understand the information
structure of the web. Self describing structure of the data is
produced.
Semi Structured Top Down Extraction Traverse the hypertext structure of the web. Internal crawlers
go through internal web pages of sites. External web crawlers
go to the unknown links or sites.
Web Data Extraction Language Set of information extraction rule to extract the useful data
from web pages. Provides a lot of meta information Page
ranking is used.
SKICAT Based on astronomical data analysis and cataloging system.
Multimedia Color Histogram Matching Find the correlation between the color components.
Unwanted artifacts are removed using smoothing techniques.
Multimedia Miner Extraction of images. Videos for the feature extraction, and
feature comparison for matching queries.
Shot Boundary Detection Automatic detection of boundaries.

3. CONCLUSIONS clearly extracted by the web mining

techniques when the techniques are used
Data mining techniques used for web
accurately based on the requirements of
information extraction are incredible
the users. The proposed solution has been
system and recommended for the
engineered into a complete web crawling
maintenance of highly confidential data.
system for automatic e-commerce offers
This is affluent, most intelligent resource
extraction, providing a working proof of the
extractor, and useful to maintain the
ideas proposed in this thesis. The e-
historical data. Vast amount of data is
commerce and web news scenario
maintained by the web sources and can be
considered during the experimental

53
 Md Barique Quamar
analysis are quite different making the
proposed approach a good candidate for the
more general Web Content Mining problem.
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55
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Mechanical Engineering Department of Mechanical B.Sc. (Hon.) Chemistry M.Sc. (Chemistry)
Mechanical & Automation Engineering Engineering B.Sc. (Hon.) Physics M.Sc. (Physics)
Civil Engineering Manufacturing Process & Automation B.Sc. (Hon.) Mathematics M.Sc. (Mathematics)
Engineering
Electrical & Electronic Engineering Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)
Electronic & Communication Machine Design
Engineering SCHOOL OF HUMANITIES & LANGUAGES
Thermal Engineering
Computer Science & Engineering Industrial Production & Engineering B.A. (Hon.) English M.A. (English)
Bachelor of Architecture Department of Electronic & B.A. (Hon.) Urdu M.A. (Urdu)
Communication Engineering
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)
Electronic & Communication
Engineering SCHOOL OF SOCIAL SCIENCES

VLSI Design
Department of Computer Science
& Engineering
Computer Science & Engineering
Department of Electrical &
Electronic Engineering
Power System
Department of Civil Engineering
Structural & Foundation Engineering
Comunication Technology and
Management
Environmental Engineering
Research Programme (Ph. D. Course)
Mechanical Engineering
Bachelor of Social Work (BSW) Master of Social Work (MSW)
B.A. (Hon.) Economics M.A. (Economics)
B.A. (Hon.) History M.A. (History)
B.A. (Hon.) Geography M.A. (Geography)
SCHOOL OF EDUCATION & TRAINING
Bachelor of Education (B.Ed.) Master of Education (M.Ed.)
Diploma in Education (D.Ed.) Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)
SCHOOL OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
BCA MCA
B.Sc. (I.T.)
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph.D.)

Civil Engineering UNIVERSITY POLYTECHNIC

Electrical & Electronic Engineering
Diploma in Civil Engineering
Electronic & Communication Engineering
Diploma in Mechanical Engineering
Computer Science & Engineering
Diploma in Electrical Engineering
SCHOOL OF COMMERCE & MANAGEMENT
Bachelor of Business Administration Master of Business Administration
(BBA) (MBA)

AL-FALAH HOSPITAL
B. Com. M. Com.
Master of Finance & Control
Doctor of Philosophy (Ph. D.)

Faridabad (Haryana), India

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AL-FALAH UNIVERSITY
Faridabad (Haryana), India

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