POLYMERS

Monomer

Polymer
Polymerization

Degree of Polymerization(n)

n H2C CH2 * CH2 CH2 *

n
Functionality

2 MMA (2) 2

Tacticity: relative stereochemistry of adjacent chiral center within a polymer

Classification of polymers
On basis of occurrence:
Natural Polymers: (from natural sources plants &animals) wool,
silk, protein, wood, cellulose, jute, cotton, natural rubber, etc.
Synthetic Polymers: PE, PVC, PTFE epoxy resin, etc.

On basis of thermal behaviour:

Thermoplastic: PE, PMMA, PTFE, PC, etc.
Thermosetting: bakelite, epoxy resin, etc.

On basis of type of polymerization:

Addition polymerisation: PE, PVC, PMMA, etc.
Condensation polymerisation: bakelite, polyester, nylon-6,6
On basis of chemical structure:
Linear polymers: HDPE, all thermo plastics.
Branched polymers: LDPE, polystyrene, PMMA.
Cross linked polymers: bakelite, urea-formaldehyde.

On basis of presence of organic or inorganic group:

Organic Polymers: PE, PVC, PMMA, PTFE, PC, etc.
Inorganic polymers: Silicone, polyboron nitrides etc.

On basis of streochemistry:
Atactic:
Isotactic:
Syndotactic:
On basis of end use:
Elastomer: natural rubber, buna-S, silicon rubber
Fiber: jute, silk, nylon-6, 6 & terylene
Resin: epoxy, urea-formaldehyde
Plastic: PE, PVC, Teflon, etc.

On basis of monomers:
Homopolymers: PE,
Copolymers:Styrene-Butadine,
acrylonitrile-butadine-styrene etc.
Types of Polymerisation
Addition (chain Growth) Polymerisation:

• Addition of monomers
• No byproduct is formed
• usually in presence of free radical initiator

n H2C CH2 * CH2 CH2 *

n
Main features:
• Only olefinic/vinyl compounds undergo this polymerisation
• Double bond provide required bonding sites
• Rapid addition of monomer takes place
• Elemental composition remains same for both reactants and product
Condensation (Step Growth) Polymerisation:

• Bi-functional/Polyfunctional monomer
• Intermolecular condensation
• Continuous elimination of byproduct
• The reaction occur in step and the polymer chain grows
with each step

n HOOC-(CH2)4-COOH
+ [-OC-( C H2)4-CO-NH-(CH2)6-NH-]n + 2n H2O
n H2N-(CH2)6-NH2 Nylon -6,6

Main features:
• Polymerization is catalyzed by acids/alkalis
• Polymerization is slow & stepwise
• Elemental composition is different for both reactants and product
Copolymerisation:

• Considered as a type of addition polymerisation

• It differs from the "simple" polymerization reaction in that, instead of
a monomer, a mixture of two or more chemically different monomers is used

Types: Some Useful Copolymers

 Block copolymer: Monomer A Monomer B Copolymer Uses
 Random copolymer: H2C=CHCl H2C=CCl2 Saran films & fibers
 Graft copolymer:
H2C=CHC6H5 H2C=C- SBR tires
CH=CH2 styrene
butadiene
rubber

H2C=CHCN H2C=C- Nitrile adhesives

CH=CH2 Rubber hoses
H2C=C(CH3)2 H2C=C- Butyl inner tubes
CH=CH2 Rubber
F2C=CF(CF3) H2C=CHF Viton gaskets
Structure-Property Relationship of Polymers
Structure depends upon
 Size of polymer chain
 Shape of polymer chain
 Chemical nature of the monomer

Affect by Polymer Structure

 Physical & Mechanical property

 Strength
Melt viscosity, impact & tensile
strength (mechanical properties)
Tensile strength & impact strength α
molecular mass
* Polymer is commercially useful if
have high tensile strength and low
flow/melt viscosity
 Crystallinity

*Polymer have crystalline and amorphous parts

*Degree of crystallinity of the polymer depends upon its
structure, linear polymer have high crystallinity. (HDPE is more
crystalline than LDPE which is more as compared to
polystyrene).
* Polymer chain having polar group have high crystallinity (H-
bonding with their neighboring chain)
* Isotactic & Syndiotactic polystyrene is highly crystalline.

 Elasticity

* Uncoiling & recoiling of molecular chain on

application of force
* Breaking can be avoided by: cross linking, avoiding
bulky groups, introducing non polar group
* Polymer chain having polar group have high
crystallinity.
 Non-Elastic Nature of Fibres

* Due to crystallizablity
* Chain mobility is reduced by close packing w/o cross linking
* Polar group & aromatic/cyclic group impart strength (Nylon 6,6)

 Plastic deformation (Flow behavior)

* Studied with application of temp. & pressure

* Thermoplastic deformation (Plastic deformation), due to linear structure, weak force
* Thermosetting polymer : no deformation

 Chemical resistivity

* Depends upon structure of polymer and nature of attacking reagent

* Depends upon presence of polar/non-polar group, molar mass, degree of crystallinity
* Higher molecular mass, less dissolution
• Increase crystallinity increases chemical resistivity
• Increases with degree of cross linking
 Glass Transition Temperature (Tg)

* Temperature below which a polymer is hard, brittle (glassy) and above which it is soft,
flexible (rubbery)

* Glassy State: Hard, brittle No segmental or molecular movement

* Rubbery State: Soft segmental motion but no molecular movement

Factor Effecting Tg:

Flexibility: Linear chain (C-C, C-O, C-N) single bond provide freedom of rotation, Rigid as
aromatic & cyclic or bulky group hinder the rotation, This hindrance increases Tg
Side Group: (eg: poly α- styrene/polystyrene)extra methyl gr. restrict rotation
Intermolecular forces: Polar gr. intermolecular forces, restrict segmental/molecular
mobility, Tg
Branching & cross linking: small branching reduce Tg & vice-versa
Plasticizer: Reduce (diisooctyl phthalate added to PVC reduce Tg 80 to belowRT)
Stereo-regularity: Tg (Isotactic > syndiotactic > atactic )
Molecular weight: Tg inc. with inc. in molecular
weight
Significance of Tg:

* Flexibility measure

* Idea of thermal expansion, heat capacity, refractive index electrical &

mechanical properties
* Tells about the nature of polymer
* Tg & Tm Provides the knowledge about fabrication of material
Plastics:

Polymers with high molecular mass, produced by

natural or synthetic organic compounds.

Derived from Greek word “plastikos” mean

capable of being molded or shaped
Classification of Plastics:
Thermoplastic
Formed by addition
Linear chain with negligible cross-link
Reversible change on heating
Soften on heating
Soft, weak & less brittle
Soluble in org. solvents
Low molecular weight
Reshaped & reused
No change in chemical composition
PE, PVC, PTFE
Thermosetting
Formed by condensation
3D network, covalent bonding
Irreversible change on heating, degrade
Doesn’t soften on heating
Hard, strong & more brittle
Insoluble in org. solvent
High molecular weight
Can’t be reshaped & reused
Change in composition while molding
Bakelite, Epoxy
Plastic Molding Method:

Shaping the plastic to desirable shape

& size
Material is heated, shaped & then
cooled (Thermoplastic)
 Thermosetter are molded quickly

Thermoplastic molding:
Injection molding
Extrusion molding
compression molding
Thermosetting molding:
compression molding
Injection molding
Advantages:
• High speed production
• Low production cost
• Minimal loss of material
• High precision
• Flexibility to make parts with complex shapes

Applications:
• manufacture bottle caps
• mugs
• dustbin
• chairs
• automotive dash boards
• etc
Extrusion molding

Advantages:
• Low initial setup cost Applications:
• Fast setup time • manufacture tubes
• Lowers production cost • rods
• plumbing pipes
• electric cables
• door insulation seals
• optical fibers
• steel/aluminium I beam
Compression molding

Advantages: Applications:
• Low initial setup cost • manufacture electric
• minimum loss of material parts switches, switch
• good surface finish boards, buttons
• Fast setup time • cooker handles
• electronic device cases
• appliance housing
• large container
 Commercial thermoplastics
Polyethene (PE)

 Generally Homopolymer of ethene/ethylene

 Addition polymerization
 LDPE & HDPE are homopolymers

LDPE (Low Density PE)

 Linear polymer with branching

 manufactured under high pressure (1K-3K atm) & temperature (80-350 0C) required using
initiator such as benzoyl peroxide or oxygen are used
 Process may be continuous or batch wise
Applications
 Transparent film for food &
garments packaging
 Squeeze bottle
 Paper coating
 wrapping
 table clothes
 Container & sheets
 Cable wire & insulation
HDPE (High Density PE)

 Linear polymer with little or no branching

 Produced under low pressure low temp (< 100 0C)
 using Ziegler-Natta catalyst (Al(C2H5)3 .TiCl4) used, coordination polymerization
occurs (Philip process)

Applications
 Dustbin
 Milk bottle
 cans
 drums
 containers
 fuel tanks
 pipes
 cable insulation
PP (Polypropylene)
 Linear polymer with little or no unsaturation
 Low pressure required
 Ziegler-Natta catalyst (Al(C2H5)3 TiCl4) used, coordination polymerization occurs
 90% or more of the polymer is isotactic form
 monomer are added in head to tail fashion

Applications
 Fiber & Filament
 Automotive/appliance components
 Packaging containers
 furniture
 Toys
 Pressure sensitive tape
 Revertible pouches
 Shrink films
PS (Polystyrene)

 Bulk/Suspension polymerization of styrene

 Free radical polymerisation

Applications
 Household wares
 combs, toys
 Radio, TV parts
 Video cassettes
 refrigerator parts
 electric insulation material
 Thermocol
PVC (Polyvinyl Chloride)

 Free radical polymerisation

 80% polymerisation due to suspension and
remaining is emulsion polymerisation
 Needs 50-75 oC
 Most versatile due to its blending ability with
plasticizers, stabilizers & different additives

Applications
 building & construction
 pipes, flooring & vinyl siding
 wire, cable insulation
 Packaging
 Flexible films, pool lining
 artificial leather, wall covering
 Electrical outlet boxes, automotive bumpers
PTFE (Polytetrafluoroethylene)/TEFLON

 Linear polymer
 Emulsion polymerization , peroxide initiator

Applications
 Insulation of motor, generator, wires, cable
 Coating in food processing units
 anti corrosive coat in weapons
 gasket, industrial filters, belts, non lubricated bearing
 Cardiovascular grafts, heart patches
 Ligament of knees
Phenol Formaldehyde Resin (Bakalite)

 Condensation polymer
 Phenol & formaldehyde reaction using base/acid
 Product depends upon conc. of reactant type of catalyst used

OH OH OH
OH

CH2OH HOH2C CH2OH CH2OH CH2OH

+ HCHO

CH2 OH

Applications
 Electric equipment parts
 cooker handle
Telephone parts
Golf ball
Head of typewriter
Adhesive for plywood
Lamination of cardboards & wood
RESOL
Elastomers (Rubbers)

 Polymer which can undergo long elongation & get back to original shape (elasticity)

Natural Rubber
 Prepared from latex
 Linear polymer of isoprene
 Rubber becomes more durable with better mechanical properties
 Sulphur crosslinking occurs between the polymer chain
 It brings stiffness & prevent intermolecular sliding

Properties
 Good tensile strength, electrically insulator
 low water absorption capacity
 Higher resistance towards oxidation, wear & tear
 Resistive towards solvent (Org.) petrol, benzene, oil, CCl4
Some Important Synthetic and Semi-synthetic Fibers

Nylons
Adipic acid
 are polyamide

E-aminocaproic acid

Applications
 Making sports gear, fishing lines, sports equipments
Making brushes and comb
 Provide insulation to equipment
 Bearings
 cords of tyres
 fabric for clothes
Composites
 Low density
 High strength & stiffness
 good abrasion
 Impact resistance
 Corrosion resistance

One or two distinct components combines to form a new class of materials suitable for
structural application
 Matrix-
 Dispersed phase- reinforced by particulates and fillers

Classification: 2 levels

 1st level
Matrix constituent
OMCs (Organic matrix composites)
MMCs (Metal matrix composites)
CMCs (ceramic matrix composites)
 2nd level
Reinforcement form
Fiber reinforced composites:
Discontinuous & continuous fibers

Laminar composites:
Structural composites, have high isotropic
strength

Particulate composites:

Particles, like flakes or powder eg; concrete,

wood particle board
 Fiber reinforced plastics
 composites of fiber & polymer matrix
 fiber are source of strength, polymer matrix glue the fiber together
 fillers & modifiers are added to smoothen the properties

Common reinforce agents: Al, aluminum oxide, aluminium silica, asbestos, graphite,
glass etc.

Polymer matrix: acrylonitrile butadiene, nylon, PE, PP, PET, polyester, polyurethane,
epoxy etc.

Applications
 In cars n aircrafts, due to light weight
 making bridges (graphite epoxy), due to strength
 cars & boats, due to corrosion resistance
 archery bows, due to flexiblity
 armors, due to high strength
 building insulation, automobile compartment, due to
thermal resistance
Conducting Polymers

Poly(p-phenylene)

Trans Polyacetylene
 Applications of conducting polymers

• Antistatic materials
• Electrode materials for rechargeable
batteries
• Light emitting diodes
• Electrochromic display windows
• Fuel cells electrocatalytic material
• Membrane for gas separation
Nanomaterials
Introduction:
Nanotechnology is the manipulation of atoms & molecules at nano scale (1-100nm)
To produce devices, structures, system etc. having at least one superior property.
The materials having at least one dimension in nano scale is called as nanomaterials
 When the bulk is converted to nano size then these nano material have extended
properties & tremendous use
 The study of nanomaterials is called nano science

Properties:
Physical & chemical properties of nano materials is different from single
atoms/molecules and bulk materials of same composition, due to spatial arrangement
of molecules or structure which results in different electronic, energetic, chemical, &
catalytical properties
 The surface to volume ratio is relatively larger than that of bulk material of same
mass, increases chemical reactivity also it affects the strength and electrical
properties.
 The quantum confinement is observed at nanoscale that changes the optical,
electronic & magnetic properties of material, the band gap increases as the size of
material is reduced to nano size.
Size Dependent Properties:

Particle size vs. Surface Area

Particle size α 1/surface area

With decrease in particle size

surface area of particle
increases, this relation brings out
remarkable changes in physical &
chemical properties of material

Surface Chemistry of Materials

Due to increased surface area, nanomaterial posses greater surface energy & are
less thermodynamically stable. There is difference in the properties of
atom/molecules present in surface & bulk. The surface atom/molecules have
enhanced reactivity & greater tendency to agglomerate. These have higher
surface energy and are relatively unstable.
Various physical properties viz., thermal, optical, mechanical etc are dependent on the
electronic state of material
Electronic Properties:
 Electronic properties generally depends upon energy level, types of bonding,
energy bands, energy gaps & fermi levels.
o The electrons move in quantified level in an isolated solid. If the distance between
atoms is less, electron orbital interact with each other, that’s leads to broadening of
energy levels to form energy bands.
o Internal bands (also known as narrow bands) are formed by inner shell, while the
electron in external shell form valence band.
o The electron in excited state form conduction band.
o Difference between the valance & conduction band is known as energy gap
o In metal energy gap is zero, in semiconductor it is small & large in case of insulator
o The max. energy for electron at absolute zero temp. is called Fermi level (fermi
energy)
o The physical properties are generally governed by the electrons that have energy
higher than fermi energy
The band gap decreases when the particle size is decreased & energy gaps gradually
convert into discrete molecular electronic levels.
Mechanical Properties:
 nanomaterials have crystalline size in 1-100nm & have
numerous grain boundaries due to small size of grain.
 these grain boundaries and small size determine the
mechanical properties of nanomaterials
 Mechanical properties are enhanced by reducing the grain
size, as grains of nano-size have no defect in them.
For ex. nanocrystalline Cu is 3 times more resistant to applied
stress than normal Cu crystals and deformed homogeneously.
 This crystalline nature of nano materials is maintained hence
mechanical properties like tensile strength, stress, compression,
Tg etc are enhanced.
 Fullerenes:
Third allotrope (crystalline) of carbon
Contains alternate hexagonal & pentagonal
rings
Hollow sphere (bucky ball), ellipsoid/tubes
(nanotubes)
 C60 (Buckminster) contains 12 pentagon &
20 hexagons

 Structure is similar to graphite & having hybridization between sp2 &

sp3
 molecule is symmetrical, with all bond length equal
 Brittle, soft weak, covalent material like properties
 Electrically insulator ( no movement of e-)
and the individual molecule held by Vander
Waals forces
Types of fullerenes:

 Buckyball cluster
o have less than 300 Carbon atoms
o Smallest Bucky ball is C20
o Found in soot of coal
o most abundant is C60
Characteristic of fullerenes:

 Highly symmetrical, sp2 in C60

 Chemically stable, heat stable (breaking needs over 10000C
 Reactive due to π- electrons delocalization or localise
 Water insoluble, more soluble in toluene & CS2
 Non toxic
 Nanotubes
o Hollow cylindrical tubes, with few nm to micron
diameter
o with single & multiple walls
Carbon Nanotubes (CNT):
Also called bucky tubes
 Have great length, strength, electrical & thermal properties
 Useful in nanoelectronics, optics & material science

Types:
Single walled nanotubes (SWNT): diameter ~1nm, million length
 The structure is formed as one atom thick layer of graphene
(graphite) sheet is wrapped
 Types: zigzag & armchair

Multiwalled nanotubes (MWNT): Multi layered

 Russian Doll model: concentric cylinders, single within larger
 Parchment model : single, rolling like a newspaper
Characteristic of CNT:
Strength: Strongest & stiffest due to covalent sp2 bonds.

Hardness: Too hard to compress (52 Gpa compared to diamond 150)

Kinetics: Movement of tubes occurs without friction, creating

automatic bearing (molecular ) nanotechnology

Thermal: Good thermal conduction along tube, but insulator laterally

along the tube axis
Application of nanomaterials:
In medicine:
Diagnostics: Magnetic NP (nanoparticle),
bound to suitable antibody & are used to
label molecules, structure or
microrganism eg: GNP (Gold NP) are use
for DNA sequencing

Drug delivery: Amount of drug consuption

& side effect can be reduced by depositing
the activated NP in the targated areas. Eg:
FeNP/GNP for cancer treatment.

Tissue repair: Nanotech can help in repair & regenerate damage tissue (tissue
engineering). It can replace organ transplant or artificial implant surgeries

Transdermal drug delivery: Nano protrusions on patches, can be fixed on skin like
plaster. These carries drug dose, act as tiny needles.
In electronic & communications:
Principle aim to develop 3D confined quantum structure electronic devices
(quantum wire, quantum dot)

Quantum well laser for telecommunication

High electron mobility transistors (HEMT), low noise
 Microwave application, laser emitting for data communication & senor coding
Three-dimensional (3D) structure or bulk structure: No
quantization of the particle motion occurs, i.e., the particle is free.

Two-dimensional (2D) structure or quantum well: Quantization of

the particle motion occurs in one direction, while the particle is
free to move in the other two directions.

One-dimensional (1D) structure or quantum wire: Quantization

occurs in two directions, leading to free movement along only one
direction.

Zero-dimensional (0D) structure or quantum dot (sometimes

called “quantum box”): Quantization occurs in all three directions.
Consumer Products:

Computer hardware
 display devices
 Mobile & communication products
 Audio products
 camera & films etc.

Advance uses:

 Transistors from CNT

 Memory chips with density 1 Tb/sq inch
 High speed transistors (from single atom thick graphene film)
 Light weight nano emmessive display panel using CNT
 Nomfet (Nanoparticle organic memory field-effect transistor) from GNP+
org molecules
In energy Science:
Zeolite (nano porous crystalline solid) are used for oil refining. They have
well defined molecular structure (molecular sieves). Helps in petrol yield
 Quantum dot can be used as light emission source, due to smaller size
than wavelength of light they do not scatter light & enhance optical
efficiency
 Electrode material can be changed by nano-structuring, imparts nano-
texture to improve electrical performance of battery
 Energy production can be brought about using nanomaterial as clean &
high efficiency energy sources (eg: LEDs)
 Solar cells can be integrated from nano crystal of semiconductors coated
with light absorbing dye, emmiting electron and from nanostructured
diamond thermal cells that capture heat & light, emitting high energy
electron
 Ultraporous nanomaterial are used to store hydrogen at high density for
fuel cell powered cars
In catalysis:
Hetrogeneous catalyst are now a days are used which have nano
size (active material attached to porous support)
 nanoparticle of metal, semiconductor, oxides & other compounds
are generally used
 Use of nano sized material generally provide large surface to
volume ratio
 Hence due to large surface area more contact is between the
reactant and the catalyst and more effective is the catalyst (eg: GNP)
 They also lower the reaction temperature, making reaction more
energy efficient
 Nanoparticle of transition metals oxide show catalytic
properties, which can be enhanced by NP like gold & platinum
4 main catogeries:
o Gold based (Au/TiO2, Au/MgO)
o Other metal based (Cu, Rh)
o Platinum/Pd based (eg: Pt/Pd/Ni)
o Nanosized metal particle dispersed in polymer (eg:
Cu/polymer, Pt/polymer)

 Limitation: Low thermal stability

 Lubricants
A lubricant is a substance introduced to reduce friction,
decrease the wear and improve the efficiency by forming a
film two between moving surfaces

Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of

solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements
sliding against each other

Asperity deformation, creates welded junction, which carry entire load between
the surfaces. 1. Sliding (kinetic) 2. Rolling friction
Lubricants function to: (Purpose of using lubricant)
1. Keep moving parts apart [ By putting a thin film of lubricant between moving
parts. Reduces friction, heat generation, operating noise & vibrations.

2. Reduce friction [lubricant to surface friction is less than surface to surface

friction]. Reduce surface friction, heat generation and formation of wear particles

3. Protect against wear [ By keeping the moving parts away, by having anti-wear
additives or extreme pressure additives].

4. Transfer heat [ Gas & Liq. both transfer heat. Liquid lubricant has high specific
heat so they are much effective , it circulates to and from the cooler part of
system. High flow system carry away lot of heat & reduces thermal stress ]
5. Carry away contaminants and debris[ Have capacity of carrying away internally
generated debris and external contaminants that get introduced into the system
to a filter system which remove later, sometimes contain detergent]
6. Prevent corrosion [ It contains anti-corrosive additives which form chemical
bonds with surfaces to prevent corrosion.]
7. Seal gases [ it gives air tight seal between moving parts]
Classification of Lubricants based on physical properties.
1. Gaseous: Steam air, technical gases, steam and liquid metal vapours
2. Liquid: Mineral oil, water, Lanolin (derive from sheep wool grease) (corrosion
inhibitor), Vegetable oil (natural- plant & animal)(canola, palm, castor)
3. Solid: (use under high temp)Graphite, MoS2, Boron nitride, PTFE (teflon)
4. Semisolid: Grease, (soaps of Na, Al, Ca, Li) based grease
5. Metals/alloys: Lead, tin, zinc alloy
Additives used for Lubricants
1. Antioxidants At elevated temp, lubricating oil gets oxidized (amines, zinc
dithiophosphate to prevent the oxidation of lubricating oil)
2. Corrosion inhibitor: It forms a thin film on the surface of material and
protect it from corrosion. Esters, carboxylic acids.
3. Viscosity index improvers: With increase in temperature the viscosity of oil
decrease, thus a modifier (polymer) is used that will increase viscosity of oil
with temperature. Acrylate polymer
4. Friction Modifiers: Reduce the coefficient of friction & hence reduce the
fuel consumption. Ex. Graphite, MoS2 , BN, PTFE,
 Additives used for Lubricants
5. Detergents: Carbon particles can coat and spoil diesel engine components. Detergent
additives maintain a suspension of carbon particles always, extending the lubricant
life. Ex. sulphonates, phosphonates of Na, Ca, Mg

6. Antifoaming additives: Added to have proper flooding of lubricants at the points of

contact and in pump operation. Dimethysiloxanes.

7. Alkalinity additives: Certain fuels have higher S content form SO2 and SO3 are acidic
Components, causes corrosion. Ca, Mg and other metal ions with organic acid surfactant
such as alkylbenzene sulphonates or alkyl silicates.
1. Fire and flash points (determine volatility and fire resistance)

Flash Point is the lowest temp. at which the lubricating oil gives off enough vapors to ignite
but not burn, when a small flame is brought near it. Fire point is the lowest temp. at which
the vapors of the oil burn continuously for at least 5 sec. when a tiny flame is brought near it. A
good lubricant should have flash point above the temp at which it is to be used. In most cases,
the fire points are 8-10% higher than flash point
2. Cloud and pour points (determine suitability of lubricants in cold
conditions)
Pour Point The temp at which oil ceases to flow or pour. Lubricant used in machine working
at low temp. should possess low pour point

Cloud Point

The Cloud Point of a fluid is the temperature at

which dissolved solids are no longer completely
soluble, precipitating as a second phase giving the
fluid a cloudy appearance. The temp at which it
becomes cloudy or hazy .
Aniline point: The lowest temperature at which equal volume of
aniline and a solvent (as gasoline) is just completely miscible to
each other. [ below that temperature the two phase are separated
from each other]
High aniline point means higher percentage of paraffinic
hydrocarbons and lower percentage of aromatic hydrocarbon.
For a lubricant to be called good it should have high aniline point

1.Thick film or Fluid Film or Hydrodynamic Film

2. Thin Film or Boundary Lubrication : system operated at slow
speed, high contact pressure, slightly rough surfaces, hydrodynamic
lubrication fail. Solid are good for boundary
3. Extreme Pressure Lubricant: Chlorinated ester, Sulphurized oil,
tricresyl phosphate