Instrumentation - CAS Lab Manual

University of Technology Applied Sciences - Sohar
Department of Engineering
Mechanical Engineering Unit
Laboratory Manual
ENME2107
Instrumentation & Measurement
Name : ______________________
Student ID : ________________________
1
Table of Contents
Guidelines to Technical Lab Report writing………………………………………………………………………3
Disciplinary Actions………………………………………….………………………………………………………………5
Safety Code of Practice…………………………………………………………………………………………………….5
Symbols & units……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….6
Technical Terms……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….6
General Behavior of Sensors……………………………………………………………………………………………7
Safety and Operating Instructions……………………………………………………………………………………8
Technical Data………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..10
Experiment Details:
1. Measuring Switching Distances – One-Way & Reflex Photoelectric

Barrier Sensor……………………………………………………………………………………………………….12
2. Measuring Switching Distances – Limit Switch & Reed Contact Sensor…………………20
3. Reduction & Correction Factor Calculation – Inductive & Capacitive
Proximity Switches and Reflex Photoelectric Proximity Switches Sensors……………..28
4. Bending System – Strain Measurement………………………………………………………………..39
5. Tension System – Strain Measurement…………………………………………………………………51
6. Torsion System – Strain Measurement………………………………………………………………….63
Appendix:
Practical Assessment – Mark Rubrics………….………………………………………………………………….77
Student Lab Report – Cover Page……………….………………………………………………………………….78
2
Student Lab Report – How to Write?............………………………………………………………………….79
Model Report – Bending System………………..………………………………………………………………….89
Guidelines to Technical Lab Report Writing

In engineering, one of the major forms of communication is the technical report. This is the
conventional format for reporting the results of your research, investigations, and design projects.
The ability to produce a clear, concise, and professionally presented report is a skill you will need
to develop in order to succeed both at the university and in your future career.
While reports vary in the type of information they present (for example, original research, the
results of an investigative study, or the solution to a design problem), all share similar features and
are based on a similar structure. Students need to know how to sell their work/results by
understanding what needs to be explained to the audience and what does not. When writing a
technical report, do not assume that the audience knows what you know.
The report should include the following:
1. Title (cover) page:

Should include the following:
Ministry of Higher Education
Sohar College of Applied Sciences
Department of Engineering (Mechanical Engineering Unit)
Lab
The experiment title
Students names
Supervisor name
Date of submission
2. Abstract:
A brief description of the experiment should be given. This should include the method and a
summary of the findings. It should not be more than half a page. It is recommended to write it
after the report is completed in order to be able to include all important aspects and findings of
the experiment.
3. Table of contents:
List page numbers with descriptive titles for the sections. This should be on a separate page.
4. Introduction:
Should include general statements familiarizing the reader with the problem under study, the
laboratory techniques used, and the experimental objectives to be obtained. The purpose of
the experiment should be clearly outlined in this section. It should show the necessity for the
experiment through theory and past work. At this point still you have not said anything about
your experiment. A maximum of one page is sufficient for this section.
3
5. Method:
This should include the procedure, the equipment and the materials used.
6. Results:
It includes all the findings obtained from the experiment, usually in the form of graphs. All
figures should be numbered and titled at the bottom. The coordinates should be defined with
proper scale and units.
7. Discussion:
This is the most important part of the report. The presented results should be interpreted in
view of the theoretical background. It should explain why the phenomena look as shown.
Show how close the experiment was to the theory and indicate the sources of error which lead
to disagreement between experiment and theory.
8. Conclusions:
This should tell the reader in brief what was covered in the experiment and what were the
most important results.
9. References:
Document all other related work either mentioned in theory or elsewhere in the report. All
references should be numbered and those numbers should be indicated in the text at the
place where they were used. There are many citation styles you can use such as that of
ASME.
10. Appendices:
The appendix should contain information that is required, but would be distracting from the
normal flow if included in the main body of the report. This might be raw data (date collected
from the experiment), lab notebook pages, regression summaries, or sample calculations
using the equations stated in the theory.
Important notes:
 Be concise to the point in writing your report. Extra words actually distract from the sought
meaning.
 Use visual aids. Writing a technical report is more than common prose writing.
 Each graph, figure, or table should have a title and a number.
 All pages should be numbered except the cover page.
 All reports should be typed and checked for spelling and grammatical errors.
 Use the past tense all times unless it‟s truly awkward.
 Avoid using I, we, you, etc. while writing the report.
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Disciplinary Actions
 Any absent student cannot re-do the experiment without acceptable reason. Private
hospitals/clinics sick leave is not acceptable.
 Any delay or late submission of the reports will be punished (5% reduction for every day of
delay).
 Students may be refused to enter the lab if he/she is late by more than 5 minutes.
 Copying or forging of report materials is strictly prohibited and will be severely punished.
Safety Code of Practice

1. Students must come to the lab on time.
2. No eating, drinking, smoking, or chewing of gum is permitted in the work area.
Contamination of food, drink, and smoking materials is a potential for exposure to toxic
substances.
3. Personnel protective equipment must be worn where applicable, such as lab coat, safety
goggle, safety shoes, and gloves.
4. The students must be aware of the safety signs in order to avoid any undesired
circumstances.
5. Avoid distracting or startling any other worker or indulging in any other acts of carelessness.
6. Do not operate or turn off any machinery until instructed to do so.
7. Never leave an experiment that is in progress unattended.
8. Confine long hair and lose clothing when in the laboratory.
9. Report any hazard/accidents to the lab supervisor.
10. If acids are spilled on your skin, wash it with plenty of cold water then consult the lab
supervisor.
11. Always seek advice from the lab supervisor if the equipment is not operating as expected.
12. On completion of experiment tidy your working area.
13. Report to lab supervisor before leaving the laboratory.
5
Symbols and units
Technical terms (Extract)

Active surface
Measuring surface / measuring side of the sensor
Actuating object
The object that is measured or detected
Potentiometer
Manually adjustable electrical resistor
Switching distance
Distance to the actuating object at which the sensor responds
6
General behavior of Sensors / Critical Assessment
 For photoelectric and proximity switches, the experiments revealed a different between the
switch on and switch off point as the measuring plates move closer and further away.
This difference is known as the switching hysteresis.
 If the distance between photoelectric proximity switches and the measuring place is too
small, the measuring plate will no longer be detected. The emitted light is no longer
reflected onto the receiving section of the sensor.
 If the measuring plates are held in an angled position in front of the photoelectric proximity
switches, it is possible that the emitted light will not be reflected back to the switches and
the sensors will not detect the measuring plates.
 The sensors have an LED to help adjust them. Continuous lighting indicates reliable
detection of an object. A flashing LED indicates that the sensor has detected the object but
is working without a signal reserve. When the sensor LED is flashing, the LED on the
electrical housing is still lit.
 The calculated switching distance for the reed contact applies exclusively to this plastic
plate. The strength of the magnet, its position and the alignment of the magnetic field are all
factors that can influence the switching distance.
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Safety and operating instructions
The experimental instructions, in particular the safety instructions, are to be read through
carefully prior to commissioning the unit. Prior to starting any experiments, all participants
are to be briefed on the safety aspects and the correct handling of the unit!
Risk of death or injury
8
Hazards to the unit and its function
9
Technical data
Reflex photoelectric barrier
Range limit Sn = 4.0 m
Operating range Sb = 3.2 m
Light source / wavelength:
Pulsed red light diode / 660 nm
Operating voltage: 10-30 VDC
Average current consumption: 22 mA
Current consumption Max: 35 mA
Max. switching current: 200 mA
Voltage drop: 1.8 VDC
Working temperature: -25...+55 °C
Light guide (one-way photoelectric barrier)

Operating range Sb = 800 mm
Scanning range Tw = 150 mm
Pulsed IR diode / 880 nm
Max. current consumption: 55 mA
Reflex photoelectric proximity switch (red light)

Scanning range Tw = 5...200 mm
Pulsed red light diode / 660 nm
Max. current consumption: 30 mA
Reflex photoelectric proximity switch (infrared)

Scanning range Tw = 20...150 mm
Pulsed IR diode / 880 nm
Current consumption max: 45 mA
Capacitive proximity switch

Nominal switching distance Sn = 5 mm
Min. switching distance Smin = 0.5 mm
Max. switching distance Smax = 10 mm
Idle current: 15 mA
10
Inductive proximity switch

Nominal switching distance Sn = 5 mm
Idle current: 15 mA
Reed contact
Max. switching voltage: 24 V
Max. switching current: 0.1 A
Breaking capacity: Max. 1 W
Ambient temperature: -30...+85 °C
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College of Applied Sciences - Sohar
Experiment13
Experiment
Measuring Switching Distances – One-Way & Reflex

Photoelectric Barrier Sensor
12
Experiment 1
Measuring Switching Distances – One-Way & Reflex

Photoelectric Barrier Sensor
Introduction
The IA 120 Principles of industrial sensor technology unit allows experimental investigation of
the functioning of various industrial sensors, including:
– Capacitive proximity switches
– Inductive proximity switches
– Reed contacts
– Limit switches
– Reflex photoelectric proximity switches
– Reflex photoelectric switches
– One-way photoelectric switches
Measuring plates with different properties in terms of material, colour and surface can be clamped
in a slide (carriage) and moved to the sensors. The response of the individual sensors is indicated
by LEDs lighting up. The switching distance can be read off on a scale or at a micrometer. The
unit, along with the sensors, base plate, power pack etc. is housed in a sturdy case for
transportation.
Description of the unit: The unit is made up of:
– Base plate with scale, Carriage, Three sensors holders and sensors
– Electrical housing
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Unit components:
– Base plate (1), Carriage (2)
– Sensor holder A for one-way and reflex photoelectric barrier (3)
– Sensor holder C for micro switch and reed contact (4)
– Sensor holder B for reflex photoelectric proximity switches (red light and infrared),
Inductive proximity switch, capacitive proximity switch, micrometer (5)
– Electrical housing (6)
– Knurled screw (7)
– Reflector holder (8)
– Measuring plate, aluminium, smooth, black (9)
– Measuring plate, steel, textured, matt black (10)
– Measuring plate, steel, smooth, silver (11)
– Measuring plate, plexiglass, transparent (12)
– Measuring plate, plastic, smooth, white (13)
– Reflex photoelectric barrier (15)
– Light guide unit (16)
– Proximity switch, inductive (17)
– Proximity switch, capacitive (18)
– Reflex photoelectric proximity switch, infrared (19)
– Reflex photoelectric proximity switch, red light (20)
– Limit switch (21)
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– Reed contact (22)
– Micrometer (23)
– Knurled nut (24)
– Fibre optic cable, receiver (25)
– Fibre optic cable, transmitter (26)
– Union nut (27)
– Adjusting plate (28)
– Connector (29)
– Power pack (30)
Five measuring plates are available:
– Aluminium sheet, smooth, black (9)
– Steel sheet, textured, matt black (10)
– Steel sheet, smooth, silver (11)
– Plexiglass plate, transparent (12)
– Plastic plate, smooth, white (13)
Sensors
A total of 8 sensors are available:
Sensor holder A (3):
– One-way photoelectric barrier, infrared (16, 25, 26, 27)
– Reflex photoelectric barrier, red light (15)
Sensor holder B (5):
– Inductive proximity switch (17)
– Capacitive proximity switch (18)
Sensor holder C (4):
One-way photoelectric barrier:
The one-way photoelectric barrier consists of a light guide unit (16)
and a light guide, which is made up of two fibre-optic cables (25, 26:
transmitter / receiver), the adjusting plate (28) and a union nut (27). The
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light guide is screwed onto the light guide unit using the union nut. The fibre optic cable (receiver)
from the light guide unit can be secured in the reflector holder with a knurled nut (24). The
transmitter fibre optic cable is secured in the sensor holder.
The sensors are connected to the electrical housing (6), which is supplied with power by a
power pack (30) at the mains socket (33). The operation of the individual sensors is indicated by
LEDs (32).
Theoretical principles
Sensor overview
The table below classifies particular sensor types by their
function. Because of the variety of sensors available, this figure is not intended to be a complete
representation. For example, it does not include some important sensor types such as ultrasound,
temperature and pressure sensors.
Non-contact sensors
16
Non-contact sensors differ from mechanical sensors (e.g. limit switches) in that they respond due
to proximity and operate without contact. Their advantages include:
 No wearing mechanical parts, resulting in almost unlimited service life
 Silent operation, No operating force necessary
 High switching frequency possible
The use of non-contact sensors can also have disadvantages, for example:
 The switching distance can depend on ambient conditions such as temperature, humidity
etc.
 The switching distance can depend on the properties of the actuating objects, e.g. surface
properties, colour, material.
 Contamination can cause changes in the switching distance with optical sensors.
Reflex photoelectric barriers (sensor holder A)
Reflex photoelectric barriers work in a similar way to reflex photoelectric proximity switches.
However, the light is reflected by a stationary reflector (3) rather than by the object to be detected.
If the object (2) interrupts the reflected light beam, the photoelectric barrier changes the switching
status. Reflex photoelectric barriers generally have greater scanning ranges than photoelectric
proximity switches. An important characteristic value for reflex photoelectric barriers is the
operating range Sb.
Among other factors, this range depends greatly on the size of the reflector used and the level of
air contamination.
One-way photoelectric barriers (sensor holder A)
One-way photoelectric barriers operate with a separate transmitter (1) and receiver (3), which are
positioned exactly opposite one another. They provide the greatest ranges. The sensor responds
if the light beam is interrupted by an object (2).
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Experimental setup
The unit is operated with a 12 VDC supply. (Set power pack to 12 VDC!)
The fibre optic cables in the light guide may never be kinked or exposed to tensile or
torsional loads. The bending radius of the fibre optic cables may not be below 3 x cable diameter
(static operation) or 6 x cable diameter (dynamic operation).
The switching distances of the sensors can be read using the micrometer or the scale. The
front edge of the carriage (2) acts as the pointer. Due to the design, 5mm needs to be subtracted
from the value read on the scale. (See Fig. exception: Limit switch. In this case, the actuating
surface is the front edge of the carriage itself.)
The measuring surface of the micrometer is level with
the front sides of the sensors at a value of 20 mm. When
measuring a switching distance, if the micrometer shows a
value of x, the switching distance is S = x - 20 [mm].
For some sensors (reflex photoelectric proximity
switches (red light and infrared), capacitive proximity
switches), it is possible to change the potentiometer setting.
In the experiments, the potentiometer is set to the maximum
value to provide the greatest possible sensor range. The
setting is made by turning the adjusting screws on the top
(red light switch, 1, Fig) or on the cable side of the sensors
(1, Fig.).
Performing the experiment

The experiment is intended to highlight the diverseness of different sensors. Travel and position
sensors are used with different measuring methods.
18
In industrial applications, the choice of sensors must take into account the properties of the objects
to be detected. In this experiment, you determine the applications for which the available sensors
are suitable and unsuitable.
The sensors have an LED to help adjust them. Continuous lighting indicates reliable detection of
an object. Do not leave your setting in a position with a flashing LED.
Switching distances for sensors in sensor holder A
(Switching distances for one-way and reflex photoelectric barrier)
The reflector holder is clamped in the carriage. The carriage and sensor holder A are
secured on the base plate using the knurled screws. The light guide is screwed on the light guide
unit and the fibre optic cables are secured in the reflector or sensor holder with knurled nuts. The
sensors and the power pack are connected to the electrical housing. The LED for the one-way
photoelectric barrier may not be lit. If it is, the ends of the fibre optic cables need to be aligned.
In turn, the five measuring plates are then held at three different distances from the sensors
and the sensor distances (lighting of LED) are noted in the Sensor distance field in the table
below. The third and final distance selected should be the maximum possible. If the LED lights up,
cross out Yes /No in the appropriate cell. If the LED does not light up, cross out Yes / No.
Evaluation of the experiment

In the tables above, you have listed the switching distances for the sensors with the various
measuring plates.
19
As expected, all non-transparent objects were detected in the adjustable measuring range
of the unit. The surface properties are thus irrelevant. The transparent plexiglass plate cannot be
detected by the one-way photoelectric barrier as the emitted infrared light beam is not interrupted.
Reflex photoelectric barrier:
All non-transparent objects are detected in the adjustable measuring range of the unit. The
plexiglass plate is not detected for the reasons outlined above.

Experiment24
Experiment
Measuring Switching Distances – Limit Switch & Reed

Contact Sensor
20
Experiment 2
Measuring Switching Distances – Limit Switch & Reed Contact Sensor
Introduction
The IA 120 Principles of industrial sensor technology unit allows experimental investigation
of the functioning of various industrial sensors, including:
– Reed contacts
– Limit switches
transportation.
21
Unit components:
22
– Micrometer (23)
– Union nut (27)
– Connector (29)
– Power pack (30)
Sensors
23
The sensors are connected to the electrical housing (6), which is supplied with power by a
power pack (30) at the mains socket (33). The operation of the individual sensors is indicated by
LEDs (32).
Sensor overview
The table below classifies particular sensor types by their function. Because of the variety of
sensors available, this figure is not intended to be a complete representation. For example, it does
not include some important sensor types such as ultrasound, temperature and pressure sensors.
24
Non-contact sensors
Non-contact sensors differ from mechanical sensors (e.g. limit switches) in that they respond
due to proximity and operate without contact. Their advantages include:
Reed contacts (sensor holder C)
Reed contacts change their switching status using magnetism.
When a permanent magnet (2) approaches the reed contact, one of
the two contact lugs (1) is attracted and the circuit opens or closes.
Contact sensors
Micro switches, limit switches etc. can be viewed as contact sensors. They must be operated
mechanically and do not respond to mere proximity. The advantage is that they are much more
economical than photoelectric proximity switches, for example.
25
They are insensitive to fluctuating ambient influences, such as changing lighting conditions or
humidity. However, as they use wearing mechanical parts, their use has certain disadvantages
including:
– Contact contamination due to environmental influences
– Operating force required
– Low switching frequency
– Sensitivity to severe vibrations
– Unreliable contact making due to slow operation or bouncing.
Limit switches (sensor holder C)
A limit switch is an example of a contact sensor. The tappet (1) in the limit switch is operated
mechanically and closes the contact after a defined pre-travel distance (2). After closing the
contact, it is possible that the tappet will run on (3). The function of a limit switch is described by a
circuit diagram with an open (4) and closed (5) contact.
Experimental setup
The unit is operated with a 12 VDC supply. (Set power
pack to 12 VDC!)
26
The fibre optic cables in the light guide may never be kinked or exposed to tensile or
torsional loads. The bending radius of the fibre optic cables may not be below 3 x cable diameter
(static operation) or 6 x cable diameter (dynamic operation).
The measuring surface of the micrometer is level with the front sides of the sensors at a
value of 20 mm. When measuring a switching distance, if the micrometer shows a value of x, the
switching distance is S = x - 20 [mm].
For some sensors (reflex photoelectric proximity switches (red light and infrared), capacitive
proximity switches), it is possible to change the potentiometer setting. In the experiments, the
potentiometer is set to the maximum value to provide the greatest possible sensor range. The
setting is made by turning the adjusting screws on the top (red light switch, 1, Fig) or on the cable
side of the sensors (1, Fig.).

27
Switching distances for sensors in sensor holder C
(Switching distance and switching travel for reed contact and limit switch)
Sensor holder C is secured on the base plate. The plastic plate with permanent magnet is
then clamped into the carriage and moved towards the sensors by hand. The switching distance
for the reed contact and the switching travel for the limit switch are determined using the scale or
micrometer and noted in the tables below.

measuring plates.
Limit switch:
The calculated pre-travel and run-on correspond approximately to the manufacturer’s
specifications (see Technical Data).
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Experiment35
Experiment
Reduction & Correction Factor Calculation – Inductive &

Capacitive Proximity Switches and Reflex Photoelectric
Proximity Switches Sensors
Experiment 3
Reduction & Correction Factor Calculation – Inductive & Capacitive
Proximity Switches and Reflex Photoelectric Proximity Switches Sensors
Introduction
29
The IA 120 Principles of industrial sensor technology unit allows experimental investigation of
the functioning of various industrial sensors, including:
– Reed contacts,
– Limit switches
transportation.
Unit components:
30
– Micrometer (23)
– Union nut (27)
– Connector (29)
– Power pack (30)
31
Sensors
The one-way photoelectric barrier consists of a light guide unit (16)
and a light guide, which is made up of two fibre-optic cables (25, 26:
transmitter / receiver), the adjusting plate (28) and a union nut (27). The
light guide is screwed onto the light guide unit using the union nut. The
fibre optic cable (receiver) from the light guide unit can be secured in the
reflector holder with a knurled nut (24). The transmitter fibre optic cable is
secured in the sensor holder.
The sensors are connected to the electrical housing (6), which is
supplied with power by a power pack (30) at the mains socket (33). The
operation of the individual sensors is indicated by LEDs (32).
Sensor overview
The table below classifies particular sensor types by their
function. Because of the variety of sensors available, this figure is not intended to be a complete
representation. For example, it does not include some important sensor types such as ultrasound,
temperature and pressure sensors.
32
Non-contact sensors
Non-contact sensors differ from mechanical sensors (e.g. limit switches) in that they respond due
to proximity and operate without contact. Their advantages include:
The use of non-contact sensors can also have disadvantages, for example:
 The switching distance can depend on ambient conditions such as temperature, humidity
etc.
 The switching distance can depend on the properties of the actuating objects, e.g. surface
properties, colour, material.
 Contamination can cause changes in the switching distance with optical sensors.
Capacitive proximity switch (sensor holder B)
Capacitive proximity switches operate using an AC divider made up of a resistor and a capacitor
(RC), which influences the capacitance. To achieve this, the electrodes in the capacitor are
separate. The actuating object has the function of an insulator between the plates. As the object
moves closer to the active surfaces, the capacitance increases and changes the switching status
33
of the sensor. A built-in potentiometer can be used to adjust the switching distance. A capacitive
proximity switch responds to all solid and liquid media.
As air also represents an insulator, a change in humidity causes a change in the switching
distance. The characteristic parameter for non-contact sensors is the nominal switching
distanceSn [mm].
Here, the measuring plate is made of carbon steel FE 360 and is square. The length of its sides
either corresponds to the diameter or the active sensor surface or 3. Sn [mm], whichever is the
greater.
For measuring plates or actuating objects made of a different material, the switching distance ‘S’
is calculated using a reduction factor p: S = Sn . p [mm].
Reduction factors are approximate values and can differ significantly.
The following technical terms are also important:
Working switching distance Sa
Specifies the range in which the sensor works reliably taking into account all tolerances. It lies
between 0 and 0.81Sn [mm].
Minimum distance Smin
The smallest possible usable switching distance that can be set for
,
Maximum distance Smax
The largest possible usable switching distance that can be set for
Actual switching distance Sr

Switching distance at 20°C and nominal voltage
Inductive proximity switch (sensor holder B)
In an inductive proximity switch, a resonant circuit made up of a coil and a capacitor (LC) in the
sensor generates a high-frequency alternating magnetic field. This is discharged at the active
surface. If an electrically conductive material moves into this field, an inductive eddy current is
created in the material. This draws energy from the resonant circuit. The vibration amplitude is
thus reduced. The reduction in amplitude is converted into an electrical signal and the switching
status of the switch changes.
The same technical terms are used as for capacitive sensors.
Reflex photoelectric proximity switch (sensor holder B)
Compared to inductive or capacitive sensors, photoelectric proximity switches have the advantage
of a much greater range. The photoelectric proximity switch emits light (2), which is reflected by
the object to be detected. The reflected light then reaches the receiver (1) and is evaluated
electronically. The switching status changes.
34
The scanning range, Tw of a photoelectric proximity switch depends greatly on the reflection factor
of the actuating object. The scanning range for smooth white objects is considerably greater than
for matt black objects.
The following technical terms are used in relation to photoelectric proximity switches:
Reflection factor:
Specifies the proportion of the incident quantity of light that an object reflects.
Light operation:
The sensor is operated if the object reflects light onto it.
Dark operation:
The sensor is operated if no light is reflected onto it. This is the opposite behaviour to light
operation.
Scanning range Tw:
Specifies the maximum possible distance between the photoelectric proximity switch and the
object to be scanned. The reference object is matt white paper with a reflection factor of 90
percent and a size of 200 mm x 200 mm.
Apart from the reflection factor, the scanning range depends on the size of the object and the
level of air contamination. The smaller the object, the smaller the scanning range.
For objects other than the reference object, correction factors
are used.
Experimental setup
The unit is operated with a 12 VDC supply. (Set power
pack to 12 VDC!)
The fibre optic cables in the light guide may never be
kinked or exposed to tensile or torsional loads. The bending
radius of the fibre optic cables may not be below 3 x cable
diameter (static operation) or 6 x cable diameter (dynamic
operation).
35
The measuring surface of the micrometer is level with the front sides of the sensors at a
value of 20 mm. When measuring a switching distance, if the micrometer shows a value of x, the
switching distance is S = x - 20 [mm].
For some sensors (reflex photoelectric proximity switches (red light and infrared), capacitive
proximity switches), it is possible to change the potentiometer setting. In the experiments, the
potentiometer is set to the maximum value to provide the greatest possible sensor range. The
setting is made by turning the adjusting screws on the top (red light switch, 1, Fig) or on the cable
side of the sensors (1, Fig.).

Switching distances for sensors in sensor holder B
(Ind. and Cap. proximity switches and reflex photoelectric proximity
switches (IR and red light))
36
Sensor holder B is secured to the base plate and the photoelectric proximity switch (red
light) is aligned vertically (see Fig.).
In turn, the five measuring plates are then clamped into the carriage and moved towards the
sensors by hand. The different switching distances (LED lit continuously) are determined using
the scale or micrometer and noted in the table below.
Do the measured switching distances only deviate slightly from the nominal switching
distances?
If so, calculate the relevant reduction or correction factor from the average of the
measured switching distances and enter this in the table below. Do the same if there are no
significant deviations in the scanning range.
37
Calculating the reduction factor:
The correction factor is calculated in the same way as the reduction factor. The relevant
nominal switching distances or scanning ranges can be found in the Technical data section.

measuring plates.
Inductive proximity switch:
38
Non-metallic objects do not cause a change in the switching status. The sensor responds at
the nominal distance with the steel sheets. The switching distance for the aluminium sheet is less.
Capacitive proximity switch:
The switching distance for the aluminium sheet is slightly less than for the steel sheets. The
sensor also responds to non-metallic objects, although the switching distance is much less than
for metals.
Reflex photoelectric proximity switch (infrared):
As expected, the switching distance depends largely on the surface and colour (reflection) of the
measuring objects. With smooth silver-coloured steel sheet, switching occurs over the entire
adjustable measuring range. A smooth black surface (aluminium sheet) has greater reflection than
a textured, matt black surface.
The transparent plexiglass disc absorbs part of the emitted light radiation, lets part of it pass and
reflects a further part back to the sensor, with a level of reflection approximately equal to that of
the aluminium sheet.
The white plastic plate is slightly less reflective than plexiglass. It absorbs the majority of the
emitted light radiation.
Reflex photoelectric proximity switch (red light):
The reflection of light by black surfaces is much less than for infrared sensors. Due to the slightly
shorter wavelength compared with infrared light, the plastic and plexiglass plates are more
reflective.
39
Experiment
Experiment14
Bending System – Strain Measurement
Experiment 4
40
Bending System – Strain Measurement
Introduction
The SM1009 Strain Gauge Trainer unit measures stain in different ways and compare displayed
strain with theoretical strain for different materials and structure. This equipment has a common
strain gauge and structural mechanisms. A digital strain display shows the voltage output from
strain bridge circuits and shows the strain.
Mechanical engineers use Strain gauge to find strain in machine parts and different shapes under
pressure or load. Strain gauge can also be a part of load cell or torque sensor (a transducer) to
directly measure force, pressure or position.
Description of the unit
The main part of the “Strain Gauge Trainer” is shown in the figure. It is a sturdy frame that holds
three different structural systems.
The equipment is supplied with two different set of weights (masses):
1. A small weight set for Bending and Torsion System
2. A large weight set for Tension system
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Theoretical Overview
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Theory of Structures
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To show how to measure strain in an object that bends and compare the results with
theory;
1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen beam using Vernier instrument supplied. If using
VDAS enter the specimen dimensions into the software
2. Connect the bending system stain gauges to the strain display as a full bridge
3. Carefully slide the knife-edge hanger onto the beam to the 420mm position
4. Leave the equipment to stabilize for approximately one minute, then press and hold the
zero button until display reading becomes zero.
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5. Note the strain reading into your table. If using VDAS click the record data values
6. Hook the small weight hanger to the knife-edge hanger
7. The small weight hanger is 10 g. Add 4 x 10g weights to the weight hanger to give a total
weight (load) of 50g. Note strain reading into the table. If you are to use VDAS, adjust the
value of the mass to 50g
8. In 50g steps add more weights to the weight hanger until you reach 500g. At each step,
note the strain reading into your table. If you are to use VDAS remember to increase the
value of the mass by 50g at each increment.
Result Analysis:
Plot a graph of Calculated Stress (or) Theoretical stress Vs Displayed strain to find gradient of the
curve and compare it with young’s modulus of the beam
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Experiment 52
Experiment
Tension System – Strain Measurement
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Experiment 5
Tension System – Strain Measurement
Introduction

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Theory of Structures
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To show how to compare the displayed „tensile strain‟ & „compressive strains‟ in two
dimensions with theory and prove Poisson‟s ratio
1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen (its width and thickness) beam using Vernier
instrument supplied. If using VDAS enter the specimen dimensions into the software
2. Connect the red and yellow gauges (tensile) & blue and green gauges (compressive)
of the tension system to the strain display as a half bridge (opposite). Set ACT = 2. Note
that these gauges will only measure the strain in the direction of the force.
3. Leave the equipment to stabilize for approximately one minute, then press and hold the
zero button until display reading becomes zero.
5. Fit the large weight hanger to the bottom of the tension system specimen.
6. The large weight hanger is 500 g. Add 0.5 kg weights to the weight hanger to give a total
weight (load) of 1 kg. Note strain reading into the table. If you are to use VDAS, adjust the
value of the mass to 1 kg
7. Note the strain reading into your table. If you are to use VDAS click on the „Record Data
Values‟ button
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8. Add more weights to the weight hanger in 1 kg steps, until you reach 10 kg. At each step,
note the strain reading into your table. If you are to use VDAS remember to increase the
value of the mass by 1 kg at each increment and then click on the record values button (do
not add more than 10 kg load to the tension specimen, only use the large weights for this
experiment)
9. Remove the weights
Red & Yellow Gauges – for Tensile
Blue & Green Gauges – for Compressive
Specimen Dimensions (width & thickness):
Specimen Cross-Section:
Young’s Modulus:
Displayed Displayed Calculated
Calculated Calculated Calculated
Load Force Tensile Compressive Compressive
Tensile Tensile Compressive
(kg) (N) Strain -2
Strain Stress
Stress (N.m ) Strain -2
Strain
(με) (με) (N.m )
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Result Analysis:
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Experiment 62
Experiment
Torsion System – Strain Measurement
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Experiment 6
Torsion System – Strain Measurement

Introduction

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To show how to compare displayed strains with theory for a torsion beam
1. Measure the dimensions of the specimen beam using Vernier instrument supplied. If using
VDAS enter the specimen dimensions into the software
2. Connect the torsion system red and yellow gauges ‘tensile twist’ as opposites. Connect the blue
and yellow gauges ‘compressive twist’ as opposites to complete a full bridge
3. Leave the equipment to stabilize for approximately one minute, then press and hold the zero
button until display reading becomes zero.
5. Add a small weight hanger to the end of the torque arm. The end of the torque arm has a smaller
diameter part to accept the weight hanger hook at a known length and torque radius – see
‘Technical Details’ and ‘Theory of Structures’ (table of contents-see)
6. The small weight hanger is 10 g. Add 24x10 g weights to the weight hanger to give a total weight
(load) of 250 g. Note the strain reading into your table. If you are to use VDAS, adjust the value
of the mass to 250 g and click on the ‘Record Data Values’ button
7. Add more weights to the weight hanger until you reach 500 g. Note the strain reading into your
table. If you are to use VDAS, adjust the mass to 500 g and click on the ‘Record Data Values’
button (note: do not add more than 500 g load to the beam, only use the small weights for this
experiment)
8. Remove the weights & unscrew the moment arm
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Result Analysis:
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University of Technology Applied Sciences - Sohar

Mechanical Engineering Unit

1. Measuring Switching Distances – One-Way & Reflex Photoelectric

Student Lab Report – Cover Page……………….………………………………………………………………….78

Model Report – Bending System………………..………………………………………………………………….89

Guidelines to Technical Lab Report Writing

The report should include the following:

1. Title (cover) page:

Safety Code of Practice

Technical terms (Extract)

Risk of death or injury

Light guide (one-way photoelectric barrier)

Reflex photoelectric proximity switch (red light)

Reflex photoelectric proximity switch (infrared)

Capacitive proximity switch

Inductive proximity switch

Mechanical Engineering Unit

Measuring Switching Distances – One-Way & Reflex

Measuring Switching Distances – One-Way & Reflex

Performing the experiment

Evaluation of the experiment

College of Applied Sciences - Sohar

Mechanical Engineering Unit

Measuring Switching Distances – Limit Switch & Reed

Performing the experiment

Evaluation of the experiment

Mechanical Engineering Unit

Reduction & Correction Factor Calculation – Inductive &

Actual switching distance Sr

Performing the experiment

Evaluation of the experiment

Mechanical Engineering Unit

Bending System – Strain Measurement

Mechanical Engineering Unit

Tension System – Strain Measurement

Tension System – Strain Measurement

Description of the unit

Mechanical Engineering Unit

Torsion System – Strain Measurement

Torsion System – Strain Measurement

Description of the unit

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