Writing and Speaking Are Different

Today, writing and speaking are equally important skills. There is, however, a key difference
between the two and that difference is time. Speaking is very instantaneous; it happens very
quickly. Casual conversations can end in a matter of seconds. Thus when speaking, it pays
to be careful about what we say, as we can never take back what we have said. Writing,
though, requires much more time to prepare. It is a much longer and more deliberate
process. Consequently, writing tends to be more formal and is considered the hardest of the
four language skills to master.

Academic Writing

There are many different ways in which a writer can write. At Ajou University we ask you to
learn academic writing; a style of writing that is used in high schools, universities and
academia. Most of your university text books follow this style.

Academic writing is different from creative writing (storybook writing) and personal
writing (diaries, letters, text messages and some emails). Creative and personal writing
often include slang, abbreviations and incomplete sentences. Academic writing does not.
Academic writing is much more formal.

Academic writing:

 Avoids slang, abbreviations and incomplete sentences,

 Is well organized and easy to understand,
 Is skillfully articulated,
 Uses complex sentence structures,
 Follows regular computer-formatting guidelines.

Academic writing also includes several powerful writing styles. Good writers are able to use
these styles freely. English 1 introduces you to these different writing styles. However your
main objective is to understand the fundamentals of good academic writing.
The Writing Process

Regardless of what style a writer uses, it is important to understand that all writers follow a
very simple and easy to learn writing process. Good writers, when given a topic to write on,
do not simply start writing, erase mistakes, change bits along the way; and then hope for a
good result. This “freewriting” of ideas often ends up with poor results.

Ideas used in writing must be managed; they must be gathered, organized and written down
in a manner clear to all. When writing academically, one must understand and follow the
writing process:

There are five steps in the writing process:

 Gather
 Organize
 Focus
 Draft
 Edit

Following the writing process allows a writer to develop a strong argument, building key ideas
that are supported with relevant and sufficient detail.

Writers who fail to follow the writing process often have difficulty piecing together their
argument and subsequently end up writing poorly.

2
 The Writing Process
Start

Gather

Articles
Files Organize
Books
Financial Statements Strategic ordering
Interviews Batching/grouping ideas Focus
Databases Introduction/conclusion
Web Information Headings Skim only technique
CD-ROM Nutshell technique Draft
Brainstorm Teach your ideas
Personal notes Elevator technique Organize and focus first
Annual reports Price per word technique Compose in any order Edit
Competitors Avoid editing
Get a typed copy Edit for strategy
Leave editing time gap Edit for macro issues
Edit for micro issues
Pre-Writing
Edit for correctness

Finish
(This chart was adopted from: Guide to Managerial Communication, fourth edition, by Mary Munter, 1997)
 Formal Writing (1)

The language writers’ use when writing is different to the language people use when
speaking - writing tends to be more formal – and, although writing can also be formal and
informal, academic writing focuses on formal writing.

Informal Writing

 Colloquial - similar to spoken conversation. Includes slang, figures of speech and

broken syntax.

 Simple - includes short sentences, incomplete sentences or ellipsis (…).

 Contractions and Abbreviations - includes contractions and abbreviations.

 Empathy and Emotion - includes more empathic and emotive language.

Formal Writing

 Complex - includes longer, more complex sentence structures. Each main point
needs to be introduced, elaborated and concluded.

 Objective - main points are stated clearly; supporting arguments fully explain each
main point; and emotions and emotive punctuation are excluded.

 Articulate - simple words are replaced with more sophisticated language.

 Third Person - Avoids 1st and 2nd personal styles and opinions. (I, me, my, we)

Which Style is Best?

A formal writing style is not necessarily “better” than an informal style; rather each style is
used for different purposes. Professional organizations encourage the formal style. An
informal style may be adopted only after one is familiar with the recipient.

NB: Emails and Social Networking Services (SNS) tend to lend themselves to a less formal
style than paper-based communications, but you should still avoid the use of "text talk".

4
 Formal Writing (2)
Unacceptable Acceptable
in Formal Written English  in Formal Written English 
Korean people feel very strongly about Korean people feel very strongly about
Fragments:
Dokdo. But most Japanese don’t Dokdo, but most Japanese do not
Conjunctions
understand the issue. understand the issue.

ajou university is quite possibly the best Ajou University is quite possibly the best
Capitalization
university in south korea. university in South Korea.

he’s he is
Contractions can’t cannot
doesn’t does not
12 twelve
27 twenty-seven
Numerals
23,601,987 23.6 million
04/03/2013 April 3rd 2013
etc.
He likes playing hockey, basketball, He likes playing many sports such as
and so on
soccer, etc. hockey, basketball, and soccer
…
wanna want to
Comic Book
gonna going to
English
cuz because

Why isn’t Indian food popular in Korea? One reason for the low popularity of
Questions
One reason is the price. Indian food in Korea is the price.

First Person: I think this is one of the best movies This is quite possibly one of the best
“I”, “me” “my” ever. movies ever.

Most commuters prefer ATBs to road Most commuters prefer All-terrain

Acronyms
bicycles. Bicycles (ATBs) to road bicycles.

Regular academic paragraphs use a

Font Size 14 or 16 point is too big! 10 or 12 point font.

Script Typeface – near Sans Serif typeface: for computers -

impossible to read! Gill Sans
Typefaces
Amateur typefaces – embarrassing. Serif typeface: for print - Times Roman
Loud typefaces – annoying. Most universal typeface: Helvetica

5
 Formal Writing (3)
Unacceptable Acceptable
in Formal Writing  in Formal Writing 
She did well on the university entrance
Korean She did well on the sooneung.
exam.

한글 He is from 부산. He is from the South Korean city of Busan.

Konglish Kim Yeona has many mania. Kim Yeona has many fans.

John played League of Legends all night and

Sentence surprisingly won all the games he played which John played League of Legends all night. Surprisingly he

Length elevated his character to a new level and won all of his games. His character was elevated to a new

(Less than 20 words) consequently made him very happy although at level. This made John very happy despite his tiredness.

the end of it all he was very tired.

Back- Nik-kol-las-ser Maek-ki Nicholas McGhie

transliteration restorang restaurant

Do you insinuate that I should tolerate this

Do you insinuate that I should tolerate this bombastic
bombastic impudence of a microscopic specimen
Justification impudence of a microscopic specimen talking systematically
talking systematically from a diabolical point of
from a diabolical point of view?
view?

Double space University students were sent to the University students were sent to the
between countryside. There they found more countryside. There they found more
sentences hardship than they expected. hardship than they expected.
Double space
At university, not at a company, At university, not at a company, you should
between lines
you should double-line space your
줄간격-2(MSWord)
sentences. double-line space your sentences.
줄간격-300%(한글)

Indent The very first part of typing up a The very first part of typing up a
(15mm) paragraph is to hit the TAB key. paragraph is to hit the TAB key.

Spel correctly : check for errors

Basic typing Spell correctly; check for errors, and don’t
and don’t forget a space before
errors forget a space before the (parenthesis).
the(parenthesis).

6
 The Writer

Writers know they need to spend time gathering, organizing and focusing on their ideas
before they begin writing. This period is called prewriting. Writers know that writing is an
organized process. By following the writing process as well as formal writing protocol, writers
know the quality of their writing will be much better; clearer and briefer.

When writing, writers express themselves in many ways; there are many different styles of
writing. Good writers understand, and regularly use these different writing styles1:

 Description
 Comparison
 Contrast
 Cause-effect
 Classification
 Process
 Definition
 Opinion

Writers try and express their ideas in a clear and logical manner. Each paragraph is, in itself,
a mini-essay. Accordingly, writers use introductions, main points, conclusions and
transitions to provide harmony in and between each section.

Within his writing you will find his purpose; why he is writing. You will know his audience;
his formality will reflect this. His message will have coherence; it will flow smoothly from
start to finish. His message will have clarity; it will be easy for you to understand. Finally,
his message will have unity; all content will relate to his topic. These five elements are the
keys to good writing.

1
See Paragraph Writing Styles pp44~52
7
 Paragraphs (1)

1. A paragraph is typically around fifteen lines of writing.

2. A paragraph has an indent at the beginning of the first line.

3. A paragraph begins with a topic sentence.

4. A paragraph has three main points.

5. Each main point has two to four supporting sentences.

6. A paragraph has a concluding or transitional sentence.

7. A paragraph has capital letters at the beginning of each sentence.

8. A paragraph has sentences that continue across the page.

9. A paragraph has double spacing between sentences.

10. A paragraph has double spacing between lines.

11. A paragraph has correct punctuation and spelling.

Title
Indent Double sentence spacing

Cars and Bicycles

Riding a bicycle is preferable to driving a car. First of all, a bicycle is relatively inexpensive to buy and maintain. While a
Topic sentence Support 1

car may cost thousands of dollars to buy and hundreds of dollars annually, a bicycle will cost only a few hundred dollars, and its annual

maintenance cost is very small. Biking is also healthier; not only does the biker get more physical exercise than the driver, but bicycles are
Support 2

nonpolluting. The consequence is a person with strong legs and a strong heart whose bicycle helps keep the environment clean. Finally,
Support 3

bicycling is, unlike driving, personally satisfying. Instead of being a robot inside a machine, the biker pedals along, enjoying the scenery,
Double line spacing

becoming part of nature. In all but the most inclement weather, the bicycle is a pleasurable means of transportation.
Concluding sentence

8
 Paragraphs (2)

TASK: Look at the paragraph “Cars and Bicycles” on page ten.

 First, write down the topic sentence.
 Now, write down the writers main ideas using only key words.
 Finally, write down key words that prove (provide support for) the writers argument..

Topic sentence:

Main Idea 1:

Detail (1)

(2)

Main Idea 2:

Detail (1)

(2)

Main Idea 3:

Detail (1)

(2)

Concluding sentence:

Riding a bicycle is preferable to driving a car. First of all, a bicycle is relatively inexpensive to buy and

maintain. While a car may cost thousands of dollars to buy and hundreds of dollars annually, a bicycle will cost

only a few hundred dollars, and its annual maintenance cost is very small. Biking is also healthier; not only

does the biker get more physical exercise than the driver, but bicycles are nonpolluting. The consequence is a

person with strong legs and a strong heart whose bicycle helps keep the environment clean. Finally, bicycling

is, unlike driving, personally satisfying. Instead of being a robot inside a machine, the biker pedals along,

enjoying the scenery, becoming part of nature. In all but the most inclement weather, the bicycle is a

pleasurable means of transportation.

9
 Paragraphs (3)

As we are now beginning to see, all academic paragraphs focus on one main point, which the writer sticks to
and develops fully. Every sentence in the paragraph relates directly to the topic sentence. Sentences flow
smoothly without obvious jumps; that is to say that all the ideas are clearly linked. Most important are the
transitional words and phrases2 that help link all these ideas. We can also begin to see some important
writing strategies. These strategies play a big part in delivering a message that is easy for the reader to
follow. Here are a few good writing strategy ideas:

 Repeat key words I have a dream; I have a dream; I have a dream

 Create parallel structures The first step is; The second step is…
 Be consistent in point of view I agree that…I also agree that…
 Minimize pronoun use he: John; she: Judy; they: John and Judy
 Ensure correct verb tense Yesterday he went; Tomorrow he’s going to go…

Adding detail is another important element of paragraph writing. Adding detail is one of the fastest and easiest
ways to make a paragraph more meaningful. Too often paragraphs lack detail - they are too short. Conversely,
providing detail brings credibility. Good writers are comfortable using the following strategies to build detail into
their paragraphs:

 examples, illustrations and descriptions

 data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)
 quotes (direct quotes and paraphrases)
 anecdotes or stories
 definitions (important words)
 compare and contrast
 causes and reasons
 effects and consequences
 chronological order

** Now read the three example paragraphs on pages 41-43 **

2
See Transitional Words and Phrases pp34~36.
10
 Part A - Topic Sentences (1)
The topic sentence is the first sentence at the beginning of the paragraph. It is important for two reasons:

1. The topic sentence introduces the main idea to the reader. Readers carefully look at this
sentence to identify what the passage will be about as well as the viewpoint the writer has.

2. The topic sentence keeps the writer focused on the topic. By referring back to the topic
sentence a writer can see if he is sticking to the his/her argument or not.

Topic sentences typically have two parts:

 a main idea: what the paragraph is generally about
 a controlling idea: what the writer wants to say about the main idea

All topic sentences contain a main idea (often in the form of a word, fact or general statement),
and a controlling idea. All sentences within the paragraph relate directly to this topic sentence in some way.
Let’s take a look at a paragraphs main idea:

TASK: Can you guess what the main idea of each paragraph will be?
1. Main idea:
french-fries hamburgers chocolate shakes
2. Main idea:
swimming hot weather no school
3. Main idea:
presents Santa Claus candy cane
4. Main idea:
dishes laundry vacuuming
5. Main idea:
friends alcohol fun
6. Main idea:
homework assignments lectures

Identifying the main idea of a paragraph, as we can see, is easy.

However writing effective topic sentences needs more. Topic sentences need a controlling idea.
Learning how to write effective topic sentences with a controlling idea is key to writing effective paragraphs.

.
Topic sentence = main idea + controlling idea

11
 Part A - Topic Sentences (2)
So what does a topic sentence look like? Readers look to a topic sentence to identify two things; first the main
idea of the passage but also the writer’s viewpoint on topic. But, when learning how to write formally in
English, fledgling writers often exclude the most important part – the controlling idea. The controlling idea is
vital, as it guides the writers’ ideas. And, of course, it’s these ideas that provide support for the paragraph.

Look at the sentences below; two are simple statements, two are personal opinions and two are complete
topic sentences.

TASK: Mark whether the following sentences are a simple statement, opinion or topic sentence:

1. Dogs are animals.

2. I like dogs better than cats
3. Dogs are better than cats for many reasons.
4. It is my opinion that smoking causes bad health.
5. Smoking can cause genetic defects in an unborn child.
6. Smoking is bad.

a) A good topic sentence cannot be a simple statement of fact. Simple facts are too broad and thus too difficult
to support. The scope of the topic needs to be narrowed …with a controlling idea.
Dogs are animals

b). Formal academic writing discourages writing in the 1st and 2nd person - “I” and “you”. There are good
reasons for this. Writers must learn to write in the 3 rd person which is challenging, and requires training 3.

c) A good topic sentence contains a general opinion that is then controlled by the writer’s point of view.

3
See Voice: 1st, 2nd and 3rd Person pp37-38
12
 Part A - Topic Sentences (3)
The writer’s viewpoint - the controlling idea - narrows the main idea of the passage. Using a controlling idea,
the scope of the passage is narrowed, making the argument more concrete; more specific. Writers can then
write more specifically on the topic.

TASK: Read the following topic sentences.

They all contain a main idea (in red) and a controlling idea (in green). When your introduction contains a clearly
stated topic sentence, your reader will know what to expect and, therefore, understand your ideas better.

1. Fixing a flat tire on a bicycle is easy if you follow these steps.

(The first step is to…)

2. Most US universities require a 102 point iBT TOEFL score for a number of reasons.
(The main reason is…)

3. People can avoid burglaries by taking certain precautions.

(One precaution…)

4. There are several advantages to growing up in a small town.

(One advantage…)

5. Air pollution in Mexico City is the worst in the world for a number of reasons.
(The major reason is…)

TASK: Circle the main idea in each topic sentence below, and then underline the controlling idea.

1. Of all the beverages in the world, nothing is better than Coca-Cola.

2. Although most people prefer buying new cars, investing in a used vehicle has many advantages.

3. The SAT is a test composed of three distinct sections designed to assess three different skills.

4. Recent research has shown that chocolate not only tastes good but may also aid in the fight against aging.

5. The election process in Zimbabwe, a country on the west coast of Africa, has been under much scrutiny
over the past several days.

13
 Part A - Topic Sentences (4)
Name (한글) Student ID

TASK: Circle the MAIN IDEA of the paragraph. Then underline the CONTROLLING IDEA.
1. Dogs make excellent companions for several reasons.
2. Owning a car in a big city can give you many troubles.
3. Cellular phones are essential for students for several reasons.
4. Research shows that internet games can be addictive.
5. Studying English at university can help students to get better jobs.
6. There are many reasons why Koreans like to travel to Cheju Island.
7. There are several enjoyable ways to travel between the US and Mexico.
8. Crossword puzzles are not only educational and fun, but also addictive.
9. Animals in danger of becoming extinct come from a wide range of countries.
10. The South Korean president’s policies have improved the Korean economy.
11. Effective leadership requires specific qualities that anyone can develop.
12. Many people recognize the Seoul subway system as being convenient and economical.
13. Several important factors have contributed to English becoming an important global language.
14. In order to fully explore the wreck of the Titanic, scientists must address several problems.

15. A travel advisory recently stated that traveling to Thailand, especially Bangkok, could be extremely
risky.

14
 Part A - Topic Sentences (4) – Answers

TASK: Circle the MAIN IDEA of the paragraph. Then underline the CONTROLLING IDEA.

1. Dogs make excellent companions for several reasons.

2. Owning a car in a big city can give you many troubles.
3. Cellular phones are essential for students for several reasons.
4. Research shows that internet games can be addictive.
5. Studying English at university can help students to get better jobs.
6. There are many reasons why Koreans like to travel to Cheju Island.
7. There are several enjoyable ways to travel between the US and Mexico.
8. Crossword puzzles are not only educational and fun, but also addictive.
9. Animals in danger of becoming extinct come from a wide range of countries.
10. The South Korean president’s policies have improved the Korean economy.
11. Effective leadership requires specific qualities that anyone can develop.
12. Many people recognize the Seoul subway system as being convenient and economical.
13. Several important factors have contributed to English becoming an important global language.
14. In order to fully explore the wreck of the Titanic, scientists must address several problems.

15. A travel advisory recently stated that traveling to Thailand, especially Bangkok, could be extremely
risky.

15
 Part B - Support and Detail (1)
Support sentences have two major functions:

1 Support sentences provide added information to strengthen the topic sentence.

2 Support sentences use facts, examples or reasons to prove that the controlling idea is true.

Support sentences often work together in this one-two manner (above), first giving information and then
providing further detail. At the same time support sentences maintain their direct relationship with the topic
sentence throughout the paragraph.

Kinds of Supporting Sentences:

Define: It is widely known that cigarettes contain carcinogens, cancer-causing agents.
Describe: The cottage is situated in an isolated place in the mountains, surrounded by large, full trees and a
clear and peaceful lake.
Explain: Due to the unexpected snowstorm, the flight was delayed for 12 hours.
Give reasons: Janice decided to move back home because she missed her mum, missed her dog and missed
her old bedroom.
Give facts: This semester more than 90 percent of first year English students passed.
Give examples: An example of South Korea’s economic power is its amount of foreign exchange reserves it
holds in banks.

Can you identify the following different kinds of support sentences?

1. Scientists now widely agree that global warming includes the changing migration patterns of animals.

2. Fiji offers tropical palm trees, golden sand beaches, clear blue waters and plenty of sunshine.

3. Even though it was raining, the race went ahead.

4. Dwindling oil reserves was one reason for the petrol price rise.

5. Average global weather temperatures rose 1.2 degrees celcius between 1990 and 2000.

6. Many people say Bill Clinton is a good example of how a leader can influence global change.

16
17
 Part B - Support and Detail (2)
As we have seen, support sentences give information to explain or strengthen the topic sentence; in particular
the controlling idea. They also assist in guiding the writer; helping direct his attention towards the specific
details that develop the paragraph and help prove his main ideas:

Topic Sentence: “Students encounter many challenges when studying at Harvard University. “
Support Sentence 1: "One challenge students’ encounter when studying at Harvard University is. . .”
Support Sentence 2: “Another challenge students encounter . . .”
Support Sentence 3: “One further challenge students encounter. . .”

Support sentences use transition words (one, another, one more), and repeat key words from the question
(challenge). This explicit use of transitions and key words has a dual benefit; it helps the writer stay on topic
and provides the reader with a clear framework to follow. Because support sentences are somewhat general,
they require proof. This proof comes in the form of details; facts, figures and other information the writer has
prepared.

Support Sentences:

 Are the main viewpoints the writer has on the topic

 Relate directly to the topic sentence
 Usually 2 - 4 in a paragraph
 Are proven using concrete, specific evidence
 Are arranged in a logical order

Detailed Sentences

 directly tied to support sentences; indirectly tied to the topic sentence

 usually 1 - 3 per support sentence

 serve to prove support statements

 specific: details, examples, explanations, facts, statistics

18
 Part C - Concluding Sentences
In a single, stand-alone paragraph, the concluding sentence is necessary and important. There are four kinds
of concluding sentences:

Restatement: retells or restates the main idea, summarizes the main points of the paragraph

 In brief, although many children want a pet, parents are divided on this issue for a number of reasons.
 Indeed, computers have certainly made students’ lives much easier.

Recommendation: writer gives his or her suggestion on the topic (what should be done)

 In short, one should remember these important steps when facing the task of applying to a university.
 In conclusion, most people recommend a Caribbean island for a memorable vacation.

Opinion: writer shares his/her opinion about the topic and paragraph (what he/she thinks)

 Whatever the reasons, sports cars are here to stay.

 If you are considering studying abroad, you should begin learning about the culture, customs, and
history.

Prediction: writer predicts what may happen in the future, based on the main idea of the paragraph

 By following these steps, you can be certain your car will last a very long time.
 Overall, people need to protect the environment in order to help the future generation.

19
 Meaningful Paragraphs (1)

Writing offers a wonderful opportunity for the writer to explore language. Take J.K.Rowling and her Harry Potter
books as an example. Writing need not be boring but it is up to the writer to decide this. Yes, when developing
a paragraph, you should make it simple. You also have the opportunity to make it powerful, colorful, interesting
and worth reading too. There are two simple ways to make your paragraphs more meaningful:

1. Brainstorming
2. Adding Detail

Brainstorming: Brainstorming is one quick and easy way to make your paragraphs more meaningful.
Brainstorming helps you to develop ideas that relate directly to the topic and to your view on the topic.

TASK: List your ideas that support the following arguments. Once you have finished, choose the best three
ideas that you would like to develop:

Studying at a university There are many reasons why

provides many advantages. endangered species are on the
rise.

20
 Meaningful Paragraphs (2)

Adding Detail: Another way to make paragraphs more meaningful is to add detail. This strategy is one of the
fastest and easiest ways to make a paragraph more meaningful. Take the following sentence for example:

My friend John is nice. (Totally boring sentence!)

Sure, the above sentence is simple, concise and to the point. But this sentence lacks detail; its needs more.
For example:

My friend John is kind, caring and considerate, especially to older people.

More interesting, right?

Too often sentences are written with little or no detail. This makes the writing boring. Rarely can a paragraph
be well written without including detail. As well, your reader will probably fall asleep when reading sentences
that lack detail.

TASK: Be more meaningful. Add some real detail!

1. Harvard University is good. (poor example – getting sleepy)

2. Seoul is nice. (zzzzz…)

21
ADDITIONAL

USEFUL

MATERIAL
Capitalization

Punctuation

Transitional Words and Phrases

Voice: 1st, 2nd and 3rd Person

Paragraph Examples

22
Capitalization

23
 Capitalization
Arguably fifty-two letters make up the English alphabet. When writing in English, unlike
Korean, we must know when and when not to use capital letters. The rules to capitalize
words are unpredictable and complex. Here is a basic guideline:

 First word
 In a sentence Once upon a time…
 Exclamatory remarks Help!
 Direct quotation Donald Trump once said “Most people…”
 In every line of poetry Roses are red…

 The Pronoun “I” He and I are friends.

 Titles of Written Material

 Capitalize all important words Dynamics of World Business
 Not capitalized a, an, and, at, about, for, in, of, the, to

 Salutations and Closing

 Major salutation words Dear Mrs. Brown; Gentlemen; The Honorable
 First closing word Faithfully; Yours faithfully; Sincerely

 Proper Nouns
 Deities God Lord Allah the Holy Spirit
 Peoples Names Nancy Sidney John Nic
 Peoples Titles President Obama King William Queen Elizabeth
 People Groups the French Koreans Caucasian Hispanics
 Countries South Korea New Zealand the United States of America
 Organizations United Nations Ajou University Bank of Korea
 Map Names the Pacific Ocean the Himalayas
 Map Regions Eastern Europe the Middle East
 Structures 63 Building Namsan Tower Kyeongbok Palace
 Day and Months Monday January Chuseok,

 Abbreviations
 USA IBM BMW LG

24
Punctuation

25
 Punctuation

Punctuation marks are marks or signs used to make the meaning of a written word clear
to the reader. These signs include:


Period .

Comma ,

Colon :

Semicolon ;

Question mark ?

Exclamation mark !

Hyphen -

Dash --

Parenthesis ()

Ellipsis point …

Slash /

Quotation marks “”

Apostrophe ’

26
 Period (or “Full Stop”)
 End all sentences; except exclamations or questions:
Today was a great day.

 Used after abbreviations and decimals:

Co. Mr. Ms. R.S.V.P. U.S.A
A.M. P.M. etc. 5:15 a.m. 9:20 p.m.
0.2 5.87 23.4 percent 9.28 meters

 Not required for organizational acronyms:

IBM NASA KOTRA

 Comma ( , )
 Indicate a slight break in thought and is used to separate words, phrases and
clauses:
Mr. Smith, our New Zealand agent, will visit next week.

 Identifying direct quotations:

Mr. Smith said, “My industry knowledge provided the answers.”

 Following a name; identify a university degree, title or abbreviation:

John Smith, C.P.A Henry Jones, Ph.D
Susan Hall, M.D Nick Hill, President
Hall & Oats, Ltd. Murray Holdings, Inc.

 Identify numbers in three digit series:

1,279 35,819 32,346,497,501.27

 Business Correspondence:
Dear Mr. Smith, Dear John,
Faithfully, Sincerely,

 Addresses:
89 Kelburn Parade, Kelburn
Pisan-dong, Donan-gu, Anyang City
P.O.Box 431-050, Seoul

 Dates:
October 28, 2008 Saturday, December 7, 2008
27
 Colon ( : )
 Indicate a list or series:
New Zealand is comprised of the following three main islands: the North
Island, the South Island and Stewart Island.

The analysis of the interview draws two conclusions: (1) the presidential
running mate was factually incorrect; and (2) she did not handle the media
well.

 Indicate Time - hours and minutes:

10:32 a.m. 11:56 p.m.

 Indicate bible references:

Luke 6:2 Isa. 53:5 Acts 7:54-49

 Salutation:
Dear Sir/Madam: Dear Mr. Smith:

 Semicolon ( ; )
 Join two independent clauses:
This could be a complete sentence; this could be another one.

 When the second clause doesn't really look like a complete sentence:
Twelve workers started the project; only five remain.

 Serve as super-commas:
We visited Bali, Indonesia; Perth, Australia; and Queenstown, New Zealand.

 Adding a list to the end of a sentence:

Be sure to watch out for grammar errors; for instance, comma splices, run-on
sentences, and dangling modifiers.

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 Question Mark ( ? )
 Expresses a direct question:
What are you doing?

 Indicate writer uncertainty (in parenthesis):

King Sejong was born in the year 1397 (?) and passed away in 1450.

 Exclamation Mark ( ! )
 Express abrupt, forceful or excited language:
Wow! Help! No! Fantastic!
That was brilliant! What a splendid view!

 Hyphen ( - )
 Form compound words:
self-made daughter-in-law secretary-general

 Form compound word adjectives:

blue-green eyes
time-consuming process
computer-generated image

 Attach prefixes:
all-American anti-nuclear mid-December
pro-democracy ex-President non-Confucian

 Written numbers and ordinals (21-99):

twenty-one thirty-two forty-three ninety-nine
twenty-first thirty-second forty-third ninety-nineth

 Split words into their syllables:

hos-pi-tal gen-tle-men in-sur-mount-a-ble

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 Dash
 Indicate a sudden interruption or abrupt change of thought:
Dust, sand, pollution – and even noise – endanger our health.

 Parenthesis ( )

 Insert acronyms:
The Korea Overseas Trade Relations Authority (KOTRA) assists both importers
and exporters.

 Explain abbreviations:
B/L (Bill of Lading) F.O.B (Freight on Board)

 Insert detail:
The IR32 Form (tax credit receipt form) must be completed by Friday,
December 6.

 Add detail to a quote:

Enclosed is our payment of two-hundred and twelve dollars ($212.00).

 Indicate a series:
The analysis of the interview draws two conclusions: (1) the presidential
running mate was factually incorrect; and (2) she did not handle the media well.

 Insert comments and examples:

Direct mail is the solicitation of customers by mail (telephone, television or
magazine advertisements may also be used) and fulfillment of these orders by
postal or commercial delivery.

 Insert phrases:
The ability of personal computers to precisely duplicate software has led many
software companies to include devices that make unauthorized copying difficult
(copy protection).

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 Ellipsis (…)
 Indicates omitted words from a quoted passage:
The policy underlying the principles is that “…bullying…has
never been tolerated…and will never be a part of this school…
in so far as it can be controlled”.

 Indicates a hesitation, interruption or pause:

Hold on…what was that?

 Slash ( / )
 Abbreviations:
B/L (Bill of Lading)
 Separate alternatives:
1995/1996 and/or miles/hours 4/5 (fraction)

 Quotation Marks (“ ”)
 Direct quotes from a book:
The book stated that “Dust, sand, pollution – and even noise – endanger our
health.”

 Direct quotes from a speaker:

John stood and replied “There’s no way we’ll ever agree to that!”

 Apostrophe ( ’ )
 Show possession; singular nouns and personal names:
We met at John’s party.
The cat’s tail swished back and forth.

 Show possession; personal names ending in –s:

He joined Nicholas’s group.
Dickens’s novels portray Victorian England.

 Show possession; personal names ending in –s (where “s” is not spoken):

The court dismissed Bridges’ appeal.
Connors’ performance was in 2012.

 Show possession; plural nouns that end in –s:

The mansion was converted into a girls’ school.
The work is due in three weeks’ time.
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 Show possession; plural nouns that do not end in –s:
The children’s father came home early.
John employs fourteen people at his men’s clothing store.

 Show possession; possessive pronouns – apostrophe not needed

…hers. …ours. …yours. …theirs.

 Show omission:
I’m – I am
He’ll – he will
She’d – she would
Pick’n’mix – pick and mix
It’s hot – it is
Didn’t – did not

 It’s or its?
It’s – means “it is” or “it has”:
It’s been a long day.
It’s cold outside.
It’s a great car and it’s got some great extras.

its – belonging to:

The dog wagged its tail.
Each case is judged on its own merits.

 Plurals – apostrophe generally not used to pluralize nouns made up of numbers :

The trip cost 750 euros.
Italian pizzas are very tasty.
She buys big bags of organic apples and pears.

 Plurals – single letters:

He dotted his i’s and crossed his t’s.
Find all the s’s in Mississippi

 Plurals – single numbers:

Find all the number 7’s.

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Transitional Words
and Phrases

33
Transitional Words and Phrases
In both academic writing and professional writing, your goal is to convey information clearly and concisely.
Transitions help you to achieve these goals by establishing logical connections between sentences,
paragraphs, and sections of your papers. Transitional words or phrases between sentences and paragraphs
help the writer to link ideas. Here are some examples:

Addition:
also, again, as well as, besides, coupled with, furthermore, in addition, likewise, moreover, similarly

Consequence:
accordingly, as a result, consequently, for this reason, for this purpose, hence, otherwise, so then, subsequently,
therefore, thus, thereupon, wherefore

Contrast:
In contrast, conversely, instead, on the other hand, on the contrary, but, however, rather, yet.

Comparison:
by the same token, likewise, on the one hand, similarly, still, nevertheless, both, together, alike, share

Direction:
here, there, over there, beyond, nearly, opposite, under, above, to the left, to the right, in the distance

Diversion:
by the way, incidentally

Emphasis
above all, chiefly, with attention to, especially, particularly, singularly

Exception:
aside from, barring, beside, except, excepting, excluding, exclusive of, other than, outside of, save

Exemplifying:
chiefly, especially, for instance, in particular, markedly, namely, particularly, including, specifically, such as

Generalizing:
as a rule, as usual, for the most part, generally, generally speaking, ordinarily, usually

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Illustration:
for example, for instance, for one thing, as an illustration, illustrated with, as an example, in this case

Similarity:
comparatively, coupled with, correspondingly, identically, likewise, similar, moreover, together with

Restatement:
in essence, in other words, namely, that is, that is to say, in short, in brief, to put it differently

Sequence:
at first, first of all, to begin with, in the first place, at the same time, for now, for the time being, the next step, in
time, in turn, later on, meanwhile, next, then, soon, the meantime, later, while, earlier, simultaneously, afterward,
with this in mind

Summarizing:
after all, all in all, all things considered, briefly, by and large, in any case, in any event, in brief, in conclusion, on
the whole, in short, in summary, in the final analysis, in the long run, on balance, to sum up, to summarize,
finally

35
 Voice:
st nd rd
1 , 2 and 3 Person

36
Voice: 1st, 2nd and 3rd Person

There are three different points of view that can be used in writing: first person, second
person, and third person.

 First person: I (we, me, us)

 Second person: you
 Third person: he, she, it, they, him, her, them

Most people prefer using the first person personal pronoun “I” when writing. However
traditional academic writing discourages the use of first or second person. In academic
writing, the third person point of view is usually clearer and allows a writer to come across as
more credible. This is because the writing sounds more objective; less personal.

 First person: I should learn how to write well.

 Second person: You should learn how to write well.
 Third person: College students should learn how to write well.

1st Person to 3rd Person

I argue that… This essay argues that…
We researched the issue … The group researched the issue…
I found that… It was found that…
We thought the results were… The results appeared to be…

2nd Person to 3rd Person

You can read further about this in Further discussion of this topic is found
the work of McGhie (2010) . in the work of McGhie (2010).

You may find it difficult to Replication of this experiment may

replicate this experiment. be difficult.

37
Example Paragraphs

38
Key Formal Writing Guidelines:

Paragraph Writing: Structure

Paragraph Writing: Format

Paragraph Writing: Transitions

39
Paragraph Writing: Structure

The online computer game League of Legends can be easily explained. Firstly, what is League of

Legends? League of Legends is an online computer-simulated war game developed by American software

giant Riot Games in 2009. Players first choose a character from 108 different characters. Players then form

two teams of three or five players and prepare for battle. Next, what do the game characters do? Game

characters range from durable, close combat champions, to fragile long-range heroes, to powerful mages with

high damage spells. Each character has five main abilities and is armed with items that are preselected for

battle. Teams march their characters into battle towards the opposing team Nexus. Lastly, what is the object of

the game? Each team has a base, called a Nexus. Each teams’ Nexus is protected by two of the most

powerful Turrets on the game map. The object of the game is to destroy the opposing teams Nexus to win the

game. The explanations above should help you to easily understand how gamers play League of Legends.

(Restatement Conclusion)

Notes on structure:

Academic paragraphs always have a regular structure:

Topic sentence
Three main supporting ideas
Detailed sentences shoring up each supporting idea
Concluding sentence

40
 Paragraph Writing: Format

The online computer game StarCraft has three main characters; Terran, Protoss and Zerg. Terran are

the future version of humans. They use high-technology. They use mobile technology to communicate and can

move at high-speeds. With their technology they can quickly scan other planets. They have high fighting skills.

Though they are weak and not big, they fight well in groups. Protoss are a race of humanoids. They have

advanced abilities including telepathy and telekinesis. They can communicate with each other using their

minds and can also move objects with their minds. Protoss are the most technologically advanced race in the

StarCraft game. Zerg are a race of insectoids. They do not use technology. Instead they strive for genetic

perfection by assimilating "worthy" races into their own. Thus there are numerous different strains of Zerg -

unlike Protoss and Terran. Zerg units are cheap and fast to produce and try to overwhelm their opponents with

sheer numbers. These three very different and exciting characters should ensure the continued success of

StarCraft well into the future.

(Prediction Conclusion)

Notes on format:

Academic paragraphs:
Are typed on 10 or 12 point font
Have an indented first line (15mm)
Have double-spacing between lines.
Have double-spacing between sentences.

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 Paragraph Writing: Transitions

There are many disadvantages to living in a metropolitan area. One disadvantage of living in a

metropolitan area is pollution. There are many factories in metropolitan areas. These factories create air that

is polluted. This air negatively affects people lungs and skin. Another disadvantage of living in a

metropolitan area is overcrowding. There are a lot of people in metropolitan areas. These people need

shelter. Apartments are noisy and small. At the same time, they are expensive. People cannot often relax in

their homes and have little peace. One further disadvantage of living in a metropolitan area is the lack of

nature. Often cities have no grass, few trees and few animals. Instead, buildings and concrete cover the area.

The lack of nature makes people feel dizzy and stifled. You might now want to think a little more carefully about

living in such an area.

(Recommendation Conclusion)

Notes on transitions:

Academic paragraphs:
Have clear transitions
Transitions introduce each new idea clearly
Transitions repeat key words from the question

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Paragraph Writing Styles

Descriptive Paragraph

Comparison Paragraph

Contrast Paragraph

Cause-Effect Paragraph

Classification Paragraph

Process Paragraph

Definition Paragraph

Opinion Paragraph

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 Descriptive Writing
A descriptive paragraph paints a picture in the readers mind.

Standing on his hind legs, this rare Andalusian stallion is fearless. His ears are turned back while his

noble looking head is held high. His all black coat glistens in the late afternoon sun. His face displays a strong

confidence with his nostrils flared, his veins bulging from his cheek bones, and his fiery black eyes burning

holes into the souls of those who stare into them. His neck muscles are tensed and thickened with adrenalin.

His black mane is thrown into the wind like a flag rippling in the winds of a tornado. His muscular front legs are

brought up to his chest displaying his flashing gray hooves that could crush a man's scull with one blow. His

backbone and underbelly are held almost straight up and his hind quarters are tensed. His back legs are

spread apart for balance. His back hooves are pressed into the earth; therefore, his hooves cause deep gouges

from the weight of his body on the soil. His black tail is held straight down and every once in a while a burst of

wind catches it and then it floats down back into place like an elegant piece of silk falling from the sky. His

bravery and strength are what made his breed prized as a warhorse.

Notes on descriptive paragraphs:

Descriptive paragraphs:
Spatial order: left to right, top to bottom, near to far…
Sensory words: sight, sound, smell, taste, feelings
Visual transitions: far away, beneath, within…

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 Comparative Writing
A comparative paragraph explains the similarities between two things.

Work and school are very much alike in at least three ways. First, both work and school require an

early start. Going to work requires getting up early to avoid the traffic rush, and going to school requires getting

up early to be assured of a parking space. Second, both work and school deadlines must be met. On the job,

the boxes would have to be filled and the telephone calls made by a certain time; in a class, the essays would

have to be submitted and the books read by a certain date. Finally, both work and school benefit society.

Workers produce useful and entertaining items for people to use, such as refrigerators and televisions.

Similarly, students prepare themselves to enter fields like medicine and law, fields which serve society. It is not

surprising that work and school share these three similarities, since one of the purposes of school is to prepare

a student for the job of his choice.

Notes on comparative paragraphs:

Comparative paragraphs:
List similarities
Use a Venn diagram
Block method; discuss all of A, then all of B
Repeat same sentence structures for A & B

45
 Contrast Writing
A contrast paragraph explains the differences between two things.

Even though high school and college are both institutions of learning, they differ in some ways. One

difference between high school and college is their policies about homework. In high school, homework is

required to help motivate students to study. Knowing they have to submit assignments in algebra or history

gives students an incentive to keep up with these subjects. In college most homework consists of studying;

very little of it is written and turned in. A second difference between high school and college is their attendance

policies. In high school, students must attend class to get assignments and personal help. However in college,

students may skip classes if they choose and refer to the syllabus to acquire missed assignments or tests. It is

the student’s responsibility to make work up. In spite of these differences between high school and college,

they both serve the same purpose -- to prepare an individual for the real world.

Notes on contrast paragraphs:

Contrast paragraphs:
List differences
Use a Venn diagram or “T” diagram
Block method; discuss all of A, then all of B

46
 Cause-Effect Writing
A cause and effect paragraph explains the reasons why something occurs (the cause), and the
consequences of this (the effects)… or vice-versa.

For many teenagers, there are numerous negative factors that can lead them to give up on their

education and drop out of school. One factor that can cause a student to drop out of school is that many

teenagers lack positive role models in their lives. The lack of an encouraging adult role model can cause them

to get involved with the wrong kind of people and activities. When students get involved in these types of

negative situations, they usually don't focus on school. Another factor that can cause a student to give up on

school is a lack of determination. Many students find it difficult to stay focused on school when they feel that

getting an education is useless. One further factor is peer pressure. Many students give in to peer pressure

very easily. If the peer pressure is negative, this can lead them into smoking and alcohol, which again can lead

them drop out of school. These factors alone can easily ruin a child’s life.

Notes on cause-effect paragraphs:

Cause-Effect paragraphs:
Choose one cause and list all effects
Use cause and effects phrases
Arrange in chronological order
Use recommendation/prediction conclusions

47
 Classification Writing
A classification paragraph defines and then places a said item into a group and/or subgroup.

Different students attend various types of schools; however, they can usually be classified as either

public, private religious, private non-religious, or alternative. Public schools are funded by the state, and the

majority of students in the United States attend them. Private religious schools are based around a particular

faith, such as Catholicism, Judaism, or Islam. The religion is part of the everyday lives of the students and they

also learn about the faiths. All types of private schools do not receive state funding. Therefore, private non-

religious schools are simply just that: schools which do not receive state funding and have the ability to make

their own rules. Alternative schools can be made up of a variety of different categories, such as technical

schools. Most students who attend class in an actual school building go to one of these types of institutions.

Notes on classification paragraphs:

Classification paragraphs:
Identify classification categories but…
Avoid using too many categories
Use classification phrases
Use linkers; first group/second group…

48
 Process Writing

A process paragraph explains how to do something, create something, or understand something.

Believe it or not, the process of completing a DNA test is not very difficult. First of all, human cells

must be collected. The cells can be collected from a human’s cheek using swab. The next step is to send this

cell sample to a laboratory, where the scientists extract the DNA from the swab and create many samples from

it. Then the samples are put into a gel mixture, and are subjected to an electric current. A DNA probe can then

be used, which attaches itself to the sample. Each person produces a unique location of DNA attachment, and

this is how the identification works. Ultimately, scientists hope to develop the film of this unique DNA strand.

This type of DNA test becomes more reliable as more probes are used to test the strand. DNA testing has

become very popular, so it is now available via the internet. Ordinary people can now order in-home tests and

get their results in a few days.

Notes on process paragraphs:

Process paragraphs:
Break the process into steps
Order steps logically
Use process phrases
Use linkers; The first step, the second step…

49
 Definition Writing
A definition paragraph, through a synonym, class or negation style, defines a term or subject.

A racist can be defined as a prejudiced person who discriminates because of another individual’s outer

appearance or race. Racism can all start as a child being raised with negative thoughts, or can be brought upon

by personal reasons. For example, growing up in a racist family will give adolescent awful thoughts about a

race without even experiencing how they really feel first hand. A different example of how one might

unfortunately choose to be racist would be if a person visits a country, and a negative event took place; this

person might become racist toward a group of people that lived there all because of one personal event that

happened. This is not a type of person that treats people like how they want to treated, but it is a form of hatred

toward a set of people. This kind of person might use mental abuse, or they can even get physically abusive

toward the kind of race they are discriminate towards. They also can have a type of attitude that thinks that they

are better than certain groups and cultures. Racism is a negative concept that put down people for no real

reason. Racism is a form of ignorance and inequity and only one could wish for this discrimination to stop all

together in order for everybody to get along.

Notes on definition paragraphs:

Definition paragraphs:
Start with dictionary definition
Add your own definition or synonym and examples
Say what your definition is not.
Use phrases: “is defined as”, “is a kind of”…

Opinion Writing
50
 An opinion paragraph states a clear or original point of view.

A policy that requires public school students to wear uniforms would be a bad idea for several reasons.

First of all, no style of clothing looks good on everyone. In their pre-teen and teen years, students are especially

sensitive about their appearance, and having to wear clothing that doesn’t fit them well will do little to help their

fragile self-esteems. In addition, uniforms are expensive. Students would need to have at least two complete

sets of uniforms to allow for laundering, which could be very costly for parents. Of course, since most students

aren’t likely to wear their uniforms after school, parents also have to purchase everyday clothes like jeans,

shirts, and skirts, adding significantly to the amount they must spend on clothes. Furthermore, during the school

year students may outgrow their uniforms or other clothing, increasing the cost for some families. Finally, a

uniform policy ignores families’ rights and freedom to make clothing decisions that are best for them. Certainly

schools should be able to restrict clothing that features obscene or objectionable slogans or that exposes too

much skin. However, making all students dress the same says that individuality is less important than

conformity. To conclude, the world already has too many followers, so public schools should allow students the

freedom to express their unique personalities through their clothing.

Notes on opinion paragraphs:

Opinion paragraphs:
Start your paragraph as the statement; not “I think…”
Make a clear argument
Clarify each reason
Use persuasive language throughout

51