SKETCH

Sky :T2 = 0 K or 200 K

Air : T• = 300 K

Water , T1 = ?

D=1m

PROPERTIES AND CONSTANTS

From Appendix 1, Table 5, the Stephan-Boltzmann constant (σ) = 5.67 × 10–8 W/(m2 K4)
From Table 9.2, the emissivity of water (ε) ≈ 0.96
SOLUTION
For equilibrium, the heat gain by convection to the water must equal the heat loss by radiation
hc (T∞ – T1) = ε σ (T14 – T24)

(a) For T2 = 0 K
ε σ T14 – hc (T∞ – T1) = 0

(0.96) ( 5.67 × 10−8 W/(m 2 K 4 ) ) T14 – (10 W/(m2 K)) (300 K – T1) = 0
Checking units, then eliminating for clarity
5.443 × 10–8 T14 + 10 T1 – 3000 = 0
By trial and error T1 = 271 K = –2°C (water will freeze)
(b) For T2 = 200 K
5.443 × 10–8 T14 + 10 T1 – 3087.1 = 0
T1 = 277 K = 4°C
PROBLEM 9.36
Liquid nitrogen is stored in a dewar made of two concentric spheres with the space
between them evacuated. The inner sphere has an outside diameter of 1 m and the space
between the two spheres is 0.1 m. The surfaces of both spheres are gray with an
emissivity of 0.2. If the saturation temperature for nitrogen at atmospheric pressure is 78
K and its latent heat of vaporization is 2 × 105 J/kg, estimate its boil-off rate under the
following conditions
(a) The outer sphere is at 300 K.
(b) The outer surface of the surrounding sphere is black and loses heat by radiation to
surroundings at 300 K. Assume convection is negligible.
(c) Repeat item (b) but include the effect of heat loss by natural convection.
GIVEN
• Liquid nitrogen in two concentric spheres with the space between them evacuated
• Inner sphere diameter (Di) = 1 m
• Space between spheres (s) = 0.1 m
• Both surfaces are gray with equal emissivites (ε1 = ε2) = 0.2
831
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• Saturation temperature of nitrogen (Tn) = 78 K
• Latent heat of vaporization of nitrogen (hfg) = 2 × 105 J/kg
FIND
The boil-off rate ( m ) under the following conditions
(a) Outer sphere temperature (T2) = 300 K
(b) Outer surface of outer sphere is black (εo = 1) and loses heat by radiation to surroundings at (Ts) =
300 K, convection is negligible, and
(c) Repeat part (b) but include natural convection
ASSUMPTIONS
• Steady state
• Thermal resistance of the sphere walls is negligible
• Thermal resistance between the nitrogen and the inner sphere is negligible (T1 = Tn)
SKETCH
M

A1

A2 Ts = 300 K

Nitrogen
Tn = 78 K
D1 = 1m

S = 0.1 m

PROPERTIES AND CONSTANTS

From Appendix 1, Table 5, the Stephan-Boltzmann constant (σ) = 5.67 × 10–8 W/(m2 K4)
SOLUTION
D2 = D1 + 0.2 = 1.2 m
(a) The heat transfer is given by Equation (9.75)
q12 = A1 F12 (Eb1 – Eb2) = π Di2 F12 σ (T14 – T24)
where f12 for concentric spheres is given by Equation (9.76)
1 1
F12 = = = 0.129
1 − ε1 A1 1 − ε 2 1 − 0.2  π (1m ) 2  1 − 0.2
+ 1+ + 1+ 
ε1 A2 ε2 0.2  π (1.2 m ) 2  0.2

q12 = π (1 m)2 (0.129) ( 5.67 × 10−8 W /(m 2 K 4 ) ) [(78 K)4 – (300 K)4]
q12 = – 185.3 W (heat gained by nitrogen)
The boil-off rate of nitrogen is given by
q 185.3W ( J/(W s) )( 3600s/h )
m = 12 = = 3.3 kg/h
h fg 2 × 105 J/kg

832
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(b) A heat balance on the outer sphere yields
q12 = q2s
A1 F12 σ (T14 – T24) = A2 σ (T24 – Ts4)
0.25
 π (1m)2 
T + 4 A1
F12T14 
0.25
 (300 K) 4
+ 2
( 0.129)( 78 K ) 4 
s π (1.2 m)
T2 =  
A2
=   = 294 K
 1 + A1 F   π (1m) 2 
 A 2 12   1+ 2
( 0.129) 
 π (1.2 m) 
∴ q12 = π(1m)2(0.129) ( 5.67 × 10−8 W/(m2 K 4 ) ) [(78 K)4 – (294 K)4] = –170.8W
q12 170 W ( J/(W s) ) ( 3600s/h )
m = = = 3.1 kg/h
h fg 2 × 105 J/kg
(c) A heat balance on the sphere yields: q12 = q2s + qc
A1 F12 σ (T14 – T24) = A2 σ (T24 – Ts4) + hc A2 (T2 – Ts)
The natural convection heat transfer coefficient, hc, depends on the temperature T2, therefore, an
iterative solution is required. For the first iteration, let T2 = 296 K.
From Appendix 2, Table 27, for dry air at the film temperature of (296 K + 300 K)/2 = 295 K = 25°C
Thermal expansion coefficient (β) = 0.00336 1/K
Thermal conductivity (k) = 0.0255 W/(m K)
Kinematic viscosity (ν) = 16.2 × 10–6 m2/s
Prandtl number (Pr) = 0.71
The Nusselt number for 3-D bodies is given by Equation (5.25)
 Ra + 
Nu+ = 5.75 + 0.7511  0.252
 F ( Pr ) 
16
9 9
 
  0.49  16
 = 2.876
where F(Pr) = 1 +  
Pr  
 
A π D2 2
L+ = 0.5
= 0.5
= π D = π (1.2m) = 3.77 m
 4 Ahorz   4 π D 2
   π  4 2  
π 
The Rayleigh number is

+
Ra = Gr Pr = +
g β ( ΔT ) L+( )
3
Pr
=
( 9.8 m/s2 ) (0.00336 K1 ) ( 4 K) ( 3.77 m) (0.71) = 1.91 × 10
3
10

ν 2
(16.2 × 10 m /s) −6 2 2

Although this is outside of the Rayleigh number range for the above correlation, the correlation will be
used to estimate the Nusselt number for lack of a better method
0.252
+  1.91 × 1010 
Nu = 5.75 + 0.75  = 229
 2.876 
K ( 0.0255 W/(m K))
hc = Nu+ +
= 229 = 1.55 W/(m 2 K)
L 3.77 m

833
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Using this value in the heat balance
π (1m)2(0.129) ( 5.67 × 10−8 W/(m 2 K 4 ) ) [(78 K)4 – T24] = π (1.2m)2
( 5.67 × 10−8 W/(m 2 K 4 )) [T24 − (300 K)4 ] + (1.55W/(m 2 K) ) (T2 − 300 K) 
2.795 × 10–7 T24 + 7.01 T2 – 4182 = 0
By trial and error
T2 = 295 K
The effect of natural convection is negligible
m = 3.1 kg/h
PROBLEM 9.37
A Package of electronic equipment is enclosed in a sheet-metal box which has a 0.3 m
square base and is 0.15 m high. The equipment uses 1200 W of electrical power and is
placed on the floor of a large room. The emissivity of the walls of the box is 0.80 and the
room air and the surrounding temperature is 21°C. Assuming that the average
temperature of the container wall is uniform, estimate that temperature.
GIVEN
• A sheet metal box of electronics in a large room
• Box dimensions: 0.3 m × 0.3 m × 0.15 m high
• Power dissipation of electronics ( qG ) = 1200 W
• Emissivity of the walls of the box (ε) = 0.80
• Room air and surrounding temperature (T∞) = 21°C = 294 K
FIND
• The average temperature of the container walls (Tb)
ASSUMPTIONS
• The average temperature of the container walls is uniform
• Steady state
• The room behaves as a blackbody enclosure
• Heat loss from the bottom of the box is negligible
SKETCH
Room

°C
T• = 21

Metal Box

PROPERTIES AND CONSTANTS

From Appendix 1, Table 5, the Stephan-Boltzmann constant (σ) = 5.67 × 10–8 W/(m2 K4)

834
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