Hydrostatics

This is the study of fluids at rest. Fluid is the term used to refer to both liquids and gases. This
branch of physics has applications from hydraulic machines to air travel. The key concept in this
section of the syllabus is pressure.

What is pressure?
Pressure is defined as the force acting normally per unit surface area (in a perpendicular
direction). i.e. it depends on the force applied and the direction to which the force is applied.
The formula for pressure is given below:
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
𝑃𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 =
𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎

𝐹
𝑃= This is Pascal’s Law in equation form
𝐴
From the equation, the unit for pressure is Newtons per square metres, Nm-2. This unit is given
a special name, Pascal (Pa). Named after the French scientist Blaise Pascal.

Looking at the equation for pressure, the two factors that affect pressure are the applied force
and the area which it is acting on. Increasing the force or decreasing the area will result in an
increase in pressure. This explains why it is more painful when someone wearing heels steps on
your foot as opposed to someone in boots.

Atmospheric Pressure (Po)

This is the force that the atmosphere is exerting on the surface of the Earth. The value of this
pressure has various values depending on the units that it is stated in. Some of the values of
atmospheric pressure at sea level include: 760 mmHg (millimetres of mercury), 1013.25
millibars, one standard atmosphere or 101 325 Pascals. This pressure decreases with altitude
and increases with depth. Atmospheric pressure is central to the operation of everyday objects.
These include vacuum cleaners, siphons, lift pump and plunger. Some other examples are
explained below.
Drinking Straws
As air is drawn up through the straw, the
pressure inside drops creating a partial
vacuum. The atmospheric pressure acting
on the surface of the liquid forces the liquid
up through the straw to fill that void.

Suction Pads
When the sucker is pressed into place, the
air inside is forced out. As a result, the
pressure inside the sucker becomes very
low (partial vacuum). The sucker is held in
place by the higher atmospheric pressure
on the outside surface. For this to work
effectively there needs to be a sealed
contact between the sucker and the
surface. Therefore, suction pads work best
on smooth surfaces.

Syringes
When the piston is pulled up, the
atmospheric pressure in the cylinder will
decrease. The atmospheric pressure acting
on the surface of the liquid pushes the
liquid up into the syringe.
Pressure in Fluids
Pressure in fluids depends on two factors: the density of the fluid and the depth. Experiments
have also revealed the following.

Pressure in a fluid acts equally in all directions

At a given depth, pressure is the same in every direction. If it were not, the fluid would flow.

Pressure in a fluid increases with depth

The rate at which the fluid flows

out of the container increases as
the depth increases. This is seen as
the jets of fluid travel farther the
lower the opening.

Pressure in a fluid is equal at the same depth

The pressure at points A, B and C is

the same. The pressure is
independent on the amount of
fluid. It depends only on depth.
The pressure being exerted at a particular depth in a fluid can be calculated once the density of
the fluid is known. This is done using the following equation:

𝑃 = 𝑔ℎ

P – pressure (Pa)
 - density (kgm-3)
g – acceleration due to gravity (ms-2)
h – depth (m)
This pressure is referred to as the excess or gauge pressure.

Total pressure at a point in a fluid

The total pressure being experienced at a particular depth in a fluid is given by the sum of the
atmospheric pressure acting on the surface of the fluid added to the excess pressure being
exerted in the fluid.

𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 = 𝑎𝑡𝑚𝑜𝑠𝑝ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑐 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒 + 𝑒𝑥𝑐𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑔ℎ

Pressure in solids vs Pressure in Fluids

Pressure in solids is due to the weight of that solid. Pressure in fluids is due to the movement of
the molecules in the fluid as well as the fluid’s weight.

Pressure in Gases
U-Tube Manometer

This instrument is used to measure pressure. Initially, as the air pressure acting on both arms is
the same, Figure 1, the level of the liquid is equal. The left arm of the manometer is then
connected to the gas source whose pressure is to be measured. If the pressure of the gas is
greater than the atmospheric pressure the fluid level rises in the right arm, Figure 2. If the
pressure of the gas is less than the atmospheric pressure, the fluid level in the right arm drops,
Figure 3.
The pressure of the gas can then be calculated using the height difference between the fluid
levels in the two arms.

For Figure 2, it would be:

𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 + 𝑔ℎ
For Figure 3, it would be:
𝑃 = 𝑃𝑜 − 𝑔ℎ

Barometer
This is used to measure atmospheric pressure. It is based on the same principle as the
manometer. The atmospheric pressure acting downward on the surface of the mercury pushes
it up through the inverted tube as shown below. At sea level the mercury rises inside the tube
to a height of 760mm (this value was mentioned above). This is what is referred to as the
barometric pressure. This method of determining atmospheric pressure is still used in
meteorology.
As the atmospheric pressure varies, the height of the mercury column will also vary as shown in
the diagram above.

Theoretically this principle will work for any liquid used. However, if water were chosen the
tube would have to be 10m. Mercury is used in the construction of barometers because of its
density. It is fourteen times as dense as water and this allows the barometer to be 14 times
smaller than if water were used.
Hydraulic Machines
These machines work on the basis of Pascal’s Law which states that when there is an increase
in pressure at any point in a confined fluid, there is an equal increase at every other point in the
container. In other words, pressure is transmitted through a fluid in a closed container. Similar
to when we squeeze on one end of a balloon, the other end develops a bulge. This implies that
if the area over which this pressure is being exerted increases, then the force on that area will
also increase as the pressure remains constant. Hydraulic lifts are one example of this principle
in action. This is illustrated below. Other examples include brake systems in cars.
Archimedes’ Principle
Also referred to as the law of buoyancy, it states that an object that is partially or wholly
submerged in a fluid will experience an upward force (upthrust) that is equal to the weight of
the fluid displaced.

When an object is placed in a body of water it appears to weigh less. The object pushes down
on the water moving water out of the way. Applying Newton’s Third Law, the water pushes
back with an equal force. This is the upthrust. The apparent weight loss in the water is due to
this upwards force. The upthrust is equal to the weight of the water displaced as illustrated
below.
Floatation
The behaviour of an object in a fluid depends on the net force the object experiences. The net
force is the resultant of the weight of the object and the buoyant force acting on it.