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A Training Manual
by
Dr James Watterson

Republished in May 2020

i
 Instructions For Using This Manual
This is your manual. You should write your
name on the cover. Upon completion you will
find it helpful to keep it in an accessible place
for future reference.
Problems may be included throughout the
text. The solutions to the problems are given at
the end of the book. The last page is a
validation sheet which has a number of
questions and problems covering the entire
manual.
The manual will be used in training
programs all over the world. In some countries,
English units of measurement such as feet,
gallons, pounds, etc., are used. In other
countries, metric measurement units, such as
meters, liters, kilograms, etc., are used. In
order for the manual to be of maximum use,
both metric and English units are shown.
The metric unit always appears first, and
the English unit follows in brackets [ ].
Example: the temperature is 25° C [77° F]. The
metric equivalent of the English unit will be
rounded off to the nearest whole number to
simplify the text and examples. A pressure of
150 psi may be shown as 10 bars, when the
exact equivalent is 10.34 bars.
If you are working in English units, you
may find it helpful to mark out the parts that
are in metric units, and vice versa.
Some of the Figures have units of
measurement. In such cases, two Figures are
included. The first one uses metric units, and
the Figure number is followed by the letter A
(Example: Figure 1A). The second Figure will
be on the next page and will have English
units. It will be the same number as the first
one, but it will be followed by the letter B
(Figure 1B). If you use metric units, be sure
to refer to Figures followed by the letter A; if
you use English units, refer to Figures
followed by the letter B.
The following general procedure is
recommended for using this manual:
1. Turn to Page 1. Read the material until
you come to the first problem or
question.
2. Work the first problem or answer the
question, and enter the answer in the
proper space in ink. If the problem or
question is shown in both English and
metric units of measurement, answer
only the part in units of measurement
that you use.
3. Compare your answer with that shown
on the reverse side of the Validation
pages. Answers to problems in English
units of measurement are shown on the
back of the second Validation page, and
answers in metric units are shown on the
back of the first Validation page. If your
answer is correct, continue reading until
you come to the next problem and work
it. If not, restudy the manual until you
understand the reason for your error.
Rework the problem if necessary. Leave
your wrong answer and note the correct
one. This will keep you from making the
same mistake later on.
4. Proceed stepwise as shown above until
you have completed the text.
The above approach will require thought,
making mistakes, and rethinking the situation.
Concentrate on two things —the how and the
why. Do not cheat yourself by taking short-
cuts or looking up the answers in advance. It
saves time and errors but produces no real
understanding. Your future depends on how
efficiently you perform your job and not on
how rapidly you proceed through this manual.
Since this is your manual, any errors you
make are private.
ii
 Training For Professional Performance
This manual is one of a series for your use
in learning more about equipment that you
work with in the oilfield. Its purpose is to assist
in developing your knowledge and skills to the
point that you can perform your work in a more
professional manner.
The manual was prepared so that you can
learn its contents on your own time, without
the assistance of an instructor or classroom
discussion. Educators refer to learning by self-
study as Programmed Learning. It is a method
widely used in all industries as a means of
training employees to do their job properly and
teach them how to perform higher rated jobs.
You can demonstrate your desire to be a
professional by taking a positive attitude
toward learning the contents of this manual
and others that are applicable to your job.
A part of professional training is that of
validating the trainee's knowledge of the
subject. Validation is for your benefit to
indicate that you have taught yourself the
material contained in the manual.
The author of this manual has years of
experience in operating petroleum equipment.
He also has the technical knowledge of how
and why petroleum equipment functions. The
text was written for use by personnel with little
or no previous experience with petroleum
equipment. Consequently, some of the
material may be familiar to you if you have
experience with oilfield equipment. From such
experience, you have observed the effect of
making operating changes. The manual will
help explain why the changes occurred that you
observed.
It will also teach you how and why equipment
functions.
In order for you to learn the contents of the
manual, you must dig out the pertinent facts
and relate them to the subject. Simply reading
the material and answering the questions is not
enough. The more effort you make to learn the
material the more you will learn from the
manual.
Teaching yourself requires self-discipline
and hard work. In order to prepare yourself for
the sacrifice you will have to make, you should
set goals for yourself. Your ultimate goal is to
perform your work in a professional manner.
Training is one step in reaching that goal.
Application of what you learn is another.
Seeking answers to questions is a third.
Once you have established your final goal,
you must determine the means for reaching
that goal. You may decide, for example, that
you must complete a series of 10 or 15 manuals
to get the basic knowledge and skills you need.
After you decide which training material is
required, you should set a time table for
completing each section of the material.
Achieving your final goal may take more than
a year, and will require hours of hard work on
your part. You will know you have achieved
your goal when you understand how and why
to operate oilfield equipment in order to
obtain the maximum product at the lowest
cost. Your sacrifice will have been worth-
while from the satisfaction of knowing that
you can perform your job in a methodical
professional manner, instead of a trial-and-
error-approach.
iii
 ABBREVIATIONS & SYMBOLS USED IN THIS MANUAL
SYMBOL MEANING EXAMPLE
T Temperature difference T = 10 : Temp diff is 10°
P Pressure difference P = 15: Pres diff is 15 psi or bars
METRIC UNIT ABBREVIATIONS
1tr liter 10 ltr: 10 liters
1tr/hr liters per hour 20 ltr/hr: 20 liters per hour
m or mtr meter 15 m: 15 meters
cm centimeter 10 cm: 10 centimeters
km kilometer 5 km: 5 kilometers
m3 cubic meters 10 m3: 10 cubic meters
m3/hr cubic meters per hour 10 m3/hr: 10 cu mtr per hr
m3/d cubic meters per day 10 m3/d: 10 cu mtr per day
kcal kilocalories 20 kcal: 20 kilocalories
kcal/hr kilocalories per hour 20 kcal/hr: 20 kilocalories per hr
kcal/m3 kilocalories per cubic 9500 kcal/m3: 9500 kilocalories
meter of gas per cubic meter
10 000 kcal/kg: 10 000 kilocalories
kcal/kg kilocalories per kilogram
per kilogram
gm gram 10 gm: 10 grams
kg kilogram 25 kg: 25 kilograms
kilograms per square
kg/cm2 or bar 50 bars: 50 kg per sq cm
centimeter of pressure
kilograms per sq cm of
bars a 50 bars a: 50 kg per sq cm absolute
absolute pressure
m2 square meter 100 m2: 100 square meters
ENGLISH UNIT ABBREVIATIONS
gal gallon 10 gal: 10 gallons
gpm gallons per minute 25 gpm: 25 gallons per minute
gph gallons per hour 25 gph: 25 gallons per hour
cf cubic feet 20 cf: 20 cubic feet
cfm cubic feet per minute 50 cfm: 50 cubic feet per min
cf d cubic feet per day 50 cfd: 50 cubic feet per day
Mcfd thousand cu ft per day 50 Mcfd: 50,000 cu ft per day
MMcfd million cu ft per day 50 MMcfd: 50,000,000 cu ft per day
BTU British Thermal Unit
BTU/hr British Thermal Units/hr 50 BTU/hr: 50 BTU per hour
MBTU/hr thousand BTU per hour 30 MBTU/hr: 30,000 BTU per hr
MMBTU/hr million BTU per hour 10 MMBTU/hr: 30,000,000 BTU per hr
BTU/cu ft BTU per cubic foot of gas 1000 BTU/cu ft: 1000 BTU per cu ft
BTU/lb BTU per pound 20,000 BTU/lb: 20,000 BTU per lb
lb pound 10 lb: 10 pounds
pounds per square inch of
psi 750 psi: 750 lb per sq in
pressure
pounds per square inch of
psia 750 psia: 750 lb per sq in abs
absolute pressure
bbl barrel 20 bbl: 20 barrels
BPD barrels per day 100 BPD: 100 barrels per day
BOPD barrels of oil per day 100 BOPD: 100 bbl oil per day
BWPD barrels of water per day 100 BWPD: 100 bbl water per day
MBPD thousand barrels per day 10 MBPD: 10,000 bbl per day
sq ft square foot 25 sq ft: 25 square feet

iv
 HEAT EXCHANGERS

INDEX

I. TYPES OF EXCHANGERS
A. Shell and Tube Exchangers .............................. 2
B. Hairpin Exchangers .................................... 11
C. Aerial Coolers ........................................ 13
D. Miscellaneous Types of Exchangers ..................... 18

II. PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER

A. General . ............................................ 20
B. Temperature Difference ................................ 22
C. Resistance to Flow of Heat ............................ 31
D. Area .................................................. 32

III. APPLICATION OF EXCHANGERS

A. Shell and Tube ....................................... 38
B. Hairpin .............................................. 39
C. Coils ................................................ 40
D. Aerial Coolers ....................................... 40

IV. OPERATION OF EXCHANGERS

A. Shell and Tube or Hairpin ............................. 41
B. Aerial Coolers ........................................ 42

V. TROUBLESHOOTING EXCHANGERS
A. Shell and Tube Exchangers ............................. 43
B. Aerial Coolers ........................................ 43

VI. GASOLINE PLANT EXCHANGER PROBLEMS

A. Gas-to-Gas Exchanger .................................. 45
B. Gas Chiller ........................................... 48

TABLE I, TYPICAL EXCHANGER COEFFICIENTS ........................ 55

TABLE II, EXTERNAL SURFACE AREA OF TUBES ....................... 56

VALIDATION - Metric Units ...................................... 57

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS - Metric Units ........................... 58
VALIDATION - English Units ..................................... 59
SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS - English Units 60

v
 - 1-

HEAT EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are used to conserve heat and save fuel, or to supply
heat required by a process.

The simplest heat exchanger is a kitchen pan used to boil water.

Heat is transferred from the heating element on the stove to the water in
the pan. An ice tray in a refrigerator is another simple heat exchanger.

A heat exchanger can be thought of as any piece of equipment in which heat is

transferred from a warm material to a cool material through a wall that

HEAT EXCHANGERS IN A PROCESS PLANT

NOTE: This manual includes both metric and English units of measurement. If you use
English units, disregard the metric units, and vice versa. Refer to the instruction page
at the front of the manual.
 -2-

I. TYPES OF EXCHANGERS

A. Shell and Tube Exchangers

The most common type of heat exchangers used in process plants is
a form of shell and tube exchanger. Drawings of such equipment are
shown in Figures 1, 2, 3 and 4.

Shell and tube exchangers have two obvious major components:

1. A tube bundle, which may contain hundreds of tubes and

through which the tube side fluid flows; and

2. A shell that encases the tube bundle and through which

the shell side fluid flows.

For our purposes, a fluid is a liquid or gas or a mixture of the two.

The tube material is usually steel, bronze or aluminum, although
stainless steel or other alloys can be used in corrosive or severe
temperature services. The shell is almost always steel.
The inside of a tube usually can be cleaned fairly easily by
pushing a rod through it, or using a high-pressure jet on the end of
the rod. The outside surface of tubes in an exchanger tube bundle is
more difficult to clean, as the surface of many of the tubes is
inaccessible. Consequently, the fluid that is the most likely to
corrode usually flows inside the tubes. If special material, such as
stainless steel, is required to prevent corrosion, only the tubes and
channels have to be made of the special material. If the corrosive
fluid were to flow in the shell side, the tubes and shell would have to
be made of special metal.
When water is one of the fluids, the tubes are usually made of a
brass alloy called Admiralty, and water flows through the tubes.
If both fluids have similar corrosive properties, the stream with the highest
pressure usually flows through the tube side. This is because a tube will
collapse from an external pressure about one-half the internal pressure that
is required to burst the tube. For example, a steel.
 -3-

Courtesy Tubular Exchanger Mfgrs. Assn.

FIGURE 1

TYPES OF SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS

 -4-

1. Stationary Head—Channel 20. Slip-on Backing Flange

2. Stationary Head—Bonnet 21. Floating Head Cover—External
3. Stationary Head Flange—Channel or Bonnet 22. Floating Tubesheet Skirt
4. Channel Cover 23. Packing Box Flange
5. Stationary Head Nozzle 24. Packing
6. Stationary Tubesheet 25. Packing Follower Ring
7. Tubes 26. Lantern Ring
8. Shell 27. Tie Rods and Spacers
9. Shell Cover 28. Transverse Baffles or Support Plates
10. Shell Flange—Stationary Head End 29. Impingement Baffle
11. Shell Flange—Rear Head End 30. Longitudinal Baffle
12. Shell Nozzle 31. Pass Partition
13. Shell Cover Flange 32. Vent Connection
14. Expansion Joint 33. Drain Connection
15. Floating Tubesheet 34. Instrument Connection
16. Floating Head Cover 35. Support Saddle
17. Floating Head Flange 36. Lifting Lug
18. Floating Head Backing Device 37. Support Bracket
19. Split Shear Ring 38. Weir
39. Liquid Level Connection

Courtesy Tubular Exchanger Mfgrs. Assn.

1-PASS SHELL, 2-PASS TUBE EXCHANGER

FIGURE 2

HEAT EXCHANGER PARTS

 -5-

Courtesy Tubular Exchanger Mfgrs. Assn.

FIGURE 3

TYPES OF SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS

 -6-

tube that will burst when its internal pressure reaches 186 bars
[2700 psi] will collapse when the pressure outside the tube reaches
83 bars [1200 psi]. It is less expensive to make an exchanger with
the higher pressure on the tube side than to make it with the higher
pressure on the shell side, providing no special metals are required.

As we will see later, the amount of heat transfer that occurs in an

exchanger depends upon the area of metal that separates the two fluids.
In a shell and tube exchanger, the heat transfer area is the external
area of the tubes. The reason that shell and tube exchangers are used
commonly is that they are usually the least expensive means of providing
the area required for heat transfer to occur.

Most shell and tube exchangers are mounted in a horizontal

position. If either fluid is a liquid, it usually enters at the bottom
of the exchanger - either shell or tube side - and flows out the top.
With this flow pattern the exchanger will stay full of liquid and the
entire tube area will be utilized. If liquid flows in the top and out
the bottom, vapor pockets can form, and no heat transfer will take place
in the tubes that are within the vapor pocket.

Exchangers can be mounted vertically with no change in their

efficiency, but prevention of vapor pockets is just as important as in
horizontal mounting.

Shell and tube exchangers have three common flow configurations:

1. Single pass
2. Two passes
3. Multipass

A fluid makes one pass when it flows from one end of the exchanger to the
other. The top exchanger on Figure 3, is an example of a single pass tube
and single pass shell. Each fluid enters one end and leaves at the other.
 -7-

A fluid makes two passes when it enters one end, flows to the
other end, and returns to the first end. The lower exchanger on Figure
3, has two passes on both the shell and tube sides.
A common arrangement is that shown in Figure 2, which has two
passes on the tube side, and a single pass on the shell side.

Problem 1

Refer to the middle exchanger shown in Figure 3.

a. How many passes does the tube side fluid make?

______ 1 ______ 2 ______ 3

b. How many passes does the shell side fluid make?

______ 1 ______ 2 ______ 3

An exchanger can have any number of passes. Each pass must be sealed
from the others so that the fluid does not by-pass the exchanger. Refer to
Figure 2; the tube side fluid enters at the bottom on the left and flows to
the right in the lower half of tubes. When it reaches the end, it turns
180° and flows to the left in the upper half of tubes. The partition plate,
Part no. 31, seals the lower inlet chamber on the tube side from the upper
outlet chamber. If the plate did not seal the two chambers, some inlet
fluid would flow directly to the outlet end, and it would receive no heat
exchange.

The shell side of an exchanger is more difficult to seal, and

consequently more than two passes are seldom used. The longitudinal baffle
or seal plate, item 30, shown on the 2-pass shell side exchanger in Figure
3, has a packing groove along the entire length of the baffle that is
filled with asbestos or other packing to seal the top half of the shell
from the
 -8-

lower half. If the baffle seal fails, some shell side fluid can
flow in one nozzle and out the other without ever flowing the
length of the exchanger.

The shell side of shell and tube exchangers has transverse

baffles, Items 28 on Figures 2 and 3, that serve two functions:

1. To keep the tubes from sagging or touching each other.

2. To direct the shell side fluid to flow in a serpentine
manner, that is up and down, rather than in a horizontal direction.
The maximum heat transfer will take place when the shell side fluid
flows at right angles to the tubes.

Another feature of shell and tube exchangers is that they can be

made so that the entire tube bundle can be removed. All of the
exchangers shown in Figures 2, 3 and 4 except the top unit in Figure
3 have removable tube bundles. Replacing a fouled bundle can usually
be done in a fraction of the time required to clean it. In addition,
the tube bundle can be replaced, if necessary, for much less than the
cost of a new exchanger.

Where corrosion or fouling is not likely to occur in the

exchanger, there is no reason to have a removable tube bundle. A
nonremovable or fixed tube sheet type of unit can be used, which is
less costly than the removable bundle. The top exchanger in Figure 3
is an example of a fixed tube sheet exchanger. Care must be taken in
designing a fixed tube sheet exchanger to allow for the difference in
expansion or contraction of the shell and tubes so that the tubes
don't pull out of the tube sheet or buckle from compression.

For example, suppose hot oil at 315°C [600°F] is used on the shell side
to heat a stream of naphtha at 38°C [100°F] in a single pass fixed tube
sheet exchanger. The average temperature of the tubes will be around 177°C
[350°F]. The shell or outer wall of the unit will be at 315°C [600°F]. At
315°C [600°F] temperature, the shell may "grow" in length by 1 cm [1/2 in.]
from expansion due to heat, whereas the tubes elongate only 1/2 cm [1/4
in.] from heat. As the shell expands, it will make the tubes stretch until
they pull out of the tube sheet or break in two.
 -9-

KETTLE REBOILER

Courtesy Tubular Exchanger Mfgrs. Assn.

FIGURE 4

TYPES OF STELL AND TUBE REBOILER

 - 10 -

This situation can be taken care of by installing an expansion joint on

the shell side (Top Exchanger of Figure 3.)

If the pressure on the shell side is more than an expansion joint can
take (usually about 17 bars [250 psi] maximum), a floating head or U-tube
bundle will probably be necessary to allow the tubes to expand or contract
independent of the shell. Figures 2, 3 and 4 indicate types of construction
which allow tube movement independent of the shell.

The upper illustration in Figure 4 is a type of shell and tube exchanger

commonly called a reboiler. It is actually a combination exchanger and gas-
liquid separator. In this particular drawing, a heating fluid such as steam or
hot oil flows through the tubes. The shell side fluid is a liquid which
partially vaporizes. It enters the bottom of the shell in the nozzle at the
left. As the fluid flows to the right, some of it vaporizes and passes out the
top nozzle in the center of the vessel.

The liquid that remains flows over the weir, which is to the right of the
tube bundle, and drops into the chamber on the right, where it is withdrawn
with a level controller or some other device. The height of the weir is
slightly above the tube bundle so that liquid will always cover the tubes in
order that the full tube area is available for heat transfer.

The illustration referred to is commonly called a kettle type reboiler.

It would be used to provide the heat required in a stripper or fractionation
tower. Its design must provide for enough free space above the level of liquid
over the tube bundle for vapors to separate from boiling liquid in the shell.

The lower exchanger shown in Figure 4 is called a thermosiphon reboiler.

The heating fluid makes a single pass through the tube side. Liquid from a
fractionation tower or stripper enters the two bottom nozzles on the shell
side. Some of the liquid vaporizes in the shell side. The combined shell side
stream, which is liquid and vapor, passes out the top and flows back to the
tower from which it came.
 - 11 -

The selection of a kettle or thermosiphon type of reboiler is made by the

designer of the tower to which the reboiler supplies heat. There are no hard
and fast rules for selection of one over the other.

The kettle type of reboiler also is used in refrigeration plants to chill

a stream of gas or absorption oil. In this application, the refrigerant
(usually propane or freon) flows on the shell side, and the gas or absorption
oil flows through the tubes. The refrigerant is a cold liquid when it enters
the exchanger. As it cools the tube side stream, it absorbs heat and is
vaporized. The vapors leave the top of the unit and flow to a compressor. (See
Manual P-10.)

Shell and tube exchangers used in process plants are almost always
designed and built for the specific application in which they are used.
Their design and construction must be in accordance with rigid specifications
by a heat exchanger association. Since each exchanger is tailor- made for one
job, there is little chance that it could be effectively used in another
application.

B. Hairpin Exchangers
An illustration of a hairpin or U-tube type of exchanger is shown in
Figure 5. In most applications this is used as a single-pass, counter- current
flow exchanger. The tube bundle can have several tubes, or a single tube made
of pipe. A single tube often has longitudinal fins on the outside to increase
the heat transfer area.

The tube bundle can be removed through the back end. A sealing device is
located on the front end, which is easily disassembled to allow removal of the
tubes.

The shell of the exchanger is made of standard pipe.

Makers of hairpin exchangers build them to standard sizes, using standard

materials for the shell and tubes.

When these exchangers are used, the supplier determines which of the
standard units, or a combination of standard units, will provide the required
heat transfer duty.
 --12
12--

DETAIL OF FRONT TUBE SEAL

FIGURE 5

HAIRPIN EXCHANGERS
 - 13 -

The units are not tailor made to each application as shell and tube units
are.

The units are supplied with mounting brackets that enable them to be
stacked atop one another, or mounted side-by-side. Several units may be
required in a given service. They may be used in series or in parallel.

One of the features of the hairpin exchangers is that additional sections

can be added to an existing installation at a reasonable cost.

C. Aerial Coolers
Aerial coolers are simply exchanger tubes exposed to a stream of air
moving across them. The tubes usually have aluminum fins pressed onto the
outer wall of the tubes to increase the heat transfer area.
Air is blown across the tubes with a fan driven with an electric motor or
engine. The exchangers are frequently called fin-fan units.

Drawings of typical aerial coolers are shown in Figure 6.

The exchanger tubes usually have at least 2 passes, and frequently have 6
or 8 passes. Air flow is single pass.

Each end of the exchanger has a header in which the tubes are rolled or
welded. Figure 7 shows a typical header. A plug is located in the header
opposite each tube to give access to the tubes for cleanout, to replace, or to
plug it if it is leaking.

Aerial coolers have 5 basic components:

1. Tubes
2. Headers
3. Fan and driver
4. Plenum chamber
5. Support structure
 - 14 -

FLUID
INLET

FIGURE 6
TYPES OF AERIAL COOLERS
 - 15 -

DETAIL OF HEADERS ON 4-PASS AERIAL COOLER

 - 16 -

Components are shown in Figure 6. The fan can be mounted below the tubes
and blow air up, which is a forced draft arrangement; or it can be mounted
above the tubes and suck air across the tubes, which is an induced draft
arrangement. The induced draft type is more expensive than the other. However,
it is often preferred on the basis that it is more efficient since it offers
less chance for hot exhaust air being sucked back and drawn through the tubes
again.

During cold weather operation of aerial coolers, it is often necessary to

restrict the flow of air across the tubes to prevent too much cooling of the
process fluid in the tubes. A common method for restricting the air flow is to
use louvers in the air stream. They are installed above the tubes on forced
draft units, and below the tubes on induced draft types. The louvers can be
positioned by hand; or can be moved with an automatic controller.

In locations in which very low ambient temperatures occur, louvers

may not provide enough restriction of air to prevent the fluid in the tubes
from freezing. A recirculating air system is provided for such
applications. In this type of unit, air circulates through the blower,
across the tubes, and back to the blower. Each time the air passes across
the tubes, its temperature rises. The air temperature is controlled by
admitting some cold air from outside the exchanger housing and discharging
an equal volume of circulating air to the atmosphere.

The blowers usually have 4 to 8 propeller type blades. The blades are
made of aluminum or plastic. The blades can be supplied with a variable pitch
to change the rate of air flow. Variable pitch blowers are used selectively
because of their cost and maintenance. The speed of the fan can also be varied
to control air flow.

The tubes and headers in an aerial exchanger are usually made of standard
grades of steel. Special alloys can be used in corrosive services. The
structural portion is also made of steel. It can be galvanized for corrosion
protection.

Vibration switches are frequently mounted on aerial coolers to shut down

the fan driver when excessive vibration occurs. Excessive vibration is usually
caused when one or more of the fan blades gets out of balance with the others.
 -- 17
17 --

This can be caused by:

1. Accumulation of dirt or scale on the blade.

2. The blade turns in its housing, so that its pitch is different
from the others.
3. The blade cracks or breaks apart, or some material flies
off of the tip of the blade.

If corrective action is not taken immediately when a blade gets out of

balance, excessive vibration can cause the unit to fly apart and damage or
injure nearby equipment or personnel.

Worn bearings on the fan shaft can also cause excessive vibration.

Most aerial coolers used in process plants are tailormade for the
specific application in which they are used. Standard size units can be used
for engine radiators, air conditioning condensers, and other similar services
where the heat transfer duty is relatively constant.

One of the most commonly used aerial exchanger is that of a radiator on

an automobile. It is an induced draft type of aerial cooler. It varies from a
conventional cooler in that a core is used instead of tubes. Since it operates
at a low pressure, and a leak would not be hazardous, a rugged construction is
not required. The plates making up the core are stamped to shape and soldered
together in an assembly-line type of construction that requires very little
manual labor.
 - 18 -

AERIAL COOLER

D. Miscellaneous Types of Exchangers

Quite frequently the presence of an exchanger in process equipment

is not obvious. Pressure vessels, such as separators or contactor
towers, often have heating coils near the bottom of the vessel through
which a hot fluid circulates to prevent liquid in the vessel from
freezing. The coil is an exchanger tube and the vessel are the shell.

Pipe or tubing coils are frequently used in process equipment for

heat transfer. The length and size of the coil is determined in the same
manner as the design of a sophisticated shell and tube exchanger.

Another commonly used exchanger that is not obvious is that of a pipe-

in-a-pipe arrangement, where the fluid flowing inside the smaller pipe is
used to heat or cool the fluid in the outer pipe.
 - 19 -

Steam boilers and gas fired heaters are also forms of heat exchangers.
They are not included in this manual because they require design and operating
procedures that are not applicable to conventional heat exchangers.

Problem 2
Match the items in the right column that most closely describe those on the left.

______ 1. Aerial cooler a. Single finned tube

______ 2. Hairpin exchanger b. Kettle reboiler

______ 3. Shell & tube exchanger c. Radiator

 - 20 -

II. PRINCIPLES OF HEAT TRANSFER

A. General

The process that takes place in a heat exchanger is that of heat

transfer. For the sake of uniformity, we always consider heat movement from
the warm fluid to the cool fluid. In an aerial cooler, heat from the fluid in
the tubes transfers to air blowing across the tubes. In a gas chiller, heat in
the warm gas is transferred to the cold refrigerant.

It is important that you visualize the movement of heat from the warm fluid to
the cold one in order to understand the principles of heat transfer. You can
think of heat transfer in an exchanger as though a part of the warm fluid
moved through the tube and mixed with the cool fluid.

Heat flows from warm fluid to cool one.

Remember: heat transfer is the movement of heat from the warm fluid to
the cool one.

Another term you need to remember is that of duty. The duty of an

exchanger is the amount of heat that is transferred. The duty is usually
expressed in kcal/hr [Btu/hr].
 - 21 -

A kcal is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of 1 kg of

water by 1°C. A BTU is the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of
1 lb of water by 1°F.

Examples:
1. Calculate the heat required to raise the temperature of 4.5 kg [10 lb] of
water from 38 to 48°C [100 to 118°F].

Weight of water METRIC UNITS ENGLISH UNITS

Temperature Change, ΔT 4.5 kg 10 lb
Heat required
48 - 38 = 10°C 118 - 100 = 18°F
4.5 x 10 10 x 18

= 45 kcal = 180 BTU

2. When fuel gas burns, it gives off

9300 kcal/m3 [1000 BTU/cu ft.]
A hot water heater holds 900 kg
[2000 lb] of water at 32°C [90°F.]
What will the water temperature 3
be when 1 m3 [37 cu ft] of fuel gas is
burned?
 - 22 -

METRIC UNITS ENGLISH UNITS

Heat of combustion 9300 kcal/m3 1000 BTU/cu ft

Volume of fuel 1 m3 37 cu ft
Heat from fuel 9300 x 1 1000 x 37
= 9300 kcal = 37 000 BTU
Weight of water 900 kg 2000 lb

9300 3 000
Water temp rise = 10.3°C 900 = 18.5°F 2000
900 2000

Original water temp 32°C 90°F

Final water temp 42.3°C 108.5°F

Problem 3

What volume of fuel would be required to raise the water temperature in

the example to 52.6°C [127°F]?

METRIC ______ 0.5 m3 ______ 1 m3 ______ 2 m3

ENGLISH ______ 17 cu ft ______ 37 cu ft ______ 74 cu ft

Heat transfer takes place in three steps:

1. Heat flows from the hot fluid to the tube wall.

2. It flows through the tube wall.
3. It flows into the cold fluid.

B. Temperature Difference
Suppose we have an insulated tank with 2 compartments. Water at 93°C
[200°F] is in one compartment, and oil at 38°C [100°F] is in the other one.
The heat in the hot water in contact with the partition will flow into the
wall, raising its temperature, and then flow into the cold oil next to the
wall, raising its temperature. A temperature profile would look like this:
 - 23 -

After a period of time, heat will flow from the water to the oil so that
the temperature profile looks like this:

If the vessel stands indefinitely, the temperature in each compartment

will equalize, and no additional heat will flow.

Now let's take the same system and install agitators in each compartment
to continually stir each liquid. The temperature profile at the start looks
like this:
 - 24 -

The temperature profile is much steeper in the agitated case, and heat
will flow at a much higher rate.

Look at the temperature of each liquid next to the partition at the start
in each case. In the static case, the water and oil temperatures next to the
wall were each about 66°C [150°F.] In the agitated case, the temperature of
liquid close to the wall was the same as the liquid in the vessel. In the
static case, the temperature difference between the hot and cold liquids at
the partition was only a few degrees, and heat flow was very slow. In the
agitated case, the temperature difference was almost 38°C [100°F] at the
start, and heat flow was much greater.

The temperature difference between fluids is the force that pushes heat
from the hot liquid to the cold one.

TEMPERATURE DIFFERENCE BETWEEN FLUIDS, AT, IS FORCE THAT

DRIVES HEAT FROM WARM FLUID TO COOL FLUID
 - 25 -

Now suppose that the same oil and water are flowing through the
shell and tube sides of an exchanger. If the flow of each liquid is
very slow, the temperature difference will be about the same as that in
the static compartment case, and heat transfer will be slow. However, if
we increase the velocity of the liquids in the exchanger so that the flow
is turbulent, as it was in the agitated compartment case, we will have
the maximum temperature difference and the fastest flow of heat.

The amount of turbulence that occurs depends upon the velocity of

the fluid. The greater the velocity, the more turbulent the flow, and
more heat is transferred.

Exchangers are designed so that flow will be turbulent. You recall

in the study of shell and tube exchanger design that baffles are used on
the shell side to direct the flow of fluid. If there were no baffles, the
shellside fluid would move slowlythrough the exchanger. The baffles cause the
fluid to move up and down as it flows through the exchanger, thereby
increasing the velocity. Enough baffles are included on the shell side to
assure turbulent flow.

Turbulent flow of fluid in the tubes is maintained by limiting the

number of tubes in an exchanger.

Example:
A stream of water flowing at a rate of 380 ltr/m [100 gpm] passes through the
tube side of an exchanger. The tubes will have turbulent flow if the water rate
through each of them is at least 8 ltr/m [2 gpm.] How many tubes will be
required?

METRIC UNITS ENGLISH UNITS

Total water flow 380 ltr/m 100 gpm
Flow per tube 7.6 ltr/m 2 gpm

380 180
Number of tubes = 50 = 50
.6 2
 - 26 -

The maximum number of tubes at 380 ltr/m [100 gpm] flow is 50 in

order to maintain turbulent flow.

Occasionally, the design is such that flow is not turbulent in the

tubes. In such cases, turbulence is induced by inserting a metal strip in
the tube that has been twisted in the shape of a spiral.
You can compare the flow of heat to that of water in a pipe. Suppose you have
a pressure tank at 3 bars [45 psi] full of water. You connect a 1 cm [1/2 in.]
hose, and the flow rate will be about 75 ltr/m [20 gpm]. The pressure in the
tank is the driving force, and the size of hose is the only thing that
restricts the flow rate. In a heat exchanger, the temperature difference is
the driving force and the restriction to heat flow will depend on the types of
fluids. Heat moves slower through gas than through liquid.

The temperature difference between fluids in an exchanger can vary

considerably from one end of the unit to the other. The average difference
h gh he e cha ge i he d i i g f ce. Le l k a he em e a e
in an exchanger where water is used to cool a stream of oil. The exchanger can
be illustrated:

T = 57 -49 = 8°C
[ T = 134 120 = 14°F]

50 8
A e age T = = 29°C
2
90 14
[A e age T = = 52°F]
2

CONCURRENT FLOW IN EXCHANGER

 - 27 -

In this exchanger the fluids are flowing in the same direction.

This is called concurrent flow. The temperature difference between fluids
varies from 50°C [90°F] at the inlet to 8°C [14°F] at the outlet. The average
50 8 90 14
temperature difference would appear to be = 29°C [ = 52°F], However,
2 2
if we were able to take temperature differences throughout the exchanger, we
would find a pattern like this:

TEMPERATURE OF WATER & OIL

AS THEY FLOW THROUGH EXCHANGER

The average temperature throughout the exchanger is 23°C [41°F]

instead of 29°C [52°F] as it first appeared.

N , le ake he ame e cha ge a d e e e he fl f a e ha

it moves in the opposite direction to the gas. This is called countercurrent
flow. Flow will look like this:
 - 28 -

T = 90 - 49 = 41°C
[ T = 194 120 = 74°F] ΔT 57 - 40 = 17°C
ΔT 34 – 104 = 30°F]
41 1
A e age T = = 29°C
2
4 30
[A e age T = = 52°F]
2

CONCURRENT FLOW IN EXCHANGER

41 1 4 30
The average temperature difference appears to be = 29°C [ =
2 2
52°F], which is the same as the arithmetic average in the con
current flow case. However, a plot of the temperature difference between the
gas and water from one end of the exchanger to the other looks like this:

TEMPERATURE OF WATER & OIL

AS THEY FLOW THROUGH EXCHANGER
 - 29 -

The average temperature difference in this case is 27°C [49°F] which

approaches the arithmetic average of 29°C [52°F].

The mean average temperature in the countercurrent flow was 27°C [49°F]
versus 23°C [41°F] for concurrent flow. The concurrent exchanger would have
to be about 20% larger than the countercurrent one, for the same duty.
Consequently, whenever possible, exchangers are designed for countercurrent
flow in order to get the maximum temperature difference between the two
fluids.

Here is another term to remember: TEMPERATURE APPROACH. In the preceding

countercurrent example, the fluid temperature difference on one end was 41°C
[74°F] and on the other end it was 17°C [30°F], The lower of the two, in this
case 17°C [30°F], is the temperature approach.

Calculation of the average temperature difference involves the use of

logarithms and is not necessary for you to know the procedure. The important
thing for you to remember is that the average temperature difference is
somewhat less than the arithmetic average. For our purposes, the arithmetic
average will be accurate enough.

Example:
An amine exchanger has lean amine entering at 107°C [225°F] and
leaving at 79°C [175°F]; and foul amine enters at 52°C [125°F] and
leaves at 79°C [175°F]. What is the average temperature difference?

First, let's draw a picture of the exchanger:

T = 107 - 79 = 28°C T = 79 - 51 = 28°C

[ T = 225 175 = 50°F] [ T = 175 125 = 50°F]

In this case, the temperature difference is 28°C [50°F] on each end, so the average
temperature difference, T = 28°C [50°F].
 - 30 -

An aerial cooler is used to cool gas from a compressor. The gas inlet
temperature is 121°C [250°F] and it will be cooled to 49°C [120°F].
Air temperature rises from 32°C [90°F] to 60°C [140°F]. What is the
average temperature difference?

A drawing of the exchanger looks like this:

T = 49 - 32 = 17°C
T = 121 - 60 = 61°C
[ T = 120 90 = 30°F]
[ T = 250 140 = 110°F]

METRIC UNITS ENGLISH UNITS

Average ΔT
61 1 8 110 30 140
= = = 39°C = = = 70°F
2 2 2 2

Problem 4

a. What is the average temperature difference in a

radiator in which water is cooled from 93°C [200°F] to 60°C
[140°F] with air whose temperature rises from 27°C [80°F] to 49°C
[120°F]?

METRIC ______ 33°C ______ 38.5°C ______ 44°C

ENGLISH ______ 60°F ______ 70°F ______ 80°F

b. What is the temperature approach?

METRIC ______ 33°C ______ 38.5°C ______ 44°C

ENGLISH ______ 60°F ______ 70°F ______ 80°F
 - 31 -

C. Resistance to Flow of Heat

All materials have a natural resistance to the flow of heat through them.
Those with a high resistance are used for insulation.
The resistance to the flow of heat can be demonstrated by holding a metal
bar in a flame. The metal in contact with the fire may heat to

260°C [500°F], but the other end of the bar can be held for
several minutes before the heat from the fire travels the length
of the bar. If the bar is copper or aluminum, the open end will
get hot much faster than steel. If it is made of asbestos, little
heat will flow from one end to the other. Different fluids have
different resistances to heat flow.

Water has the lowest resistance of common fluids. The resistance

of viscous fluids such as crude oil or glycol is higher than that
of less viscous gasoline or LPG. Gas has a greater resistance
than liquids. Increasing the gas pressure will reduce the
resistance to the flow of heat.

In an ideal exchanger, the resistance to the flow of heat

is the same for the shell fluid as that in the tubes. If both
fluids are water, oil or gas, resistance to heat flow in the hot
stream will be about the same as that of the cold one.
Unfortunately, in most exchanger applications, resistance to heat
flow through the fluids is quite different. A typical example of
 - 32 -

example of such a case is an aerial cooler. Air has a high resistance

to heat flow. We compensate for its resistance by adding fins to the
exchanger tubes on the air side. The fins provide extra surface area
for heat to flow into the air.

The resistance to heat flow of an exchanger is called its

coefficient It is expressed as the heat transferred per unit surface area
per degree AT temperature difference per unit time. Total heat
transferred equals the coefficient times surface area times T. Physical
properties of the fluids at flowing conditions, the flow rates of the
fluids, the tube material and wall thickness. Calculation of the
coefficient is a specialty. Common values for coefficients for various
services are shown in Table I on page 55 at the end of the text material.

A low coefficient indicates a high resistance to flow, and vice

versa Refer to Table I: under the heading of "Miscellaneous" you see that
a gas-to-gas exchanger in which the pressure of each gas stream is 7 bars
[100 psi] has a coefficient of 195 kcal [40 BTU]; whereas a unit
operating at 70 bars [1000 psi] has a coefficient of 290 kcal [60 BTU].
More heat transfer will take place at higher pressure because the
resistance of heat flow is less than at low pressure. The higher the
coefficient, the lower the resistance to heat flow, and the more heat
transfer will take place. What this means in practice is that an
exchanger having a high coefficient will require less area than one
having a low coefficient.

D. Area

The final factor that affects the flow of heat is the area of the
exchanger. An exchanger with 10 tubes would obviously transfer twice as
much heat as one having 5 tubes. The area of an exchanger is the total
external area of the tubes in the unit.

Table II in the back of the book shows the external tube area per
lineal foot of tubes most commonly used in heat exchangers.
 - 33 -

Example:
An exchanger has 300 tubes 20 mm dia [3/4 in. dia] and 6 m [20 ft]
long. What is the total surface area?

Solution:

METRIC UNITS ENGLISH UNITS

Number of tubes 300 300
Length of each tube 6 m 20 ft
Total length of tubing 300x6 = 1800 m 300x20 = 6000 ft
Size of tubes 20 mm 3/4 in.
Area of tube (Page 56) 0.0628m2/m 0.1963 sq ft/ft
Total area of tubes 1800 x 0.0628 6000 x 0.1963

= 113 m2 = 1178 sq ft

Problem 5
An exchanger has 100-25 cm [1 in.] diameter tubes 6 m [20
ft] long. What is the total surface area?

METRIC ______ 23 m2 ______ 47 m2 ______ 94 m2

ENGLISH ______ 262sq ft ______ 524sq ft ______ 788sq ft

To summarize, heat transfer depends on 3 factors:

1. Temperature difference of the fluids.

2. Resistance to heat flow.
3. Area.

You recall we said that the heat transfer in an exchanger was

called its duty. We can now drive the formula for calculating
the duty of an exchanger:
 - 34 -

Duty = (Temp diff) x (Resistance to heat flow) x (Area)

We commonly use the following letters for each of the above factors:

Q = Duty, kcal/hr [BTU/hr]

U = Flow resistance (coefficient)
T = Tem e a e diffe e ce, C °F
The f m la i : Q = U A T

When we are designing new exchangers, we know the duty, coefficient,

and temperature difference, and we want to determine the area. The formula
can be rearranged to calculate the area:

Area, A =
T

Now that we understand all the factors that affect the duty of an
e cha ge , le k me m e c m lica ed problems.

Example:
An exchanger uses water to cool lean oil. Water enters at 32°C
[90°F] and leaves at 49°C [120°F]. Lean oil enters at 82°C
[180°F] and leaves at 38°C [100°F]. The exchanger has 240 tubes
20 mm dia [3/4 in. dia] and 12 m [40 ft] long. What is the duty
of the exchanger?
 - 35 -

Solution:

We will use the formula Q = U x A x T

T = 82 - 49 = 33°C T = 38 - 32 = 6°C
[ T = 180 120 = 60°F] [ T = 100 90 = 10°F]

33 6 39
A e age T = = = 19.5°C
2 2
60 10 0
[A e age T = = = 35°F]
2 2

METRIC UNITS ENGLISH UNITS

Coefficient, U(Page 55) 390 80
Calculate area:
Number of tubes 240 240
Length of tubes 12 m 40 ft
Total length of tubing 12x240 = 2880 m 40x240 = 9600 ft
Tube diameter 20 mm 3/4 in.
Unit area of tubes (Page 56) 0.0628 0.1963
Total area of tubes 2880x0.0628 9600x.01963
= 181 m2 = 1884 sq ft
Heat transfer formula U x A x T U x A x T
Substitute in formula ((390) x (181) x (19.5) (80) x (1884) x (35)
Duty = 1 376 500 kcal/hr 5 275 200 BTU/hr

Example:
Vie have a gas chiller in which propane at -40°C [-40°F] is cooling from -1°C to
-34°C [30°F to -30°F]. If the duty of the cooler is 3 000 000 kcal/hr [12.0 MM
BTU/hr], what is the area and how many tubes 20 cm dia by 12 m long [7/8 in. dia
by 40 ft long] will be required?
 - 36 -

GAS CHILLER

Solution:
𝑄
Use the formula A = to find the area, and then determine the number of
𝑈 𝑥 ΔT
tubes:

T = 40 - 1 = 39°C T = 40 - 34 = 39°C
[ T = 30 (-40)120 = 70°F] [ T = 40 30 = 10°F]

39 6
A e age T = = 22.5°C
2
0 10
[A e age T = = 40°F]
2
 - 37 -

METRIC UNITS ENGLISH UNITS

Coefficient, U (Page 55) 460 90
T 22.5°C 40°F
Duty, Q 3 000 000 kcal/hr 12 000 000 BTU/hr
3 000 000 12 000 000
Substitute in formula
460x22.5 90x40
Area = 290 m2 = 3333 sq ft
Tube size 20 mm 7/8 in.
Unit tube area (Page 56) 0.0628 m2/m 0.2291 sq ft/ft

Length of tubing 290 333

0.0628 0.2291
= 4618 m = 14 550 ft
Length each tube 12 m 40 ft
4618 14 550
Number of tubes
12 40
= 385 = 364

Problem 6

What will be the duty in an amine-to-water exchanger having a tube

area of 25 m2 [250 sq ft] and a temperature difference of 33°C [60°F]?

METRIC ______ 487 000 kcal/hr ______ 561 000 kcal/hr ______ 1 100 000 kcal/hr
ENGLISH ______ 1.95 MM BTU/hr ______ 2.1 BTU/hr ______ 4.2 BTU/hr

TWO HAIRPIN EXCHANGERS CONNECTED IN SERIES

 - 38 -

III. APPLICATION OF EXCHANGERS

Heat exchangers are generally used for one of three reasons:

1. To transfer heat in order for a process to occur.
2. To conserve heat.
3. To cool a hot stream.
Some examples of each are:
1. Process exchangers
a. Reboilers

b. Condensers

2. Conserve heat
a. Gas-to-gas exchangers.
b. Lean amine to foul amine exchangers.
c. Lean oil to rich oil exchangers
d. Fractionator preheaters
3. Coolers
a. Radiators
b. Compressor coolers
c. Product coolers

Selection of the type of exchanger to use in a particular service is

usually a matter of economics. However, selection is often dictated by
circumstances. For example, if a process cooler was needed in a location
that had no water, an aerial cooler would be required.

A. Shell and Tube

The most widely used exchanger in process plants is a shell and tube
exchanger. It can be designed in a variety of configurations and tailored
to do a specific job. Special materials for low temperature or corrosive
service can be used. They can be made long or short, horizontal or
vertical. The advantage of shell and tube type exchangers over other type
 - 39 -

is that since they are designed for a specific application, they are
more likely to perform satisfactorily than any other type.

The disadvantages of S & T units are that they are expensive, and
have a limited reuse value in another location.

TUBE BUNDLES FOR SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS

B. Hairpin

Hairpin exchangers are usually used when the surface area require-
ment is less than 40 m2 [400 sq ft]. They are made in standard sizes.
Since standard size units must be selected to fit the particular heat
transfer service, the exchanger may or may not perform as required by
the process. They are less expensive than S & T exchangers in smaller
sizes.

Probably the largest single use of hairpin exchangers is on packaged

process equipment, such as gas dehydrators, refrigerated hydrocarbon
recovery plants, gas sweetening plants, etc.
The advantages of the hairpin exchangers are:
1. Low cost.
2. Ease of maintenance.
3. Ease of adding additional units.
4. Can easily be used in another application.
5. Good delivery.
 - 40 -

The disadvantages of hairpin exchangers are:

1. May not perforin to process requirements.
2. Limited selection of metals.
3. They are larger and take up more space.

C. Coils

Coil type exchangers are used when the surface area requirement
is low, and space is limited. They have a low coefficient, and are
usually used where a high temperature difference is available. Some
common applications are:

1. To heat fuel or instrument gas to prevent hydrates from

forming.
2. For heating water in the bottom of vessels to prevent freezing.

3. For small process exchangers in packaged equipment.

D. Aerial Coolers

Aerial coolers are used when no other process coolant (such as

water) is available. Some common applications of aerial coolers are:

1. Engine radiators.
2. Process coolers on packaged equipment and offshore platforms.
3. Fractionator condensers.

The main disadvantage of aerial coolers over S & T is that the

temperature of fluid out of the cooler is limited by ambient air
temperature. A temperature approach of 11°C [20°F] is about the best that
can be done.
This means that the outlet process fluid temperature will be 11°C [20°F]
above ambient air temperature. It is seldom economical to have a
temperature approach of less than 16°C [30°F]; many units use a 22°C [40°F]
approach.

Aerial coolers must be carefully located in a plant so that they do

not circulate air that has been warmed from a heater or engine. They should
be on the upwind side of any heat source. They should be located above walls
or buildings that might divert the flow of air out of the exchanger back to
the intake side of the fan.
 - 41 -

IV. OPERATION OF EXCHANGERS

A. Shell and Tube or Hairpin

In most cases, exchangers are put in service by simply opening the

process fluids through them. The cool fluid should be opened first.
If the hot fluid is 55°C [100°F] warmer than the cold one, the flow of hot
fluid should be opened gradually to prevent shocking the tubes with a sudden
surge of heat.

Shut down is the reverse, with the hot fluid closed first.
Prior to start up, the outlet liquid side of exchangers should be vented with
the inlet liquid line open until the liquid side is completely full

SHELL SIDE TUBE SIDE

FLUID OUTLET FLUID OUTLET

TUBE SIDE SHELL SIDE

FLUID INLET FLUID INLET

Routine operating checks are:

1. Observe fluid inlet and outlet temperatures and determine the cause
of a change from normal.
 - 42 -

2. Observe the pressure drop on each side by reading pressure gauges,

and determine the cause of a change from normal.
3. Reduce or increase the fluid flow as needed to obtain the desired
temperatures. For example, open the flow of water to coolers in
the summer, and close it in the winter.

Most reboilers have temperature controllers that control the

temperature of the shell side liquid by changing the flow of tube side
fluid. The temperature controller can be put in service when the shell
side liquid level is above the tubes, and the tubes have been warmed up by
slowly admitting the tube side fluid.

B. Aerial Coolers
Aerial coolers are started in the following sequence:
1. Start the fan. Check for vibration or unusual noises.
2. Open fluid through the tubes.
On shut down, fluid is blocked in, and then the fan is turned off. Routine
operating checks are:
1. Observe the cooler inlet and outlet temperatures and determine
the cause of a change.
2. Adjust the louvers or other air flow controls as necessary.
3. Check for leaks in the tubes or headers.
4. Check the fan for noise and vibration.
5. Check tube fins for damage or obstruction.
6. Periodically check the fan blades for speed, pitch, and scale or
dirt accumulation.
 - 43 -

V. TROUBLESHOOTING EXCHANGERS

A. Shell and Tube Exchangers

A problem with an exchanger occurs when the heat transfer duty falls
below design. It shows up when the fluid being cooled does not get cold
enough, or the fluid being heated does not get hot enough.

TROUBLESHOOTING PROCEDURE
CAUSE OF LOSS OF DUTY PROCEDURE TO CORRECT

1. Low flow rate of one or both Check flow rates. Raise to

fluids. design.

2. Inlet temperature of one or both Check temperatures. Correct if

fluids has changed. necessary.

3. Vapor pocket in liquid side. Vent vapor on outlet end.

4. Tubes are corroded or plugged. a. Verify condition by measuring

Condition can be on shell or pressure drop.

tube side, and will cause a b. Backwash unit if possible.

high pressure drop. c. Clean tubes.

a. Confirm leakage from pressure

5. One or more tubes are leaking.
The higher-pressure fluid will
flow into the low pressure
fluid. Pressure on the low
pressure side will usually rise.
observation or by analyzing low
pressure fluid for presence of
high pressure fluid.
b. Shut down unit and plug
leaking tubes.

B. Aerial Coolers

Three types of problems occur on aerial coolers:

1. Mechanical difficulties with the driver, pulley, speed reducer, shaft,
etc. These are not exchanger problems, and will not be discussed here.
 - 44 -

2. Insufficient movement of air across the tubes. This is an exchanger

problem that is difficult to diagnose. The best solution to the
problem is one of prevention. Proper air movement can be maintained
as follows:
a. Check the fan speed and replace belts or make other repairs as
needed.
b. Keep the fan blades clean and set at the right pitch.
c. Keep louvers clean and remove debris that may have fallen on
them.
d. Keep the tube fins clean.
e. Keep the area around the cooler clean and free of rags, paper,
debris, etc. that might lodge on the outside of the tubes.
f. Keep sources of heat, such as temporary heaters or engines, away
from the coolers.

3. The final problem is one of insufficient heat transfer. This shows up

as an increase in the fluid temperature out of the cooler. Here is
the procedure for finding the cause:
a. Check for an increase in the flow rate or temperature of the
inlet fluid.
b. Check for proper air movement. See that louvers are open, the
fan is running at full speed, blades are clean and pitch is
proper, and fins are clean and undamaged.
c. Check for tube leakage. A leak will usually show a stain and
will cause the outlet air to look smokey. Of course, a severe
liquid leak will drip to the ground and be obvious.
d. If the problem persists, internal corrosion or tube plugging is
indicated. It can usually be confirmed by checking for an
increase in pressure drop across the tubes. Aerial coolers
usually have 4-8 passes. The pressure drop of each pass should
be checked to see if one or more is higher than the others.
 - 45 -

VI. GASOLINE PLANT EXCHANGER PROBLEMS

Heat transfer is one of the most critical processes in a refrigerated

gas processing plant. Recovery of product depends upon cooling the gas as
low as possible. Consequently, heat exchangers must operate properly in
order to get the maximum production. In this section we will concern
ourselves with the exchangers in the gas cooling system. Operation and
troubleshooting other process exchangers has been covered.

The two most important exchangers in the gas stream are the gas-to-
gas exchanger, and the gas chiller. We will discuss each of them
separately. Refer to Figure 8 for a flow diagram.

A. Gas-to-Gas Exchanger

In the gas-to-gas exchanger, some of the heat in the inlet gas stream
is transferred to the cool gas from the absorber. These units are usually
designed for a 6°C [10°F] approach; that is, the temperature of the cool
gas stream out of the exchanger is 6°C [10°F] below the temperature of the
inlet gas stream. This exchanger is critical because any heat that remains
in the inlet gas stream that should have been removed in the exchanger
will have to be removed in the chiller. This will require additional
refrigeration, which means more load on the refrigeration compressor and
more compressor fuel costs.

A gas-to-gas exchanger is one of the most difficult to properly

design It is not unusual for an exchanger from one supplier to have 30%
more area than one from another when both are designing from the same
data.

Design is difficult for two reasons:

1. Gas has a high resistance to heat flow. The velocity in both the
shell and tube sides is critical in minimizing the resistance
2. Some condensation of the inlet stream usually occurs which has a
significant effect on the velocity and resistance to heat flow
(Liquid has a lower resistance to the flow of heat.)
 - 46 -

Duty of gas-to-gas exchanger

is about the same as that of
chiller. Loss of heat
transfer in gas-to-gas
exchanger will require more
cooling in chiller, which
will take more refrigeration
compressor.

FIGURE 8
GAS FLOW SYSTEM AT SUMMER OPERATING CONDITIONS
 - 47 -

It is important that the performance of a gas-to-gas exchanger in a

new plant be evaluated as soon as possible after start-up to establish the
actual performance of the unit to use as a basis for future comparison.
For example, the unit shown in Figure 8 has a temperature approach of 5°C
[10°F]. Suppose in actual operation at design flow rates, the approach was
8°C [15°F], In this case, the outlet gas temperature on the shell side
would be 29°C instead of 32°C [85°F instead of 90°F], You may or may not
be able to get the exchanger supplier to correct the situation, but
assuming that you do not, then your reference point for future evaluation
of the performance of the unit is a temperature approach of 8°C [15°F].
Any time the approach is more than 8°C [15°F] at design flow rate the
exchanger may not be performing properly and you are probably wasting
refrigeration in the chiller.

A common cause of loss of duty in the unit is that of excessive

glycol injection in the inlet gas stream. Glycol is injected to prevent
hydrates from forming in the unit. The quantity of glycol that is
injected, and the manner in which it is injected, can have a significant
effect on the performance of the exchanger. Glycol has a high resistance
to heat flow, and an excessive flow will reduce the coefficient and
thereby lower the rate of heat transfer. The net effect will be to
increase the temperature approach.

The procedure for finding the ideal glycol rate is not an easy or
pleasant one. It is a matter of starting with a high rate and slowly
cutting back until hydrates form, and then slightly increasing the rate.
The presence of hydrates is indicated in two ways:

1. The temperature approach increases due to a loss of heat

transfer.
2. The pressure drop on the inlet stream (tube side on Figure 8)
increases.

When hydrates form, they usually block the flow of gas through the
tube. Consequently, increasing the glycol injection rate will not help
because no flow is passing through the plugged tubes. You will have to
melt the hydrates by shutting down the refrigeration unit and let the
exchanger heat up until the hydrates melt.
 - 48 -

The important thing to remember about glycol injection is that a

certain quantity is required at a certain gas rate to prevent hydrates
from forming, and the minimum should be held at all times. The idea that
if a little does a lot of good, a lot will do even more, does not apply to
glycol injection. An excess of glycol will reduce the amount of heat
transferred in both the gas-to-gas exchanger and the chiller, and will
ultimately reduce the amount of cooling and thereby reduce the recovery of
LP-gas.

Since we are concerned at this point with heat transfer, and not
hydrate inhibition, we will not attempt to cover the detailed procedures
for operating the glycol injection system. The important thing for you to
remember is that the glycol rate will affect the heat transfer rate, and
that it should be held as low as possible.

In the system shown on Figure 8, the duty of the gas-to-gas exchanger

is about the same as that of the gas chiller. In other words, half of the
total gas cooling occurred in the gas-to-gas exchanger. Had it not been
used, the refrigeration load would be twice as much. The cost of the
exchanger is about 20% that of the compressor. You can see readily that
the gas-to-gas exchanger saves a significant investment. You can also see
that the loss of a few degrees of cooling in the exchanger can add a
significant load to the chiller.

B. Gas Chiller

The same principles that apply to glycol injection are applicable to

the chiller. In addition, two other operating problems are often
encountered in it:

1. Low level of refrigerant in the shell side.

2. Accumulation of lube oil on the shell side.
 - 49 -

In order to get the maximum duty from a chiller, the level of

refrigerant must be above the tube bundle. Very little heat transfer will
take place in tubes that are not immersed in liquid. However, determining
the level of refrigerant in the exchanger is not an easy thing to do. The
refrigerant is boiling rather violently in the shell side, so that it is
almost a foam in the vessel.

You know that if you place a pan of water on your stove and heat it
until it boils violently, the level in the pan will rise, and will
probably boil over onto the stove. The same situation occurs in the
chiller. If you have a gauge glass on the refrigerant side, the liquid in
it is not exposed to the same heat as the fluid inside the vessel. So, it
is not boiling, and will show a lower level than that in the vessel. Its
level will be that of the pan we set on the stove before we started
boiling water; whereas, the level inside the exchanger will be the level
after boiling started. Consequently, a gauge glass is not an accurate
measure of the level of refrigerant in the chiller. It will indicate a
change in level inside the chiller, but will not show the actual level in
the vessel.
 - 50 -

The level in a gauge glass indicates the proper level of liquid

inside an exchanger. The fluid inside an exchanger is a mixture of liquid
refrigerant and gas bubbles formed when the liquid boils. It is lighter
than pure liquid in the gauge glass, so its level will be higher. The
mixture may cover the float on the level controller, making it
inoperative. The level of mixture inside the vessel must be lowered until
part of the float is exposed. The level in the gauge glass will be nearer
to the bottom of the glass.

The same is true of a level controller on the chiller. If the float

is located inside the vessel, and you use the level in the gauge glass to
set the controller, you may have such a high level in the vessel that the
float on the controller is completely immersed in foam, in which case the
controller will not function properly. It is impossible to adjust a level
controller when the level of liquid is below or above the float. The float
must be partially immersed in liquid in order for it to function, and for
you to change the level setting.

You may set the control point on your level controller when the float
is totally immersed in fluid, and it will appear to be operating
satisfactorily. However, when you return a few minutes later, the level
may have dropped out of the gauge glass. If the level controller is an
external cage type, the level in it is more than likely lower than the
level in the chiller, unless it is picking up a lot of ambient heat and
boiling at a greater rate than the liquid in the chiller.

The location of the level controller and gauge glass is important in

their proper use. The refrigerant near the end of an exchanger is not
exposed to as much heat as that in the middle of the unit, so that it is
in more of a liquid state than a foam. Consequently, a gauge glass or
level controller located on the end of the chiller will sense a low level
of pure liquid, whereas it will sense a higher level of foam near the
center of the vessel.

The situation is compounded by the fact that the lines that connect
the level controller to the vessel are much larger than those connecting
the gauge glass. It is entirely possible for the gauge glass to show a
steady level of liquid, whereas the level controller is filled with foam
that is in the vessel.
 - 51 -

From the previous drawing, it would appear that using the gauge glass
to set the level controller usually will result in the level inside the
chiller being higher than that indicated by the gauge glass. The problem
does not lie in operating with a level higher than necessary, but in
having a non-functioning level controller when the float is totally
immersed in liquid.

As far as the chiller is concerned, the level of refrigerant should

be high enough so that all of the tubes are immersed. No additional
cooling will occur when the level rises above the tubes. However, a high
liquid level will usually result in liquid carryover out the top of the
unit, which may cause problems at the compressor.

The important thing to remember is that the level of refrigerant

indicated by a gauge glass is not necessarily the level of liquid in the
chiller or in the level controller. The level in the gauge glass will
generally be lower than that in the chiller or level controller.
In some cases, you may have to operate your chiller with the level in the
gauge glass near the bottom of the glass in order for the level controller
to function. There have been instances where the level of boiling
refrigerant inside the exchanger was so much higher than the level shown
in the gauge glass that the gauge glass had to be lowered in order to use
it in setting the level controller.

The ideal level indication in a chiller is a "bulls-eye" type of

gauge glass through which the interior of the vessel can be observed from
the outside. It is difficult to prevent ice from forming on these gauges,
which obstructs your vision.

The refrigerant that flows to the chiller comes from a compressor.

Most compressors require some lubrication in the compressor cylinders.
The lube oil injected in the cylinders will end up in the liquid
refrigerant. The lube oil will dissolve in the refrigerant at ambient
temperature; however, it is less soluble at the temperature in the
chiller. Consequently, it will separate from the refrigerant in the
chiller.
 - 52 -

If propane is the refrigerant, the lube oil will settle to the bottom
of the chiller; if freon is the refrigerant, the lube will collect on the
top of the refrigerant in the chiller. However, in either case, the
boiling that occurs in the chiller will agitate the fluid in the vessel so
that some of the lube oil will be dispersed throughout the vessel. Oil
becomes viscous at low temperatures, and it will tend to collect on the
tubes, and act as an insulation to prevent the flow of heat. The duty of
the chiller will decrease, and the outlet gas temperature will not be as
low as it should be.

Several devices are available to remove lube oil from refrigerant.

We will not attempt to describe them, but merely to point out that they
should be in operation at all times.

Even though you use some form of oil removal device, some lube oil
will usually find its way into the chiller. The only way to remove it is
to drain it when the chiller is shut down. Consequently, each time the
unit is down, you should drain oil that has accumulated. Oil should be
drained as soon as possible after shutdown while the refrigerant is still
cold. As the refrigerant heats up, the oil will dissolve in it.

Draining the oil from a chiller using propane is no problem because

the oil will settle to the bottom, and will flow out a drain line.
However, draining oil from a unit using freon is more difficult. The oil
is lighter than liquid freon, and it will float to the top of the freon.
It will be necessary to adjust the level of freon in the chiller until it
is next to a drain connection on the vessel.

Corrosion in a chiller is rarely a problem. Water or oxygen must be

present for corrosion to occur, and neither are in the gas or refrigerant
in sufficient concentrations for corrosion to occur. Consequently, the
likelihood of tube failure from corrosion is very remote. However, the
possibility of a tube failure always exists. When it does happen, high
pressure gas will flow into the refrigerant stream. The refrigerant system
is usually designed for a much lower pressure than that of the gas.
 - 53 -

Normally there are relief valves on the chiller which will pop if gas
leaks into the vessel, so there is no danger of bursting the vessel from
excessive pressure.

The problem from a leaking tube is not so much one of overpressuring

the refrigerant system, but of contaminating the refrigerant so that it
has to be drained and a new charge of refrigerant added.

Detection of a small leak in a tube is often difficult. It shows up

in two ways:
1. The pressure in the refrigerant side of the chiller rises.
2. The pressure on the discharge side of the compressor rises.

Any time you suspect a leaking tube, you should immediately confirm
it, and block in the gas stream before the leaking gas contaminates the
refrigerant.

As we said, a leaking tube will cause the pressure to rise in the

refrigerant side of the chiller, and on the discharge side of the
refrigerant compressor. If propane is the refrigerant, some of the leaking
gas will dissolve in the propane. When this happens, it raises the
pressure required to keep the propane in a liquid form. During the
summertime, the propane out of the condenser is usually about 43°C [110°F]
and its pressure is around 16 bars [230 psi]. If it gets contaminated with
1% gas, the pressure required to keep it in a liquid form increases about
3 bars [50 psi]. The pressure in the propane surge tank will rise from 16
to 19 bars [230 to 280 psi].

If freon is the refrigerant, gas will not dissolve in the freon. It

will go through the compressor and end up in the freon condenser. It will
probably overload the venting facilities installed on the condenser. Gas
in the condenser will block off some of the condenser tubes and cause the
discharge pressure on the compressor to rise.

In order to plug a leaking tube, it will be necessary to shut down

the refrigeration system and depressure the chiller. The refrigerant in
 - 54 -

the chiller will have to be drained. You should have a definite plan for
getting the refrigerant out of the chiller into a storage tank or some
other vessel as quickly as possible to prevent excessive loss of
refrigerant while you are draining the chiller. Remember, when you de-
pressure the gas side of the chiller, the refrigerant will flow through
the leaking tube into the gas lines.

The likelihood of a tube failure in a chiller is remote. However, the

possibility exists and can be troublesome. You should be alert to the
signs of a leaking tube, and have a definite plan for immediately blocking
in and depressuring the gas line, and getting refrigerant out of the
chiller into a storage tank as quickly as possible.

KETTLE-TYPE EXCHANGERS OFTEN USED FOR CHILLERS

 - 55 -

Table I
TYPICAL EXCHANGER COEFFICIENTS
A. SHELL AND TUBE EXCHANGERS
Water Coolers Coefficient
Metric Units English Units
Gas at 7 bars [100 psi] 340 kcal 70 BTU
Gas at 35 bars [500 psi] 390 kcal 80 BTU
Gas at 70 bars [1000 psi] 440 kcal 90 BTU
C2, C3, C4 440 kcal 90 BTU
Natural Gasoline 390 kcal 80 BTU
Naphtha 390 kcal 80 BTU
Kerosene 365 kcal 75 BTU
Amine 680 kcal 140 BTU
Air 100 kcal 20 BTU
Water 850 kcal 175 BTU
Water Condensers
C2, C4, C4 610 kcal 125 BTU
Still Overhead 390 kcal 80 BTU
Naphtha 365 kcal 75 BTU
Amine Regenerator 540 kcal 110 BTU
Reboilers - Steam or Hot Oil
De C3, De C4, Still 630 kcal 130 BTU
Glycol Reconcentrator 65 kcal 13 BTU
Miscellaneous
Lean Oil/Gas 390 kcal 80 BTU
Lean Oil/Rich Oil 440 kcal 90 BTU
Gas/Gas at 7 bars [100 psi] 195 kcal 40 BTU
Gas/Gas at 35 bars [500 psi] 245 kcal 50 BTU
Gas/Gas at 70 bars [1000 psi] 290 kcal 60 BTU
Gas Chiller - Propane Refrigerant 440 kcal 90 BTU
Lean Oil Chiller - Propane Refrigerant 460 kcal 95 BTU
B. AERIAL COOLERS
Condensers Approximate Air
Coefficients Temperature Rise
Metric Units English Units °C °F
Propane, Butane 440 kcal 90 BTU 20 35
Still Overhead 365 kcal 75 BTU 20 35
Steam 0-3 bars [0-50 psi] 610 kcal 125 BTU 40 70
Naphtha 365 kcal 75 BTU 17 30
Amine Stripper Overhead 390 kcal 80 BTU 33 60
Natural Gasoline 390 kcal 80 BTU 17 30
Greon 365 kcal 75 BTU 20 35
Coolers
C3, C4 440 kcal 90 BTU 17 30
Natural Gasoline 390 kcal 80 BTU 17 30
Naphtha 340 kcal 70 BTU 17 30
Gas at 7 bars [100 psi] 290 kcal 60 BTU 11 20
Gas at 35 bars [500 psi] 340 kcal 70 BTU 11 30
Gas at 70 bars [1000 psi] 390 kcal 80 BTU 17 30
Lube Oil 73 kcal 15 BTU 6 10

Note: All coefficients on this page are heat transfer per hour per unit
area per unit AT. When kcal is shown the actual unit is kcal/hr-m.°C;
when Btu are shown the actual unit is Btu/hr-ft2.°F.
 - 56 -

Table II

EXTERNAL SURFACE AREA OF HEAT EXCHANGER TUBES

Metric Units English Units

Tube Size, Square meters Tube Size, Square feet
of external of external
outside area per outside area per
diameter, mm mm of tube diameter, in. ft of tube

12 0.0377 1/2 in. 0.1309

14 0.0440 5/8 in. 0.1636

16 0.0503 3/4 in. 0.1963
18 0.0566 7/8 in. 0.2291
20 0.0628 1 in. 0.2618
25 0.0785 1 1/4 in. 0.3272
30 0.0943 1 1/2 in. 0.3927
35 0.1100 2 in. 0.5236
40 0.1257 2 1/2 in. 0.6540
50 0.1571

60 0.1885

Example:
A piece of 20 mm tubing 1 m long has an external surface area of
0.0628 square meters.

A piece of 1 in. tubing 1 ft long has an external surface area of

0.2618 square feet.
 - 57 -

HEAT EXCHANGERS VALIDATION Trainee __________________

METRIC UNITS

The natural gasoline cooler shown below has 250 tubes, 18 mm in

diameter and 12 m long.

a. What is the total surface area of the exchanger? _____________________

b. What is the temperature difference? __________________________________
c. What is the coefficient? _____________________________________________
d. What is the duty? ____________________________________________________
e. What is the temperature approach? ____________________________________
 - 58 -

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS - METRIC UNITS

1. a. 2
b. 1

2. 1, c
2, a
3, b

3. Weight of water = 900 kg

Temperature rise = 52.6 - 32 = 20.6°C
Heat required = 900 x 20.6 = 18 540 kcal
18 540
Fuel required = = 2 m3
8900 / 3

4. T = 44°C T = 33°C

44 33
a. Avg. T = = 38.5°C
2
b. Approach = 33°C

5. Lineal meters of tubes = 100 x 6 = 600 m2

Area per m of tube = 0.0785 m2
Total area = 600 x 0.0785 = 47 m2

6. Q = UA T
U = 680 (From Table I)
A = 25 m2
T = 33°C
Q = 680 x 25 x 33
= 561 000 kcal/hr
 - 59 -

HEAT EXCHANGERS VALIDATION Trainee _______________

ENGLISH UNITS

The natural gasoline cooler shown below has 250 tubes, 3/4 in. in diameter
and 40 ft long.

a. What is the total surface area of the exchanger? ______________

b. What is the temperature difference? ___________________________
c. What is the coefficient? ______________________________________
d. What is the duty? _____________________________________________
e. What is the temperature approach? _____________________________
 - 60 -

SOLUTIONS TO PROBLEMS – ENGLISH UNITS

1. a. 2
b. 1

2. 1, c
2, a
3, b

3. Weight of water = 2000 lbs

Temperature rise = 187 - 90 = 37°F
Heat required = 2000 x 37 = 74 000 BTU
4 000 T
Fuel required = = 74 cu ft
1000 T /

4. T = 80°f T = 60°F

80 60
a. Avg. T = = 70°F
2
b. Approach = 60°F

5. Lineal meters of tubes - 100 x 20 = 2000 ft

Area per foot of tube = 0.2618 sq ft (Table II)
Total area = 2000 x 0.2618 = 524 sq ft
6. Q = UA T
U = 140 (From Table I)
A = 250 sq ft
T = 60°F
Q = 140 x 250 x 60
= 2 100 000 or 2.1 MMBTU/hr