Aseismic base isolation: review and bibliography

James M. Kdly

Professor of Civil Engineering, University of California, Berkeley, California 94720, USA

The idea that a building can be uncoupled from the damaging effects of the ground movement
produced by a strong earthquake has appealed to inventors and engineers for more than a century.
Many ingenious devices have been proposed to achieve this result, but very few have been tried and
the concept now generally referred to as base isolation or seismic isolation has yet to become
acceptable to the engineering profession as a whole. Although most of the proposed systems are
unacceptably complicated, in recent years a few practical systems have emerged and have been
implemented. While some of these systems have been tested on large-scale shaking tables, none
has to date been tested as built by a strong earth tremor. The shake table testing and related static
testing of full-scale components such as isolation bearings, however, has led to a certain degree of
acceptance by the profession and it is possible that the number of practical implementations of base
isolation will increase quite dramatically in the next few years.
This review summarizes much of the literature on theoretical aspects of seismic isolation,
describes testing programmes and enumerates those isolation systems which have been used in
buildings completed or under construction. It describes the characteristics of the various
implemented systems with an indication of their range of applicability and some assessment of
their development as backed by research. A bibliography of all papers published on the topic from
1900 to 1984 is included. The bibliography is as complete as possible, but, due to the rapid increase
in research interest in the topic in the past few years, there may be a substantial degree of omission
in the later years.

INTRODUCTION crushing them under fallen masonry. Following this

earthquake a commission was [Acad. dei Linc. 1909]
When the Foothill Communities Law and Justice Center
formed consisting of practising engineers and university
was dedicated in Ranch Cucamonga on 20 March 1986 it
professors and was charged with recommending
became the first building in the United States to be built
structural engineering design methods for the
using a new method of earthquake-resistant design
reconstruction of the damaged area. Two proposals arose
known as base isolation. The San Andreas fault is very
from the Commission's studies: one suggested separating
close to the site of the new legal services building and it
a building from its foundation by a layer of sand or by use
has been suggested that there is a higher than 60%
of rollers; the other favoured a fixed foundation. The
probability that a major earthquake will occur on the
Commission finally decided on the fixed foundation
fault within the next 30 years. This new approach to
earthquake-resistant design has been developed to approach with constraints on several construction details
and a requirement that the building be able to support at
provide greater protection to buildings in such hazardouz
least 8% of its weight as a horizontal force. At exactly the
locations.
same time, 1909, a medical doctor from Scarborough in
Although this is the first building of this type in the
England applied for a British patent [Calantarients 1909]
United States, several others that use base isolation have
on an earthquake-resistant design approach which
been built in other countries. The idea behind base
proposed separating a building from its foundation by a
isolation is a very simple one and it has been proposed
layer of sand or talc. Dr Calantarients' interest in
again and again for at least a century. It is recognized that
earthquake engineering, although presumably amateur,
it is usually the horizontal ground movement in an
was not superficial, for he designed wind restraints which
earthquake that causes damage to the building, so that if it
is possible at one and the same time to hold up the would prevent the building from moving in high winds,
and, recognizing that reducing damage to the building
building and let the ground move underneath, then the
would require the possibility of a large shift between the
damage will be greatly reduced. The idea is so appealing
building and the ground, he showed how the utilities and
that inventors have found it irresistible and scores of ways
access to the building had to be designed for this. Why a
to do this have been patented or proposed. Structural
medical doctor in England, not known as a seismic region,
engineers have until now found all of these proposals
highly resistible and have remained faithful to the should be interested in earthquake engineering is not
dear, but the name is Armenian and he may have been at
conviction that a building should be firmly attached to its
the time a recent immigrant from the Near East where
foundation.
The severe earthquake in 1908 in the Italian region of earthquakes and the collapse of masonry buildings are a
recurrent threat.
Messina-Reggio killed 160,000 people, mainly by
To this day building codes have followed the approach
Received January 1986. Discussion closes December 1986. finally adopted by the Messina-Reggio Commission.
0267-7261/86/040202-1552.00
© 1986 Computational Mechanics Publications
202 Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 1986, Vol. 5, No. 3

Codes are based on the realization that, for economic
reasons, a building cannot be designed to resist the effects
of a large earthquake entirely by elastic behaviour and it is
accepted that inelastic behaviour and thus damage to
the structure will occur. Inelastic action has the effect of
lengthening the fundamental period of the building and of
generating damping or energy-absorbing action and in
this way reducing the accelerations at the upper levels of
the building. In conventional buildings this inelastic
action is concentrated at beam-column connections and
they have to be designed to be in the range of frequencies
where earthquake energy is strongest. This means that the
building acts as an amplifier of the ground vibrations and
the accelerations experienced at each floor level increase
to the top. This also causes stresses in its frame and a drift
between each floor which may cause damage to the
columns between floors. The amplified accelerations at
each floor act on the contents and occupants of the floor
and can cause severe damage to these contents even when
no damage occurs in the structure itself. There is a
classical example of a telephone exchange in the Sylmar
area of California in which the entire stock of internal
equipment was destroyed during the 1971 San Fernando
earthquake, while the damage to the building was minor.
The degree of amplification can be reduced by making the
building more rigid on the premise that a completely rigid
building can experience an acceleration no higher than
the ground acceleration, but this is an expensive approach
that cannot be exactly realized in practice, and in any case
the ground accelerations alone could be high enough to
damage the contents of the building even if unamplified.
The goal should be to reduce the accelerations in
buildings to below the ground accelerations, and to do
this the building must be flexible. Flexibility in a structural
frame will cause problems in the fabric of the building.
Windows may fall out in the wind, partition walls will
crack, floors will vibrate under foot. In a low- or medium-
rise building the necessary flexibility can only be achieved
at the foundation level by the use of base isolation.
Recent developments in rubber technology have made
the idea of base isolation a practical reality. Rubber
bearings are now used almost everywhere as thermal
expansion bearings for bridges, replacing mechanical
roller or rocker bearings, which are attacked by salt, have
a tendency to lock-up, and are known to perform badly in
earthquakes. The rubber bearings which now replace
them are inexpensive, durable and reliable and some have
now been in use for over 25 years [Stevenson 1985]. Many
buildings in Europe and the United Kingdom have been
built on rubber bearings to isolate them from vibrations
from underground railways and these bearings have
performed well over substantial periods of time.
The seismic isolation bearings that make base isolation
a practical possibility are a development of this type of
bearing. They are manufactured in the same way. The
differences are in the proportions of rubber and steel and
in the deformations for which they are designed.
EARLY EFFORTS AT SEISMIC ISOLATION
Possibly the first person to use this concept in a building
was Frank Lloyd Wright. His design of the Imperial Hotal
completed in Tokyo in 1921 was in complete contrast to
accepted practice at the time and was extremely
controversial. Under the site was an 8' layer of fairly good
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 1986, Vol. 5, No. 4 203
Aseismic base isolation: J. M. Kelly
soil and below that a layer of soft mud. This layer
appeared to Wright as 'a good cushion to relieve the
terrible shocks. Why not float the building on it?' [Wright
1977]. He tied the building to the upper layer of good soil
by closely spaced short piles that penetrated only as far as
the top of the soft mud. The building performed extremely
well in the devastating 1923 Tokyo earthquake. It was a
very highly decorated building with appendages of many
kinds, and buildings of this sort generally are badly
damaged in earthquakes. The only damage was to
statuary in the courtyard of the hotel [Reithman 1980].
The famous architect's intuitive idea of floating the
building 'as a battleship floats on the ocean' appears to
have worked.
Since fortuitous layers of soft mud are unlikely at
building sites, other ways to reduce earthquake damage
were sought by engineers. In the late twenties and thirties
the concept of the flexible first story was proposed by
structural engineers [Martel 1929, Bednarski 1935, Green
1935, Jacobsen 1938]. In this approach the lateral stiffness
of the columns of the first story would be designed to be
much lower than that of the columns above, and under
earthquake loading the deformations would be
concentrated in these first-story columns. However, to be
effective in reducing accelerations at the upper levels, the
displacements in the first-story columns would be quite
large, of the order of several inches, and the effect of the
vertical load, the weight of upper levels, on this sideways
movement of the columns could produce severe damage
to the columns, making collapse of the building a distinct
possibility. The first-story columns in this approach
behave elastically and thus the damping is low. In a
modified approach, called the soft first-story method
[Fintel and Khan 1969], it was proposed that the first-
story columns yield during an earthquake, producing an
energy-absorbing action and controlling the displace-
ments. However, to produce enough damping the
displacements would still have to be several inches and a
yielded column has a greatly reduced buckling load so
that column instability and collapse are inevitable
[Chopra, Clough and Clough 1973].
Although the flexible first-story method is no longer
considered as a way of reducing accelerations in a
building, it still appeals to architects for aesthetic reasons
[Arnold 1984]. Open ground floor plans with higher than
normal first-story ceilings are popular architectural forms
and under earthquake attack may perform as flexible or
soft first-story systems. The Olive View Hospital, which
was severely damaged in the San Fernando Valley
earthquake of 1971, did act as if it were a flexible first-story
building. The ground floor columns were severely
damaged, but the upper levels of the building only
moderately damaged. In the psychiatry clinic building of
the same facility, which was a two-story building with an
open first level, the upper story remained intact, but the
lower was completely destroyed.
While the soft story can protect the upper levels, the
price is that of the potential destruction of the first-level
columns. Conventionally designed columns cannot carry
the weight of the building and tolerate the large sideways
movement caused by the earthquake. The search for a
mechanism that can overcome this dilemma has been
unending. Many types of roller bearing system have been
proposed, and several have been patented and tested
[Ryuiti 1941, 1951, 1952, 1956, Caspe 1970, 1980, 1984].
 Aseismic base isolation: J. M. Kelly
Since the ground movement can be in any direction, it is
necessary to use spherical bearings or two crossed layers
of rollers. The rollers and the spherical bearings are very
low in damping and have no inherent resistance to wind
so that some other mechanism that provides wind
restraint and energy-absorbing capacity is needed. There
is also the possibility of a permanent offset after an
earthquake since there are no restoring forces. Since a
roller isolation system could sit unattended, unmain-
tained for several decades in the basement of a building, it
is likely that its performance when called on would be
worse than that of mechanical bridge bearings which are
in movement due to the daily temperature cycle. When
steel presses against steel for a long period, there is a
possibility of cold welding which would cause the system
to become rigid after a time. Nevertheless roller-bearing
systems continue to be proposed. A demonstration
building in Sebastopol in the Crimea has been built on
steel bearings [Nazin 1978]. The bearings are doubly
spherical ovoids, egg-shaped and not quite spherical.
When the building is displaced it is forced to rise and this
produces a restoring force. The building is a seven-story
reinforced concrete building and acts as an oscillator with
a 3-sec period which provides considerable protection
from earthquake attack as compared with a conventional
seven-story reinforced concrete building which would
have a period of around 0.5 sec, the most intense region of
earthquake attack. Not a great deal has been published in
Western literature regarding this building, but it
apparently experienced an earthquake in 1977 and
performed to expectation.
The first use of rubber for earthquake protection was in
an elementary school in Skopje, Yugoslavia [Siegenthaler
1970]. The building is a three-story structure in concrete
and was completed in 1969. It rests on large blocks of
natural rubber. In contrast with more recent rubber
bearings, these blocks are completely unreinforced so that
the weight of the building causes them to bulge sideways.
The vertical stiffness of the system is about the same as the
horizontal so that the building will bounce and will rock
backwards and forwards. These bearings were designed at
a time when the technology for reinforcing rubber blocks
with steel plates, as in bridge bearings, was not so highly
developed nor so widely known and it is unlikely that this
approach will be used again.
MODERN APPROACHES TO SEISMIC
ISOLATION
Rubber bearings offer the simplest method of isolation
and are relatively easy to manufacture. The bearings are
made by vulcanization bonding of sheets of rubber to thin
steel reinforcing plates. The bearings are very stiff in the
vertical direction and are very flexible in the horizontal
direction. Their action under seismic loading is to isolate
the building from the horizontal components of the
earthquake ground movement, while the vertical
components are transmitted through to the structure
relatively unchanged. Vertical accelerations are not
normally a problem for most buildings. These bearings
will have the effect of isolating the building from high-
frequency vertical vibrations that are produced by
underground railways and local traffic [Waller 1966,
1969, 1975]. A building on rubber bearings will be
simultaneously protected from unwanted vibration and
from earthquake attack [Derham and Kelly 1985].
204 Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, I986, Vol. 5, No. 3
Rubber bearings are suitable for buildings that are rigid
and for masonry or reinforced concrete construction of up
to seven stories. For this sort of building, uplift on the
bearings will not occur and wind load will be
unimportant.
The bearings are very similar to bridge bearings and
experience with these gives confidence in their longevity,
reliability and resistance to various environmental
depredations, including that of fire [Derham and
Plunkett 1976]. The mechanics of bearings is now very
well understood and the design of a system for a building
at a specific site is a straightforward task. When a building
is analysed on rubber bearings for earthquake attack, it is
usual to model the combined system by a linear viscously
damped model. If this model is used, very simple solutions
will result. If the fixed-base fundamental frequency of the
building is much higher than that of the isolated system,
say 3 Hz as compared with 0.5 Hz for the isolated case, the
first mode of the isolated building is mainly a rigid body
mode with all deformation in the rubber. The second
mode has a frequency about 50% to 100~ above the first
fixed-base frequency. The seismic input to the structure
can be treated as an equivalent lateral load which is
proportional to the rigid body mode. Since it is a
characteristic of a linear vibrating system that all modes
are mutually orthogonal, this means that all modes higher
than the first will be orthogonal to the input motion, so
that if there are high energies in the earthquake ground
movement at the frequencies of these higher modes, this
energy cannot be transmitted into the building. Thus, the
isolation system works not by absorption of these energies
but by deflecting them. This is the main attractive feature
of the simple rubber isolation system. If other elements are
added for the purpose of increasing the damping or
controlling displacement, then this simple result no longer
holds and accelerations can be induced in the higher
modes and will produce stresses in the higher levels of the
building and cause accelerations in equipment items and
other contents of the building.
A simple form of rubber bearing isolation system was
used for a three-story school in the small town of Lambesc
near Marseilles in France [Delfosse 1977, 1978, 1980].
The school is approximately 77 m by 26 m and includes
three buildings each separated by a seismic gap of
100 mm. The isolators here are 300 mm in diameter and
have 20 layers for a total rubber thickness of 40 mm. The
natural rubber sheets are laminated to steel plates and
there are 152 isolators for the school. The school building
had originally been designed to be built from a
prefabricated concrete building system but the seismic
code for the region was changed before construction
began. The system could not have satisfied the new
seismic requirements without a substantial increase in
cost. The use of the isolators allowed the system to satisfy
the new code and saved the community a great deal of
money. In this building there are no wind restraints or
additional elements to enhance the damping and the
period of the building as isolated is around 1.70 sec. The
seismic requirements are in addition not too severe, being
equivalent to a VII MM earthquake. Shake table tests of
these isolators have been carried out on the shake table at
the John A. Blume Earthquake Engineering Research
Center at Stanford University [Chameau and Shah 1978].
Since this school has been completed, the designer of
the isolation system, Giles Delfosse, has built three houses
in the neighbouring community of Saint-Martin de

Castillon. The houses are of masonry construction and
have tile roofs and are supported on a set of 15 cm-
diameter natural rubber isolators. Delfosse has also
designed an isolation system of this kind for a three-story
building now under construction in Toulon for the
French Navy [Delfosse 1984]. This building is to be used
for the storage of radioactive waste. The building is
reinforced concrete with external shear walls and 24 m
long by 13 m wide and around 15 m high. If it were not
isolated, the period of the structure would be 0.30 sec and
under the design earthquake the peak acceleration would
be 0.61 g. With isolators the period becomes 0.73 sec and
the acceleration is reduced to 0.33 g. No wind restraints or
damping devices are used in this system since the
displacement under wind load and earthquake action are
likely to be very small.
In recent years there has been a considerable amount of
research into improving the understanding of how the
bearings function and also in improving the rubber
compounds used in the bearings. New rubber compounds
with properties suitable for use in seismic isolation
systems have been developed. Some of the theoretical
work on bearing development has been published in the
Proceedings of a conference devoted to the topic and held
in 1982. In this publication are a review of the basic
principles of rubber bearing isolation [Derham 1982, 1],
and details of bearing design and stability [Thomas 1982,
Derham 1982, 2]. A review of rubber properties which are
important for the performance of isolation bearings is
given [Kadir 1982]. In practical design of isolation
systems with rubber bearings, it is customary to have the
bearings dowelled to the foundation to prevent the
development of tension in the rubber. This leads to the
possibility of a role-off at the top and bottom surfaces of a
bearing when it is loaded in shear. This has the effect of
reducing the stability of the bearings and this has been
analysed [Simo and Kelly 1984, 2]. One feature of base-
isolated buildings that makes them different from
conventional buildings is that they tend to have
coincident periods in both lateral directions and in
torsion. They can also have coincident periods in pure
vertical response and rocking response. There is thus the
possibility of coupling in these modes. The influence of
rubber damping on the seismic response of torsional-
lateral coupling has been treated [Pan and Kelly 1983], as
has the response of systems with coupling in the vertical
and rocking modes [Pan and Kelly 1984]. The results of
these studies indicate that with the degree of damping that
is possible in rubber bearings the influence of such
coupling is unlikely to be of importance. However, it is
worth noting that many modem buildings have, for
architectural reasons, very unsymmetrical structural
configurations and these, under seismic loading, may have
a very unbalanced response [Arnold 1984]. The use of
base isolation for this type of building would be very
beneficial in that the bearings could be located to balance
the centre of mass and the centre of motion; it would thus
cancel the negative structural effects of the configuration.
Experimental work on the response of rubber-isolated
systems has continued at several centres. Shake table
studies carried out at the Earthquake Simulator
Laboratory of the Earthquake Engineering Research
Center of the University of California at Berkeley have
included an isolation system using rubber, but with a fail-
safe system [Kelly and Beucke 1983]. This system was
also tested by explosively generated simulated earthquake
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 1986, Vol. 5, No. 4 205
Aseismic base isolation: J. M. Kelly
[Kelly 1980]. Shake table tests also included an isolation
system for a large power plant component [Kelly 1983]
and the effect of various isolation systems, all of which
incorporated damping devices, on the response of light
secondary equipment [Kelly 1983, Kelly and Tsai 1984].
These results show that if rubber bearings are used with
no additional add-on elements, the orthogonality of the
higher modes to the input has the effect of greatly reducing
the response of the equipment as compared with
conventional construction. The degree of protection
afforded the light equipment is superior to that provided
for the building itself. However, when other elements are
added to provide additional damping, they inevitably
produce high-frequency response and produce accelera-
tions in the equipment. Many of these damping elements
have the effect of controlling the displacements at the
isolation system, which is desirable, with a relatively small
increase in accelerations throughout the structure, but
produce very substantial increases in acceleration in
equipment items and this may, in many buildings, be very
undesirable.
Considerable research on the development of novel
methods of earthquake resistant design has been carried
out in New Zealand [Skinner 1975, 1, 2, 3, 1976, 1982,
1984]. This work has led to a number of isolation concepts
which have been applied to highway bridges, railway
bridges, and to two buildings. One of the buildings, a
government office building in Wellington, uses, as
isolators, laminated natural rubber bearings each of
which has a cylindrical plug of lead in a central hole. This
system was developed in the late 1970's [Robinson 1977,
1981], since it was felt that the intrinsic damping in the
rubber compounds available in Australasia at that time
was inadequate to control the displacements of the
isolation system, The lead plug produces a substantial
increase in damping, from approximately 3% of critical
damping in the available rubber to about 10-15% and
also increases the resistance to wind loading. The building
in which these isolators are used is in Wellington which is
in a region of high seismicity. The building is four stories
high and has a reinforced concrete frame [Meggett 1978,
1984]. The frame is designed to withstand the earthquake
forces which would be caused if the building had a
conventional foundation but there are some architectural
features which would not have been allowed if isolation
had not been used. The fact that the isolated structure is
made stronger than it need be reflects the conservatism of
the structural engineering profession when confronted
with a new design concept.
Theoretical analysis of the response of buildings using
the lead plug system has been carried out [Lee and
Medland 1978, 1,2, Lee 1980]. Shake table tests of a
model structure on lead plug bearings has been carried
out [Kelly and Hodder 1982]. The theoretical analysis
and the experimental results show that the lead plugs
generally reduce the system displacement but cause
increased higher mode response. There is also evidence
that the damping in the bearings is dependent on the
degree of confining pressure of the bearing. There have
been problems with the lead working into the rubber and
problems with the lead plug fracturing, thereby reducing
its effectiveness. However, development work on the
system Continues [Tyler and Robinson 1984] and tests
have been carried out on the use of materials which could
substitute for lead and yet produce the same degree of
damping without the problems associated with lead.
Aseismic base isolation: J. M. Kelly
A 12-story building has been constructed in Auckland,
New Zealand, on a base isolation system called the
sleeved pile system [Boardman 1983]. This uses 12 m-
long bearing pile within a cylindrical sleeve which allows a
certain amount of lateral movement in the pile, in this case
150 mm (about 6"). The isolation period on the piles is
4 sec, and resistance to wind loading would be inadequate
with this system. In addition the damping would be very
low. To improve the behaviour of the system, energy
absorbing devices in the form of mild steel tapered plate
beams are included in the structure and these lower the
period to around 2 sec.
The sleeved-pile concept is similar to the soft first-story
design concept but without the risk of collapse due to
excessive first-story lateral deflections [Biggs 1982]. If the
structure should exceed the design lateral displacements,
the sleeve itself will control the displacement, providing a
fail-safe action for the system. Piles are an expensive
foundation system but must be used if soil conditions
make the use of footings unacceptable. When
circumstances dictate the use of piles it may be cost
effective to use the sleeved-pile concept and provide a
substantial reduction in the lateral force requirements for
the superstructure.
The additional damping and restraint against wind
forces which are provided by lead plugs or mild steel
energy absorbing devices can also be provided by
frictional elements. It is possible to design a system where
part of the vertical load is carried on sliding bearings and
part on rubber bearings. In this type of system the break-
away force of the frictional element can be designed to be
large enough to overcome the maximum possible wind
load and when the system slides under earthquake action
the frictional forces will dissipate energy. Shake table tests
of such a system were carried out at the Earthquake
Simulator Laboratory and they have demonstrated that
this type of system can be very effective in controlling
displacement. There is a disadvantage, however, that the
slip-stick characteristic of the frictional elements causes a
high frequency acceleration to be generated in the
structure and that this is harmful to any sensitive items of
equipment which may be housed in the structure. A
compensating advantage is that the frictional elements
can act as a fail-safe system if the bearings are subject to
displacements beyond their design capacity whether by
resonance with the earthquake input or by
unanticipatedly large earthquake motion. When the
displacement of the rubber bearing exceeds about half the
width of the bearing it tends to become slightly shorter
and this causes a transfer of vertical load from the
bearings to the sliders, the frictional force thus rises and
limits the movement while instability of the bearings
caused by the vertical load acting at a large displacement
is prevented. This fail-safe action was also demonstrated
in shake table tests [Kelly and Beucke 1983].
Isolation systems have been proposed in which the
isolation mechanism is purely sliding friction. These are
the simplest isolation systems of all, and there has been a
large amount of theoretical analysis of sliding systems
[Ahmadi 1984, Mostaghel 1982, 1983] but very little
experimental work and, as far as is known, no large-scale
shaking table tests. There have been tests in India where
the performance of half-size single-story brick buildings
were subjected to shock loading in a railway wagon
impact facility [Arya et al. 1978, 1, 2, Arya 1984]. Several
types of model building were tested, including both
206 Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 1986, Vol. 5, No. 3
isolated and nonisolated, and it was concluded that the
buildings with a sliding joint performed better than a
conventional building and that the method was
economical compared with that used for other structures.
The idea of a sliding joint as an isolation system is an
attractive one for low-cost housing since it can be
constructed using no more complicated technology or no
more skilled labour than a conventional building. For this
reason, it has been developed for housing in China. It was
observed after the Tang Shan earthquake of 1976 that
masonry block buildings in which the reinforcement was
not carried through to the foundation performed better
than buildings in which it did. In a structure which
performed well in the earthquake a horizontal crack was
observed at the foot of the wall, and a residual
displacement of about 6 cm occurred. As a result of these
observations, the approach adopted in China is a
separation layer under the floor beams above a wall
foundation [Li Li 1982]. A thin layer of specially screened
sand is laid on the sliding surface and the building
constructed on this. Since low-rise concrete block or
masonry buildings are very stiff, heavy structures, they are
very susceptible to earthquake damage and can be very
dangerous. The presence of the sliding layer allows a
degree of flexibility which reduces the seismic risk. Four
demonstration buildings have been built in China using
this technique. Three of these are one-story brick houses
and one a four-story brick dormitory in Beijing for the
Strong Motion Observatory Centre [Li Li 1984].
One of the single-story buildings was tested by
subjecting it to explosively generated strong ground
motion. The house was deliberately built with very poor-
quality material, but survived the shock by sliding instead
of collapsing.
A nuclear power plant in South Africa has been built on
an isolation system by the French nuclear construction
company Framatome [Jolivet 1977, Plichon 1975, 1978,
1980]. This company supplies a standard power plant
designed for a seismic input of 0.2 g peak acceleration. For
a site where the design requirements exceed this, as at
Koeberg, the power plant is built on an isolation system
which will reduce the accelerations experienced by the
structure and components to below this. The French
nuclear isolation system uses laminated neoprene bridge
bearings with lead bronze-stainless steel slip plates on top
of each bearing. The neoprene bearings act as
conventional isolators for small earthquakes but cannot
accept very large displacements since they have only a few
layers of elastomer. If a large earthquake should occur,
sliding will take place on the slip plates. These have been
designed to have a friction coefficient of 0.2 and to
maintain this for the life-time of the plant. The
construction costs for this system are very high but are
justified in that it allows a standardized plant to be built at
any site with no additional costs for redesign,
strengthening, and requalification of components. The
Koeberg plant is expected to begin commercial operation
in 1985.
Neoprene pads without slip plates are used under the
reactor buildings of a four-unit nuclear power plant under
construction at Cruas-Meysse in the Rhone Valley
[Postollec 1983]. The pads are similar to standard
neoprene bridge bearing pads. They have three layers of
elastomer with 12 mm steel plates and are reinforced with
3 mm-thick steel plates. An isolation system is used for
this site since there is a probability of shallow earthquakes

of low magnitude (Richter 4 to 4.5) occurring close to the
site producing higher accelerations and high-frequency
motion. The fixed-base frequency of the reactor buildings
is roughly 4.5 Hz and corresponds to the peak frequency
of the anticipated spectrum. With the pads the natural
frequency is reduced to 1 Hz which significantly reduces
forces on the structure and on the internal equipment. The
maximum displacement capacity of the pads is only 5 era
but, due to the high-frequency input, the anticipated
displacement is only 2.6 cm.
Interest in isolation appears to be developing in Japan
and at least three Japanese construction companies have
carried out experimental tests of isolation systems all
using natural rubber bearings, and research on isolation is
being carried out at the University of Tokyo [Fujita et al.
1983]. Their system uses laminated rubber bearings with
the addition of frictional slip plates to enhance the
damping in the system. Static tests of the system have been
carried out.
Static and dynamic tests of an isolation system which
uses laminated rubber bearings with the addition of steel
bars to enhance damping have been carried out at the
Technical Research Institute of Obayashi-Gumi Ltd.
[Takeda et al. 1984]. The dynamic tests were carried out
with a large model (I0 tonnes) on a 3 m x 4 m shake table.
The Takenaka Construction Co. has built a large model of
a coal silo and mounted it on rubber bearings. This system
has in addition a damping system that uses a thixotropic
material between flat plates. The model was tested by pull-
back and logarithmic decrement tests [Aizawa 1984].
Large components in power plants, such as turbine
generators, are conventionally provided with isolation
systems to prevent the transmission of vibration into
other parts of the structure. A standard system for this
includes helical springs and visco-dampers. It has been
proposed that this system be used to protect full-size
buildings from seismic attack [Tezcan 1979, 1980, 1982,
Huffman 1980]. The characteristics of such systems are
that the springs are not much stiffer in vertical motion
than in horizontal, in contrast to the laminated rubber
bearings which may be several hundred times stiffer
vertically than horizontally. A building on such a system
will be to some extent isolated from the vertical
components of ground motion, but this is not generally
necessary in conventional buildings, and in any event the
response of the system is such that a large degree of
rocking occurs and as a result large vertical accelerations
can develop at the comers of the building even in the
presence of an input which is purely horizontal. There
may be special cases where vertical isolation is needed, but
in these cases it may be more convenient to use a double
isolation system than to attempt to cope with these large
rocking motions.
The first base-isolated building in the United States is
the Foothill Communities Law and Justice Center located
in the municipality of Rancho Cucamonga in San
Bernardino County. The building is a 30 million dollar
legal services centre for the county. It is 126 m by 33.5 m in
plan and four stories high with a full basement and sub-
basement for the isolation system. The building sits on
98 isolators which are multilayer natural rubber bearings
reinforced with steel plates. The superstructure of the
building has structural steel frame stiffened by braced
frames in some bays [Tarics 1984].
The site of the building is 20 km from the San Andreas
fault and the county, which has the most thorough
Soil Dynamics and Earthquake Engineering, 1986, Vol. 5, No. 4
Aseisraic base isolation: J. M. Kelly
earthquake preparedness programme in the country,
asked that it be designed for the maximum credible
earthquake for that site. The design spectrum provided by
the geotechnical consultants was predicted on an 8.3
Richter magnitude earthquake at the fault and for a 5%
damping was constant velocity spectrum of 1.27 m/see
over the 0.80 sec to 4.0 sec period. The design selected for
the isolation system, taking into account possible torsion
of the building and the fact that the damping in the
isolation system will be much higher than the 5% assumed
in the design spectrum, has led to a maximum
displacement demand of 380 mm in the isolators at the
comers of the building. Full-scale sample bearings have
been built and tested and these tests verified that 380 mm
relative horizontal displacement is within the capacity of
the bearings [Celebi and Kelly 1984].
The rubber that the isolators will be made from is a
highly filled natural rubber which has mechanical
properties that make it ideal for base isolation systems. Its
shear stiffness is high for small strains but decreases by a
factor of about four or five as the strain increases, reaching
a minimum value at a shear strain of 50%. For strains
greater than 100% the stiffness begins to increase again.
Thus for small loading caused by wind or low-intensity
seismic loading the system has high stiffness and short
period and as the load intensity increases the stiffness
drops. For very high load, say above the maximum
credible earthquake, the stiffness increases again
providing a fall-safe action. The damping follows the same
pattern but less dramatically, decreasing from an initial
value of 20% to a minimum of 10% and then increasing
again. In the design of the system the minimum values of
stiffness and damping are assumed and the response is
taken to be linear. The high initial stiffness is invoked only
for wind load design and the large strain response only for
fail-safe action. These characteristics of the bearings make
the structure distinctly different from conventionally
designed buildings as well as from the few base isolated
buildings that exist in other countries today.
Although base isolation has been proposed and used
for new construction, the concept could readily be
adapted to the rehabilitation of older buildings of
architectural and historic merit that presently do not
comply with building codes. The number of unreinforced
masonry buildings in California is estimated to be as great
as 100,000. Many of these buildings will be demolished
rather than strengthened due to the problems associated
with conventional procedures which involve adding new
structural elements such as shear walls, internal frames, or
bracing. The economic feasibility of base isolation as a
method of rehabilitation has been demonstrated by
undertaking a specific project. For this purpose, a
building in San Francisco was selected for a design study.
The exterior of the building, constructed in 1912 as a
Masonic Hall, is handsome and the interior elegantly
finished. It must be made to conform to the current San
Francisco seismic code and this, under conventional
rehabilitation, would be extremely destructive to the
interior of the building and extremely costly. A base
isolation rehabilitation scheme was developed, drawings
were prepared, and the cost to implement the scheme
estimated [Kelly 1982, 1983]. This estimate is comparable
with that for a conventional rehabilitation. This project
indicates that suitable rehabilitation strategies using the
concept of base isolation for typical masonry buildings
are possible. Given the large number of buildings at
207
 Aseismic base isolation: J. M. Kelly
h a z a r d in seismically active regions o f the U n i t e d States, it
is clear t h a t s u b s t a n t i a l b u i l d i n g r e p l a c e m e n t cost c o u l d
be a v o i d e d a n d the safety o f o l d e r buildings greatly
e n h a n c e d if this t e c h n o l o g y is used.
M a n y p r a c t i c a l systems o f seismic i s o l a t i o n have been
d e v e l o p e d in recent years a n d interest in the a p p l i c a t i o n o f
this technique for e a r t h q u a k e p r o t e c t i o n will c o n t i n u e to
grow. T h e reluctance o f the structural engineering
profession to use the concept, due to a n u n c e r t a i n t y as to
h o w a b u i l d i n g o n a n i s o l a t i o n system w o u l d p e r f o r m in
an e a r t h q u a k e t h a t is s u b s t a n t i a l l y l a r g e r t h a n one for
which the system was designed, is diminishing. O n e can be
confident t h a t the i s o l a t i o n system will p r o t e c t the
b u i l d i n g a n d its c o n t e n t s from a n y a n t i c i p a t e d
e a r t h q u a k e at the site. If the e a r t h q u a k e should be m u c h
l a r g e r t h a n t h a t for which the system is designed, then a
b a c k - u p system such as the sliding fail-safe system will
prevent c o l l a p s e a l t h o u g h d a m a g e to the s u p e r s t r u c t u r e
c o u l d occur. T h u s the p h i l o s o p h y o f c o n v e n t i o n a l design
o f no c o l l a p s e u n d e r e x t r e m e e a r t h q u a k e s can be c a r r i e d
o v e r to i s o l a t e d b u i l d i n g s b u t the need for structural
ductility in m o d e r a t e e a r t h q u a k e s is n o t present.
T h e research o n i s o l a t i o n which has been c a r r i e d o u t
o v e r the p a s t few years a n d the c o n s t r u c t i o n o f several new
seismically isolated b u i l d i n g s s h o u l d e n a b l e an engineer
to p r o c e e d with confidence that b u i l d i n g with isolation
can be e c o n o m i c a l a n d t h a t the c o n s t r u c t i o n process will
involve no u n e x p e c t e d p r o b l e m s for c o n t r a c t o r s . These
d e v e l o p m e n t s in b a s e i s o l a t i o n represent a n i m p o r t a n t
step in the c o n t i n u i n g search for increased seismic safety.
PREFACE TO BIBLIOGRAPHY
The published literature on base isolation has increased
rapidly in recent years. Although the following
bibliography represents a fairly complete coverage up to
1984, the current rate o f publication means that many
papers and reports published in 1985 may have been missed.
N o t all o f the papers and reports have been referenced in the
preceding text. The writer apologizes in advance for any
omissions and requests that authors whose papers have been
omitted send him a copy to ensure inclusion in later
revisions.
ALPHABETICAL BIBLIOGRAPHY
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Aseismic base isolation: J. M . K e l l y
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215
Aseismic base isolation: J. M. Kelly
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Tezcan, S. 'The Use of Seismic Isolation Techniques in Design'
Thomas, A. G. 'The Design of Laminated Bearings I'
1983
Ahmadi, G. 'Stochastic Earthquake Response of Structures on Sliding
Foundation'
Anon. 'Sandwich Lets Building Jiggle'
Barwig, B. B. and Stiemer, S. F, 'Base Storey Design for Aseismic
Isolated Steel Buildings'
Beucke, K. E. and Kelly, J. M. 'A Nonlinear Damping Model for a
Displacement Control System in Seismic Isolation'
Boardman, P. R., Wood, B. J. and Carr, A. J. 'Union House - A Cross
Braced Structure with Energy Dissipators'
Constantinou, M. C. and Tadjbakhsh, I. G. 'Probabilistic Optimum
Base Isolation of Structures'
Engineering News Record. 'Law Building Can "Roll with Punch"'
Ikonomou, A. S. 'Horizontal and Vertical Isolation of a Nuclear Power
Plant'
Kelly, J. M. 'The Economic Feasibility of Seismic Rehabilitation of
Buildings by Base Isolation'
Kelly, J. M. and Beucke, K. E. 'A Friction Damped Base Isolation
System with Fail Safe Characteristics'
Kelly, J. M. 'The Use of Base Isolation and Energy Absorbing
Restrainers for the Seismic Protection of a Large Power Plant
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Kelly, J. M. 'Recent Developments in Aseismic Base Isolation'
Kost, G. 'Building Code Provisions for Base Isolation'
Meyers, Gerald E. 'A Study of a Base Isolation System for Earthquake
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Mostaghel, N. and Tanbakuchi, J. 'Response of Sliding Structures to
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Mostaghel, N., Hejazi, M. and Tanbakuchi, J. 'Response of Sliding
Structures to Harmonic Support Motion'
Mostaghel, N. and Tanbakuchi, J. 'Response of Structures on Slinky
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Pan, Tso-Chien and Kelly, J. M. 'Seismic Response of Torsionally
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Postollec, J.-C. 'Les Foundations Antiseismiques de la Centrale
Nucleare de Cruees-Meysse'
Reitherman, Robert K. 'The Seismic Legend of the Imperial Hotel'
Sharpe, R. D. and Skinner, R. I. 'The Seismic Design of an Industrial
Chimney with Rocking Base'
Sigal, B. G. and Tsirk, A. 'Seismic Isolation Studies for Liquid Metal
Foot Breeder Reactor (LMFBR) Plants'
Tadjbakhsh, I. G. and Constantinou, M. 'Optimum Design of Isolation
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Vaidya, N. R. and Eggenberger, A. J. 'Aseismic Bearing Pads for
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1984
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Arnold, C. 'Soft First Stories: Truths & Myths'
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Caspe, M. S. 'Base Isolation From Earthquake Hazards - An Idea
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Constantinou, M. C. and Tadjbakhsh, I. G. 'The Optimum Design of a
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Csak, B., Haase, D. W. and Peredy, J. 'Elastoplastic Spring Elements for
Diminution of Seismic Forces and Absorption of Kinetic Energies
Respectively - Seismic Isolation'
Delfosse, G. C. and Delfosse, P. G. 'Earthquake Protection of a Building
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Ikonomou, A. S. 'Alexisismon Seismic Isolation Levels for Translational
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Kelly, J. M. and Tsai, H. C. 'Seismic Responses of Light Internal
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Mayes, R. L., Jones, L. R., Kelly, T. E. and Button, M. R. 'Design
Guidelines for Base-Isolated Buildings with Energy Dissipators'
Megget, L M. 'The Design and Construction of a Base-Isolated
Concrete Frame Building in Wellington, New Zealand'
Pall, A. S. 'Response of Friction Damped Buildings'
Pan, T. and Kelly, J. M. 'Seismic Response of Base-Isolated Structures
with Vertical-Rocking Coupling'
Petrovski, J. and Zdravkovic, S. 'Seismic Isolation and Energy
Absorption Supporting Elements for Bridge Structures'
Rutenberg, A. and Eisenberger, M. 'Seismic Response of Base Isolated
Asymmetric Shear Buildings'
Sarrazin, M. and Araya, R. 'Effectiveness of Isolation Devices on the
Building Response to Earthquake Loading'
Scholl, R. E. 'Brace Dampers: An Alternative Structural System for
Improving the Earthquake Performance of Buildings'
Simo, J. C. and Kelly, J. M. 'Finite Element Analysis of the Stability of
Multilayer Elastomeric Bearings'
Skinner, R. I. 'Base Isolated Structures in New Zealand'
Staudacher, K. 'Structural Integrity in Extreme Earthquakes, the Swiss
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Stiemer, S. F. and Chow, F. L. 'Curved Plate Energy Absorbers for
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Takeda, T., et al. 'Study on Earthquake Base Isolation of Structures'
Tarics, A. G. 'The Implementation of Base Isolation for the Foothill
Communities Law and Justice Center'
Vaidya, N. R. and Eggenberger, A. J. 'Feasibility Evaluation of Base
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1985
Derham, C. J. and Kelly, J. M. 'Combined Earthquake Protection and
Vibration Isolation of Structures'
Derham, C. J., Kelly, J. M. and Thomas, A. G. 'Nonlinear Natural
Rubber Bearings for Seismic Isolation'
Ikonomou, A. S. 'Alexisismon Isolation Engineering for Nuclear Power
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Stevenson, A. 'Longevity of Natural Rubber in Structural Bearings'