Group Theory M-401

1. Binary Operation

A binary operation on a set is a rule for combining two elements of the set. More precisely, if S is a
non-empty set, a binary operation on S is a mapping 𝑓: S  S  S. Thus 𝑓 associates with each
ordered pair (𝑥, 𝑦) of elements of S an element 𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦) of S. It is better notation to write 𝑥𝑦 for
𝑓(𝑥, 𝑦), referring to  as the binary operation.

2. Algebraic Structure

A non-empty set 𝐴 equipped with one or more binary operations is called an algebraic structure.

3. Groupoid

An algebraic structure in which the non-empty set, say G is equipped with only one binary operation
is called a groupoid.

4. Semigroup

A groupoid (G, ) is said to be a semigroup if the binary operation  is associative i.e. 𝑎 𝑏𝑐 =
(𝑎𝑏)𝑐 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐𝜖G.

5. Monoid

A semigroup (G, ) with an identity element is called a monoid.

6. Group

A monoid (G, ) is said to be a group if there exists inverse 𝑎−1 for each 𝑎𝜖G.

Thus a non-empty set G is said to be a group with respect to the binary operation  if the following
four criteria are satisfied:

 G is closed under the operation  i.e., if 𝑎𝑏ϵG ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G.

  is associative i.e., 𝑎 𝑏𝑐 = (𝑎𝑏)𝑐 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐𝜖G.
 ∃ an identity element 𝑒 in G such that 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑎 ∀ 𝑎𝜖G.
 For each 𝑎𝜖G, ∃ an inverse 𝑎−1 in G such that 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒 .

Graphically we can depict this as follows:

(G, )  is closed Groupoid  is associative Semigroup

Identity
Monoid Inverse Group

7. Abelian or Commutative Group

A group (G, ) is said to be abelian if  is commutative i.e. if 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏a ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G.

8. Properties of Group

Property 1: If 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 are any elements of a group (G, ) then

𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐 (left cancellation law)

𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐 (right cancellation law)

 Group Theory M-401

Proof: Since (G, ) is a group so for any 𝑎𝜖G, ∃ an inverse 𝑎−1 in G such that 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1 𝑎 = 𝑒 .

∴ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑐 ⇒ 𝑎−1  𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎−1  𝑎𝑐 ⇒ 𝑎−1 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎−1 𝑎 𝑐 ⇒ 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑒𝑐 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐

Similarly, 𝑏𝑎 = 𝑐𝑎 ⇒ 𝑏 = 𝑐.

Property 2: The identity element and inverse of a element in a group (G, ) are unique.[WBUT 2008]

Proof: Let the identity element is not unique and (G, ) have two identity elements 𝑒 and 𝑒 ′ .

When 𝑒 is an identity element, we get 𝑒𝑒 ′ = 𝑒 ′ 𝑒 = 𝑒 ′

When 𝑒 ′ is an identity element, we get 𝑒 ′ 𝑒 = 𝑒𝑒 ′ = 𝑒

Hence 𝑒 = 𝑒 ′ which shows that identity element is unique.

Similarly, let the inverse of an element is not unique and (G, ) have two inverses 𝑎′ and 𝑎′′ of an
element 𝑎𝜖G.

When 𝑎′ is the inverse of 𝑎, we get 𝑎𝑎′ = 𝑎′ 𝑎 = 𝑒

When 𝑎′′ is the inverse of 𝑎, we get 𝑎′′ 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎′′ = 𝑒

∴ 𝑎𝑎′ = 𝑎𝑎′′ ⇒ 𝑎′ = 𝑎′′ , by left cancellation law.

Hence the inverse of an element is unique.

Property 3: In a group (G, ), 𝑎−1 −1

= 𝑎 ∀ 𝑎𝜖G.

Proof: We have 𝑎−1 𝑎 = 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒, since 𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑎.

Similarly, 𝑎−1 −1
𝑎−1 = 𝑎−1  𝑎−1 −1
= 𝑒, since 𝑎−1 −1
is the inverse of 𝑎−1 .

∴ 𝑎−1 𝑎 = 𝑎−1  𝑎−1 −1

⇒ 𝑎 = 𝑎−1 −1
, by left cancellation law.

Property 4: In a group (G, ), 𝑎𝑏 −1

= 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G. [WBUT 2008]

Proof: We have 𝑎𝑏  𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 = 𝑎 𝑏𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑒 𝑎−1 = 𝑎𝑎−1 = 𝑒

Similarly, 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1  𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 −1  𝑎−1 𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 𝑒 𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 𝑏 = 𝑒

Hence 𝑏 −1 𝑎−1 is the inverse of 𝑎𝑏 and so the result holds.

Property 5: In a group (G, ), ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G the equations 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 and 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 have unique solutions
which are given by 𝑥 = 𝑎−1 𝑏 and 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎−1 . [WBUT 2005]

Proof: Since 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G so 𝑎−1 𝜖G and so 𝑎−1 𝑏𝜖G

Now 𝑎 𝑎−1 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎−1 𝑏 = 𝑒𝑏 = 𝑏 which shows that 𝑎−1 𝑏 is a solution of 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 in G.

To prove the uniqueness let 𝑥 = 𝑥1 and 𝑥 = 𝑥2 be two solutions of 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏.

Then 𝑎𝑥1 = 𝑏 and 𝑎𝑥2 = 𝑏

∴ 𝑎𝑥1 = 𝑎𝑥2 ⇒ 𝑥1 = 𝑥2 , by left cancellation law.

 Group Theory M-401

Thus the solution is unique.

Similarly, we can prove that 𝑦 = 𝑏𝑎−1 is a unique solution of 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 in G.

Property 6: Let (G, ) be a semi-group and for all 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G the equations 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 and 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 have
unique solutions in G. Then (G, ) is a group.

Proof: Since (G, ) is a semi-group so G is closed under  and  is associative. So, in order to prove
that (G, ) is a group, we have to show that the identity element exists in G and each element of G has
inverse element in G.

Since 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 has a solution ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G so the equation 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑎 has a solution say 𝑒. Then 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑒.
On the other hand, let 𝑐 be the solution of 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏. Then

𝑐𝑎 = 𝑏 ⇒ 𝑏𝑒 = 𝑐𝑎 𝑒 = 𝑐 𝑎𝑒 = 𝑐𝑎 = 𝑏

∴ 𝑏𝑒 = 𝑏 ∀ 𝑏𝜖G.

Therefore, 𝑒 is the right identity and hence 𝑒 is the identity element of G.

Again, since 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 has a solution ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G, so let 𝑎′ be the solution of the equation 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑒 where
𝑒 is the identity element of G. Then 𝑎𝑎′ = 𝑒 which shows that 𝑎′ is the right inverse of 𝑎. Since 𝑎 is
arbitrary so right inverse of each element exists and hence each element of G has inverse in G.

Property 7: Let (G, ) be a finite semi-group in which both the cancellation laws hold. Then (G, ) is
a group.

Proof: Let the set G contains 𝑛 elements 𝑎1 , 𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑛 and 𝑎 be any arbitrary element of G. Then the
elements 𝑎𝑎1 , 𝑎𝑎2 , … , 𝑎𝑎𝑛 belong to G as G is closed and they are distinct because if they are not
distinct then 𝑎𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑎𝑗 , 𝑖 ≠ 𝑗 which gives 𝑎𝑖 = 𝑎𝑗 by left cancellation law. Thus we have 𝑎𝑎𝑖 =
𝑎𝑘 (𝑖, 𝑘 = 1,2, … , 𝑛) which shows that the equation 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 has a solution in G ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G.

Similarly, considering the elements 𝑎1 𝑎, 𝑎2 𝑎, … , 𝑎𝑛 𝑎 and using the right cancellation law we can
show that the equation 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 has a solution in G ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G.

Thus (G, ) is a semi-group in which each of the equations 𝑎𝑥 = 𝑏 and 𝑦𝑎 = 𝑏 has a solution in G.
Hence (G, ) is a group.

Example 1: Show that all roots of the equation 𝑥 4 = 1 forms an abelian group under the operation
multiplication. [WBUT 2005, 2007]

Solution: The roots of the equation 𝑥 4 = 1 are ±1 and ±𝑖 . So we have to show that the set
G= 1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 forms a group under multiplication.

Let us form the following composition table:

. 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖
1 1 −1 𝑖 −𝑖
−1 −1 1 −𝑖 𝑖
𝑖 𝑖 −𝑖 −1 1
−𝑖 −𝑖 𝑖 1 −1
 Group Theory M-401

(i) From the above table we see that G is closed under multiplication.
(ii) Multiplication is always associative. (Check it)
(iii) Clearly 1 is the identity element of G. (Check it)
(iv) It is clear that 1, −1, 𝑖, −𝑖 are the inverses of 1, −1, − 𝑖, 𝑖 respectively. (Check it)
(v) Clearly multiplication is commutative for this case. (Check it)

Hence G is an abelian group under multiplication.

Example 2: Show that the set G of all ordered pairs (𝑎, 𝑏) with 𝑎 ≠ 0 of real numbers 𝑎, 𝑏 forms a
group with operation  defined by 𝑎, 𝑏  𝑐, 𝑑 = (𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑). [WBUT 2007]

Solution:

(i) Let 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑐, 𝑑 𝜖G. Then 𝑎 ≠ 0 and 𝑐 ≠ 0 and so 𝑎𝑐 ≠ 0.

∴ 𝑎, 𝑏  𝑐, 𝑑 = (𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑) 𝜖G as 𝑎𝑐 ≠ 0 and 𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑 are real numbers.
∴ G is closed under .
(ii) Let 𝑎, 𝑏 , 𝑐, 𝑑 , (𝑒, 𝑓)𝜖G. Then
𝑎, 𝑏  𝑐, 𝑑  𝑒, 𝑓 = 𝑎, 𝑏  𝑐𝑒, 𝑑𝑒 + 𝑓 = (𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑏𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑒 + 𝑓) and
{ 𝑎, 𝑏  𝑐, 𝑑 } 𝑒, 𝑓 = 𝑎𝑐, 𝑏𝑐 + 𝑑  𝑒, 𝑓 = (𝑎𝑐𝑒, 𝑏𝑐𝑒 + 𝑑𝑒 + 𝑓)
Thus  is associative.
(iii) Let (𝑥, 𝑦) be the identity element in G. Then
𝑥, 𝑦  𝑎, 𝑏 = 𝑎, 𝑏 ∀ (𝑎, 𝑏)𝜖G ⇒ 𝑥𝑎, 𝑦𝑎 + 𝑏 = (𝑎, 𝑏)
∴ 𝑥𝑎 = 𝑎 and 𝑦𝑎 + 𝑏 = 𝑏 which give 𝑥 = 1 and 𝑦 = 0 as 𝑎 ≠ 0.
Thus (1,0) is the identity element in G.
(iv) Let (𝑎′ , 𝑏 ′ ) be the inverse of 𝑎, 𝑏 𝜖G. Then
𝑎′ , 𝑏 ′  𝑎, 𝑏 = 1,0 ⇒ 𝑎′ 𝑎, 𝑏 ′ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = (1,0)
1 𝑏
∴ 𝑎′ 𝑎 = 1 and 𝑏 ′ 𝑎 + 𝑏 = 0 which give 𝑎′ = 𝑎 and 𝑏 ′ = − 𝑎 .
1 𝑏
Thus 𝑎
,−𝑎 is the inverse of 𝑎, 𝑏 which proves that there exists an inverse of any element in
G.

Thus G is a group.

Example 3: Prove that a group (G, ) is abelian iff 𝑎𝑏 −1

= 𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G.

Solution:

Part-I: Let 𝑎𝑏 −1

= 𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G. Then

𝑎𝑏 −1 −1
= 𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 −1

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏 −1 −1
 𝑎−1 −1
= 𝑏𝑎 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G.

Hence G is abelian.

Part-II: Let G be an abelian group. Then

𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G.

⇒ 𝑎𝑏 −1
= 𝑏𝑎 −1
= 𝑎−1 𝑏 −1 (Proved)
 Group Theory M-401

Example 4: Show that a group (G, ) is abelian iff 𝑎𝑏 2

= 𝑎2 𝑏 2 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G. [WBUT 2006]

Solution:

Part-I: Let 𝑎𝑏 2

= 𝑎2 𝑏 2 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G. Then

𝑎𝑏  𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎𝑏𝑏

⇒ 𝑎(b𝑎)𝑏 = 𝑎(𝑎𝑏)𝑏

⇒ b𝑎 = a𝑏 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G [by left and right cancellation law]

Hence G is abelian.

Part-II: Let G be an abelian group i.e. 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G. Then

𝑎𝑏 2
= 𝑎𝑏  𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 b𝑎 𝑏 = 𝑎 𝑎𝑏 𝑏 = 𝑎𝑎  b𝑏 = 𝑎2 𝑏 2 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G.

9. Order of an element of a Group

Let (G, ) be a group and 𝑎𝜖G. Then the order of 𝑎 is the least positive integer 𝑛 such that 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑒
where 𝑒 is the identity element of G and is denoted by 𝑂(𝑎).

Theorem: Let 𝑂 𝑎 = 𝑛 of an element 𝑎 in a group G. Then 𝑎𝑚 = 𝑒 if 𝑛 is a divisor of 𝑚.

Example 5: Let 𝑥 be an element of a group G and 𝑂 𝑥 = 20. Find the order of 𝑥 8 .

Solution: We are given that 𝑂 𝑥 = 20 i.e., 𝑥 20 = 𝑒.

Let 𝑂 𝑥 8 = 𝑚. Then 𝑥 8 𝑚
= 𝑒 ⇒ 𝑥 8𝑚 = 𝑒.

Then 20 is the divisor of 8𝑚 where 𝑚 is the least positive integer. Clearly this least value of 𝑚 is 5.
Hence the order of 𝑥 8 is 5.

Assignment

1. Show that the set G of all non-zero real numbers forms a commutative group under the operation
𝑎𝑏
 defined by 𝑎𝑏 = 2
∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G. [WBUT 2003, 2008]
2. Prove that the set G of all odd integers forms a commutative group under the operation  defined
by 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑎 + 𝑏 − 1 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G. [WBUT 2008]
3. Show that the non-zero rational numbers form an abelian group under multiplication. What is the
identity element and what are its inverses? [WBUT 2003]
4. Prove that if 𝑎2 = 𝑒 ∀ 𝑎, 𝜖G then G is an abelian group.
5. Let G be a group. If 𝑎4 = 𝑒 and 𝑎𝑏 = 𝑏𝑎2 ∀ 𝑎, 𝑏𝜖G then prove that 𝑎 = 𝑒. [WBUT 2007]