Important points to remember before starting the lecture

■ The important (dual) relationships for capacitors and inductors are

■ The voltage across a capacitor and the current flowing through an

inductor cannot change instantaneously.
■ Leakage resistance is present in practical capacitors.
■ When capacitors are interconnected, their equivalent capacitance
is determined as follows: capacitors in series combine like resistors
in parallel, and capacitors in
parallel combine like resistors in series.

>> In dc steady state, a capacitor looks like an open circuit and an

inductor looks like a short circuit.
■ When inductors are interconnected, their equivalent inductance is
determined as follows: inductors in series combine like resistors in
series, and inductors in parallel combine like resistors in parallel.
Topic 7.1
First Order Differential equation:
Those Circuits that contain only a single storage element e.g.
Capacitor or Inductor. The network can be describe as first-order differential
equation.
Analysis:
It involves an examination and description of behavior of a circuit
as a function of time after a specific change occurs in the network due to
switches opening and closing.
Time Constant (τ):
The time taken by an electrical circuit to charge the charge storing element.
For conductor (τ)=L/R
For Capacitor (τ)= RC
 Topic 7.2
First-Order circuits
Consider a first-order differential equation of the from
dx(t)ax  f (t) 7.1
dt
A fundamental theorem of differential equation states that if
X(t) = X p (t) is any solution to Eq.(7.1) and x(t) = X c (t) is any
solution of homogeneous equation
dx(t)ax 0 7.2
dt
x(t) xp(t)xc(t)
then
7.3
The term X p (t) is called the particular integral solution, or
forced response, and X c (t) is called the complementary
solution ,or natural response the situation in which f(t) = A
dxP (t)ax  A 7.4
P
dt
since the right –hand side of Eq . (7.3) is a constant,
it is reasonable to assume that the solution X p (t) must also be a
constant therefore, we assume that
X p (t) = K 1
Substituting this constant into Eq.(7.4) yields
K 1 =A / a
Examining Eq.(7.5) we note that
dxC (t)ax (t) 0 7.5
C
dt
the equation is equivalent to
 dxC (t)/ x (t) a

 dt 
 C 7.6
therefore ,
 d [lnx (t)] a

 dt C 

7.7
lnxC(t) at C 7.8
xC(t) k2eat 7.9
weknowthat
x(t) xp(t)xc(t)
so, x(t) k1 k2eat
asa t

t
so, x(t) k1 k2e 
wherek1 steady-statesolution:
A t
x(t)  k2e 
a
 Applying Differential Method Step-by-Step to solve The Problems:

Step 1. We assume a solution for the variable x(t) of the form x(t) = K1 + K2 e-t/Ʈ
Step 2. Assuming that the original circuit has reached steady state before a switch was
thrown (thereby producing a new circuit), draw this previous circuit with the
capacitor replaced by an open circuit or the inductor replaced by a short circuit.
Solve for the voltage across the capacitor , vc(0-) or the current through the
inductor, iL(0-), prior to switch action.
Step 3. Recall from Chapter 6 that voltage across a capacitor and the current flowing
through an inductor cannot change in zero time. Draw the circuit valid for t= 0+
with the switches in their new positions. Replace a capacitor with a
voltage source vc(0+) = vc(0-) or an inductor with a current source of value
iL(0+)= iL(0-), Solve for the initial value of the variable xL(0+).
Step 4. Assuming that steady state has been reached after the switches are thrown,
draw the equivalent circuit, valid for t>5Ʈ by replacing the capacitor by
an open circuit or the inductor by a short circuit. Solve for the steady-state
value of the variable

Step 5. Since the time constant for all voltages and currents in the circuit will be the
same, it can be obtained by reducing the entire circuit to a simple series circuit
containing a voltage source, resistor, and a storage element (i.e., capacitor or
inductor) by forming a simple Thevenin equivalent circuit at the terminals of
 the storage element. This Thévenin equivalent circuit is obtained by looking into
the circuit from the terminals of the storage element. The time constant for a
circuit containing a capacitor is Ʈ = RTh C, and for a circuit containing an inductor
it is
Ʈ = LRTh .

Step 6. Using the results of steps 3, 4, and 5, we can evaluate the constants in step 1 as
x(0+) = K1 + K2
x(∞) = K1
Therefore, K1 = x(∞), K2 = x(0+) - x(∞), and hence the solution is
x(t) = x(∞) + [x(0+) - x(∞)] e-t/Ʈ
Keep in mind that this solution form applies only to a first-order circuit having dc
sources. If the sources are not dc, the forced response will be different.
Generally, the forced response is of the same form as the forcing functions
(sources) and their derivatives.
Example 7.3 
Consider the circuit. The circuit is insteadystate

prior totime t=0,whenthe switchis closed.

Let us calculate the current i(t) for

Solution 
Step 1. 
i t at t  0  ?
i t  k1  k2e 
t
Let,
Step 2. vc 0  ?
vnet  36v 12v  24v
Rnet  2k 6k 4k  12k
  24v
i t  12k  2mA
vR1  IR
 2mA 2k 4k
 
vc 0  36v  4v  32v
Step3.

i t at t  0 
vc0

i t  R
32v 16
 6k  3 mA
Step4.

i t at t  0
 36v 36v 36v 9
i   R R  2k6k  8k  2 mA
1 2
Step 5.

2k6k 12k 3
RTH 2k6k  8k  2 k
Therefore,
  RTHC
3
   
 2 103 100 106  0.15s
Step 6.
  9
k1  i   2 mA
   
k2  i 0  i 
16 9 5
 3 mA 2 mA  6 mA
Hence,
 9 5 t 0.15s
i t  2  6e mA
Example7.4
The circuit is assumed tohave beenina steady state
conditionprior toswitchclosure at t  0.
We wishtocalculate the voltage v(t) for t  0
Solution
Step 1.

v t  k1  k2e
t


Step 2.
 
iL 0  
24v
6 3
 6 
 
6 3
4
6 3
24v  6 8
 6    3 A
 9
Step 3.

iL t at t  0 
iL 0  iL 0  3 A
8

v1 0  ?
v1024v v10 8 v10
4  6  3 A  12  0
3v10  72  2v10  32  v10
0
12
6v10  40 =0
6v10 = 40
v10 = 40 = 20v
6 3
Then,
v0  24v  v10  24v  20v
3
 72  20  52v
3 3
Step 4.
If 6, 12, 1, and 2 resistors are shorted,
Therefore,
v()  24 V
Step 5.
RTH is equal to the 4, 6, and 12resistors in parallel.
Then,
1 1 1 1 3  2 1 6
RTH  4  6  12  12  12
12
RTH  6  2
Then,
L 4
  R  2  2s
TH

Step 6.

k1  v   24v
k2  v 0  v 
52 5272 20
 3 24  3   3
Hence,
 20 t 2s
v t  24  3 e v
Thus a a solution of (7.1) is
X(t) = X P (t) + X C (t)
= A ÷ a + K 2 e-at
Equation can be expressed in general in the
from
X(t) = K 1 + K2 e-t/T