ENGINEERING PHYSICS

Amal Jyothi College of Engineering, Kanjirappally.

Engineering Physics
1
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. CRO – Measurement of frequency and amplitude of wave forms.

2. Series LCR circuit – Forced and damped harmonic oscillations.
3. Melde’s string – Measurement of frequency in the transverse and
longitudinal mode.
4. Newton’s Rings – Wavelength measurement of a monochromatic source
of light.
5. Diffraction grating – Wavelength of any standard LASER.
6. Optical fiber – Calculate the numerical aperture.
7. Solar Cell – I-V characteristics.
8. LED – I-V characteristics.

2
BLOCK DIAGRAM OF CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE

3
Experiment No: 1
CATHODE RAY OSCILLOSCOPE
Aim
Measurement of frequency and amplitude (voltage) of a given signal using a cathode ray
oscilloscope.

Apparatus
Cathode Ray Oscilloscope, Function Generator, a pair of British Naval Connectors etc.

A cathode ray oscilloscope (CRO) is an electronic device which converts electrical signals to
visual signals. It consists of a specialized evacuated tube in which images are formed when an
electron beam strikes a phosphor coated surface. It is widely used in acoustic research, television
production engineering to study the nature of wave motions and in electronics. The German
physicist Ferdinand Braun developed the first CRO in 1897.

The vertical axis represents the voltage and horizontal axis represents the time. Using a CRO voltage
amplitude, frequency of the signal and phase angle can be measured.

The functions of sockets and knobs on the front panel are as follows:

ON/OFF: CRO is turned on or off. An LED indicates the status whether it is on or off.

INTENSITY: Controls the brightness of the Display

FOCUS: Controls the sharpness of the Display

Vertical Deflection

Y-POSITION: Controls the vertical shifting of the trace.

AMP/DIV: Enlarges the signal in vertical direction

AC/DC: In DC position signal is directly coupled. In AC position, DC Component is blocked.

Time Base and Horizontal Deflection

X-POSITION: Controls the horizontal shifting of the trace,

LEVEL: To keep the signal to remain still

TIME/DIV: switch selects the time coefficients.

MAG*n: Helps in the magnification of the horizontal deflection by a factor n.

TIME/DIV: Enlarges the signal in X direction. In combination with s/ms it selects the time coefficients

X via A: Horizontal deflection is determined by the input signal to channel A

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Observations

1. Measurement of voltage amplitude.

Sl. Peak to peak voltage measured by CRO

No. Voltage from source Y-amplification Vertical scale no of VCRO (Volt)
(volt) setting (V/div) div. p*q
p q

2. Measurement of frequency.

Sl. Freq measurement using CRO (f0 in Hz)

No. Frequency of function Value of time Horizontal Time Period
generator base scale no of (T) Sec 𝑓0 (in Hz)
(f in Hz) (Sec/div) div. 1
a b a*b 𝑇

5
CAL: It should be turned to CAL position to take readings

INT/EXT: External triggering signal for time base can be given through this socket.

NORM/TV: Normal triggering is obtained in NORM position & TV line or TV frame synchronization in

TV position

Procedure
Switch on the CRO. Keep the time base knob in horizontal input position and wait for
sometimes, you can see a bright spot of light on the screen of the CRO. Using the horizontal position
knob and vertical position knob this spot can be moved in vertical or horizontal direction. Keep the
time base in appropriate position (I.e., 1ms/cm, 0.1ms/cm etc.). Now a bright line can be seen on the
screen of the CRO, CRO is now ready to measure voltage and frequency of the unknown signal.

(i) To measure the Amplitude of the signal.

Adjust the Y position knob so that the trace of the horizontal line coincides with the central
line by keeping the AC/DC switch in GND position

Now connect the CRO with the Function generator using the CRO probe and switch on the function
generator

Count the number of divisions of the signal from peak to peak. Multiply this with the scale shown by
AMP/DIV knob. This will give the peak to peak amplitude and half of this will give the peak value of
the voltage.

Repeat the experiment for different Amplitudes keeping the frequency constant.

(ii) To measure the Frequency of the signal.

Obtain the horizontal line on the screen by adjusting the INTENS and FOCUS knobs.

Now connect the CRO with the Function generator using the CRO probe and switch on the function
generator and feed the signal whose frequency is to be measured to either of the channels. Adjust
the TIME/DIV knob so that two of cycles of the wave form can be clearly seen. Count the number of
divisions in one cycle. Multiply this with the time base setting. This will give the time period of the
signal. Reciprocal of the time period will give the frequency of the signal. Repeat the experiment for
different Frequencies.

Result

The amplitude and frequency of the wave form is measured and verified.

6
Observations

R=200Ω, L=100mH,
Frequency f(Hz) C=1µF
Voltage Across R
(volt)

50

100

150

200

250

….

…..

….

…..

….

950

1000

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Experiment No.2
LCR SERIES CIRCUIT
Aim
To study the frequency response and quality factor of series LCR Series circuit.

Apparatus
Function generator, AC Millivoltmeter with probe, Inductor, Capacitor, resistance box,
connecting wires with British Naval Connector (BNC) and crocodile clips.

Theory
When a sinusoidal voltage is applied to a series LCR circuit the net impedance offered by the
circuit to the flow of current will be the vector sum of the impedances offered by the resistive part
as well as the reactive part; i.e.,

𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + 𝑋 2 )

𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + (𝑋𝐿 − 𝑋𝐶 )2 )

1 2
𝑍 = √(𝑅 2 + (𝐿𝜔 − ) )
𝐶𝜔

𝐸
The current in the circuit is 𝐼=𝑍

𝐸
𝐼=
√(𝑅 2 + (𝐿𝜔 − 1 )2 )
𝐶𝜔

and the phase angle between the applied voltage and the current is given by,

1
𝐿𝜔 − 𝐶𝜔
−1
∅ = tan { }
𝑅

When frequency () of applied voltage, matches the natural frequency (0 ), of the circuit the
1
inductive reactance and the capacitive reactance will be equal. i.e., L0 ,= 𝐶 and the current in the
0
𝐸
circuit is decided by the value of R only. i.e., 𝐼 =
𝑅

8
 C= 1 µF

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

9
This frequency at which the inductive reactance and capacitive reactance are equal is the resonant
frequency of the circuit. The resonant frequency of an LCR circuit depends upon the values of L and
C by the relation,
1
𝑜 2 =
𝐿𝐶
1
𝑓0 =
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
The Quality factor for a particular value of L and C depends on the value of R and is computed from

the plot of I versus f by the relation,

𝑓0
𝑄=
𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿

𝑓 
𝑄 = ∆𝑓0 = ∆𝑜 , where, 𝑓0 is the resonant frequency,

∆𝑓, is the bandwidth 𝑜 is the angular resonant frequency, and ∆ is the angular bandwidth.

Procedure

1. Switch on the function generator and AC Millivoltmeter adjust its voltage amplitude to a
level 2V and it should be kept constant throughout the experiment.
2. Set the function generator in sinusoidal signal mode.
3. Connect the LCR and in series and the two extreme ends to the function generator output
through a British Naval Connector.
4. Connect the ground terminal of the AC Millivoltmeter probe to the ground of function
generator, and the other terminal of the probe such that the AC Millivoltmeter is connected
just across the resistance box.
5. Now set R= 200Ω, L= 100mH, C= 1µF.
6. Adjust the frequency output of the function generator to 50Hz.
7. Note the voltage of the signal shown by the AC Millivoltmeter.
8. Increase the frequency logarithmically and note the voltage amplitude of the signal upto
1KHz
9. Plot a graph with the voltage versus frequency for the resistance 200Ω on the graph paper.
𝑉𝑚𝑎𝑥
Note the resonant frequency, peak amplitude and
√2
10. Mark the lower cut off frequency 𝑓𝐿 and upper cut off frequency 𝑓𝐻 points.

Then Quality factor,

𝑓0
𝑄=
𝑓𝐻 − 𝑓𝐿

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Notes

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Result

For R=200Ω

Resonant Frequency of the oscillator f0= …………...

Quality factor of the oscillator Q= …………...

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 Observations and Calculations
(i) To find the mass of the scale pan and specimen of the string.

Mass of the scale pan w =..........g = ……….kg.

Mass of the string =..........g = ……….kg.

Length of the string = …………..m.

𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔
Linear density of the string m = =…………. Kg/m
𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑖𝑛𝑔

𝑴
(i) Transverse mode of vibration : To find .
𝒍𝟐

Figure 1

Sl. Load in Load including the mass of the No. of Length of N Length of a 𝑀
(kg/m2)
No. the pan pan M(x 10-3 kg) loops N loops L(cm) loop l (x 10-2 𝑙2
(g) m)

1 5
2 10

3 15

4 20

5 25

𝑀
Mean = …………. kg/m2
𝑙2

𝑔𝑀
𝑛=√ 2 = ………... Hz
4𝑚𝑙

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Experiment No.3
THE MELDE'S STRING
Aim
To determine the frequency of an electrically maintained tuning fork by (i) transverse mode
of vibration and (ii) the longitudinal mode of vibration.

Apparatus
Electrically maintained tuning fork and long uniform string (Melde's apparatus), Scale pan,
box of weight, common balance, two long knitting needles etc.

Theory
In the transverse mode of vibration of the string the frequency of vibration of the tuning fork is given
by

1 𝑇
𝑛= √
2𝑙 𝑚

l- length of a loop.

T=Mg, tension of the string.

m= linear density of the wire.

In the longitudinal mode of vibration of the string, the frequency of the tuning fork is given
by the equation

𝑛 1 𝑇
= √
2 2𝑙 𝑚

For a mass 'M' suspended at the end of the string, the tension is given by T=Mg.

Procedure
(i) Transverse mode of vibration of the string

The apparatus is arranged as shown in figure 1 with the length of the string parallel to the
prong of the tuning fork on which one end of the string is attached. The other end of the string
carrying a scale pan is passed over a vertical pulley fixed at one end of the table. When the fork is
excited it vibrates perpendicular to the length of the string

The scale pan is detached from the string and its mass w is determined using a common
balance by the method of vibration. A long specimen (say 10m) of the string is weighed accurately by
the balance. Hence linear density, that is mass per unit length m of the string is calculated.

The scale pan is again suspended at the end of the string. A mass of about 5g is placed in the
scale pan. The circuit is closed and the tuning fork is set into vibration. The string vibrates
transversely producing stationary waves in the string. The length of the string is so adjusted that the

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 𝑴
(iii) Longitudinal mode of vibration : To find 𝒍𝟐.

Figure 2

Sl. Load in Load including the mass of the No. of Length of N Length of a 𝑀
(kg/m2)
No. the pan pan M(x 10-3 kg) loops N loops L(cm) loop l (x 10-2 𝑙2
(g) m)

1 1
2 3

3 5

4 7

5 10

𝑀
Mean = …………. kg/m2
𝑙2

𝑔𝑀
𝑛=√ 2 = ………... Hz
𝑚𝑙

15
string vibrated with well defined loops. Keeping two long knitting needles at two nodes, the length
of N loop is measured leaving out the loops at the ends of the string. The average length I of a loop is
calculated. The mass of the scale pan together with the mass placed in it is determined as M. Then
𝑀 𝑀
2
is calculated. The experiment is repeated by changing the loud in the scale pan. It is found that
𝑙 𝑙2
𝑀
is a constant. The average value of is calculated.
𝑙2

𝑔𝑀
The frequency (n) of the tuning fork is calculated by the equation, 𝑛 = √ 2 .
4𝑚𝑙

(ii) Longitudinal mode of vibration of the string

The apparatus is arranged as shown in the figure 2 with length of the string perpendicular to
the prong of the fork. In this case, when the tuning fork is vibrated it vibrates parallel to the length of
the string

The experiment is performed exactly as in the previous case, it is found that for same load
𝑀
M, the length of a loop is double that in the previous case. The average value of is calculated. The
𝑙2
𝑔𝑀
frequency of vibration of the tuning fork is calculated from the equation 𝑛 = √ 2 .
𝑚𝑙

Result
The frequency of the fork,

(i) by transverse mode ………….Hz

(i) by longitudinal mode ...........Hz.

Average value of the frequency of the fork =…………. Hz.

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 Newton's rings.
Observations
Least count of the microscope(L.C) = 1 main scale division / no of divisions on the vernier

= …………….mm

Total Microscope reading = MSR+(VSR×L.C).

Mean 𝐷𝑛+10 2 − 𝐷𝑛 2 = ………….. mm2

= …………… m2

Radius of curvature R of the lens = 1m.

Then,

𝑫𝒏+𝟏𝟎 𝟐 −𝑫𝒏 𝟐
λ= = ………….. m = …………… nm.
𝟒×𝟏𝟎×𝑹

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Experiment No.4
THE NEWTON'S RINGS (Reflected systems)
Aim
To determine the wavelength of sodium light using the reflected system of Newton's rings.

Apparatus
A double convex (Plano convex) lens of large focal length, glass plates, travelling microscope,
sodium vapour lamp etc.

Theory
The radius rn of the nth ring of the Newton's rings is given by, rn2=nRλ, where R is the radius
of curvature of the convex surface in contact with the glass plate and λ is the wavelength of
monochromatic light.

rn+102= (n+10)Rλ, where rn+10 is the radius of the (n+10)th ring.

rn+102 - rn2 = 10Rλ

𝑟𝑛+10 2 −𝑟𝑛 2
λ=
10𝑅

If Dn and Dn+10 are the diameters of the n and n+10th rings,

𝑫𝒏+𝟏𝟎 𝟐 −𝑫𝒏 𝟐
λ= .
𝟒×𝟏𝟎×𝑹

Procedure
The plano convex lens L of large focal length is placed on a plane glass plate P.
Monochromatic light from sodium vapour lamp is made to fall normally on the lens L. For this light
from the sodium vapour lamp S is directed horizontally as a parallel beam on to a glass plate G,
which is kept inclined at 45o to the horizontal, by means of a short focused convex lens L1. The rays
after passing through the convex lens get reflected from the lower surface of the lens and also from
the upper surface of the glass plate P. Interference takes place between these reflected rays forming
alternate dark and bright rings. This interference pattern is called Newton's rings. At the point of
contact between L and P, a dark spot is seen.

The microscope M is kept vertically and focused on the Newton's rings. Starting from the
central dark spot as zero, the microscope is moved to one side (say left side) by working its
tangential screw, so that of its cross wire is tangential to the 20th dark ring. The reading of the
microscope on its horizontal scale is taken by working the tangential screw the microscope is moved
carefully to the right. The cross wire is adjusted to be tangential to the 18th, 16th…. rings in
succession up to the second ring on the left and the corresponding readings of the microscope are
taken. The microscope is then moved to the right side of the central dark spot and readings are
taken corresponding to the 2nd,4th,…… 20th dark rings as before. Difference between the readings on
left and right of any ring gives the diameter of that ring.

18
Notes

19
The diameters of 2nd,4th,…… 20t are thus calculated. From these 𝐷𝑛+10 2 − 𝐷𝑛 2, and their mean value
is determined.

The radius of curvature R of the lens is given.

𝑫𝒏+𝟏𝟎 𝟐 −𝑫𝒏 𝟐
The wavelength of sodium light is calculated using the formula, λ=
𝟒×𝟏𝟎×𝑹
Result

Wave length of sodium light= ............ nm.

20
 2d1 2d2

Experimental Setup

Observations

Sl. N D (cm) n 2d d (cm) 𝑑 𝜃 = tan−1 𝐷

𝑑
tan 𝜃 =
No. (Lines/met (cm) 𝐷
er)

Sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝑁𝜆
Sin 𝜃
i.e., 𝜆 =
𝑛𝑁

= …………….. m
= ……………... nm

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Experiment No: 5
LASER DIFFRACTION
Aim
To determine wavelength of Helium Neon laser (or any standard laser) using diffraction grating.

Apparatus

Helium Neon laser, Diffraction grating (100 LPI, 500 LPI and 7500 LPI), screen etc.

Theory

Diffraction gratings can be used to split light into its constituent wavelengths (colours). In
general, it gives better wavelength separation than does a prism, although the output light intensity
is usually much smaller. By shining a light beam into a grating whose spacing d is known, and
measuring the angle 𝜽 where the light is imaged, one can measure the wavelength λ. This is the
manner in which the atomic spectra of various elements were first measured. Alternately, one can
shine a light of known wavelength on a regular grid of slits, and measure their spacing. You can use
this technique to measure the distance between grooves on a CD or the average spacing between
the feathers on a bird's wing.

The grating equation is Sin 𝜃 = 𝑛𝑁𝜆

Where 𝜽 is angle of diffraction, N is number of lines per meter, n is the order of diffraction and λ is
wavelength of light used. From this, wavelength of laser can be determined.

Procedure
Given grating is mounted in front of laser source. Light undergoes diffraction through grating and
diffracted image is focused on a screen. The screen is placed at a distance of about 50cm from the
grating (D) and distance between two first order images are measured as 2d.
𝑑
From d and D, 𝜽 can be calculated as tan 𝜃 = 𝐷
𝑑
𝜃 = tan−1
𝐷

By knowing 𝜽, no. of lines per meter N, and order of diffraction n, wavelength of laser can be
calculated using the equation

𝐒𝐢𝐧 𝜽 = 𝒏𝑵𝝀
The experiment can be repeated for different values of D, distance between grating and screen.

Result
Wavelength of laser used = ………... nm.

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 Observations

SL. Diameter of 𝐷 Distance between the 𝐷/2 Sin 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥

𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = tan−1
No. circular spot 2 output end of the optic 𝐿
(D) (mm) (mm) fibre and screen (L) (mm)

1
2
3
4
5

Mean Sin 𝜃𝑚𝑎𝑥 = …………………

i.e., Numerical aperture = ………………….

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Experiment No.6
OPTICAL FIBRE
Aim
To determine the numerical aperture of an optical fibre cable.

Apparatus
Laser source, microscope objective (40X), fibre for which numerical aperture is to be
measured, optical bench/ optical bread board, fibre holders, fibre positioner, detector with attached
pin hole, optical mounting components etc.

Principle
Numerical aperture is a measure of light gathering capacity of an optical fibre. It is defined
as sine of maximum value of acceptance angle.
𝑫
Numerical aperture = 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 𝟐𝑳)

Where D is diameter of laser spot and L is the distance of the detector from fibre end.

Procedure
To determine the numerical aperture, the arrangements are done as shown in the figure:
Mount both the ends of optical fibre on the fibre optic chucks. Couple the light from the diode laser
on to one of the fibre ends using microscope objective. Now a screen is placed at some distance
from the output end and move the screen towards or away from the output end such that a circular
spot of particular diameter (D) is obtained on the screen. Distance between the output end of the
optic fibre and screen is measured as L. Repeat the experiments for different values of D. Then
determine the value of numerical aperture.

Result
Numerical Aperture of the Optical Fibre = ………………...

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High Intensity
Max. power points

Medium Intensity

Low Intensity

V-I characteristics curve of a solar cell

25
Experiment No.7
SOLAR CELL CHARACTERISTICS
Aim
To study the current -voltage characteristics of a solar cell.

Apparatus
Solar panel, voltmeter, milli ammeter, resistance box, a 100W lamp with an intensity control,
area choppers etc.

Theory
A solar cell is a p-n junction which can convert light energy to electrical energy. When a solar cell is
illuminated, the photons incident on the cell generate electron-hole pairs. By diffusion in the
material these electrons and holes reach the junction. Under the influence of an electric field,
electrons from p-region are swept into n-region and holes from n-region to p- region which leads to
increase in number of holes on p-side and electrons on n-side of the junction. The accumulation of
charge on the two sides of the junction produces an emf known as photo emf or open circuit
voltage. When an external circuit is connected across the solar cell terminals, the minority carriers
return to their original sides through the external circuit. To increase the output power, solar cells
are arranged in series or parallel which is known as solar panel.

Procedure
Connections are made as shown in figure. The intensity of the lamp is kept minimum. With no load
resistance, measure the output voltage. Now short the output terminals and note the short circuit
current. Connect a load resistance, for example, 100 ohms at the output terminals, and note the
output voltage and current. The load is increased in steps and each time note the output voltage and
current. Repeat the experiment for different intensities. Now plot a graph between current and
voltage. Repeat the experiment for different values of intensity.

26
Observations

Sl. RL (Ω) Intensity I1 (High) Intensity I2 Intensity I3

No. (Medium) (Low)
Voltage Current Voltage Current Voltage Current
(V) (mA) (V) (mA) (V) (mA)

27
Results
I-V characteristics of solar cell is drawn.

For Maximum intensity,

Open circuit voltage= ............V

Short circuit current = …………..mA

28
Model Graph

Observations

Forward bias voltage (VF) Forward Current (IF)

Volt mA

29
Experiment No.8
LED Characteristics
Aim
To study the characteristics of a light emitting diode.

Apparatus
LED, resistor, an ammeter, a voltmeter, dc regulated power supply.

Circuit Diagram

Theory
LED is a semiconductor pn junction device that gives of light when it is forward biased. When
it is forward biased minority carriers are injected across the junction and recombine with the
majority carriers. This results in emission of light of wavelength,
ℎ𝑐
𝜆 = 𝐸 , where Eg is in electronvolts.
𝑔

Procedure
The circuit is connected as shown in the diagram. Power supply knob is kept in the minimum
position is switched on. The voltage is varied in suitable steps and the corresponding current is noted
and recorded. Now plot a graph between voltage and current. The characteristic curve is as shown in
figure.

Results
1. The LED characteristics are drawn.
2. The voltage at which conduction begins is ------- volts.

30
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