FIBRE OPTIC COMMUNICATIONS

UNIT-II

 Presented By:
SUNEEL MIRIYALA M.Tech.(Ph.D)
 Transmission Characteristics of fibers:

• 1. attenuation
• 2. band width
• The loss may be defined generally with
attenuation loss = Pi/Po|L
= 10 log(Pi/Po)
attenuation loss in fibers = 10 log(Pi/Po)/L
where L is the length of fiber cable

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 Types of losses:

• Absorption loss
• Scattering loss
• Bending loss
• Dispersion
• Radiation losses
• Connector component losses

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 Absorption loss:

Intrinsic Extrinsic

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 Absorption loss:
• Material absorption is a loss mechanism related to the
material composition and fabrication process for the
fiber.
• Due to this some of the transmitted optical power is
dissipated in the form of heat.
• The absorption of the light may be in two types
• 1.Intrinsic:
caused by the interaction with one or more of the
major components of the glass.
• 2.Extrinsic:
caused by impurities within the glass.
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 Intrinsic Absorption loss:
• Pure glass has little intrinsic absorption due to the basic
material structure in the near infrared region.
• A low intrinsic absorption window over the 0.8 – 1.7 μm.
• This window shows a possible optical attenuation against
wavelength characteristic for absolutely pure glass.
• This is due to the simulation of electron transitions within
the glass by higher energy excitations.
• Wavelengths above 7 μm, fundamentals of absorption bands
from interaction of photons with molecular vibrations within
the glass occur.
• Then the absorption is extended to this window
• The strong absorption bands are occur due to oscillations of
structural units
B-O, Ge-O, Si-O, P-O within the glass
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 Intrinsic Absorption loss:

• The intrinsic absorption loss may be minimized by:

1.suitable choice of core- cladding materials.
2.glases such as depends of fluorides and chlorides instead of
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 Extrinsic Absorption loss:
• In practical optical fibers prepared by conventional melting
techniques.
• The metal element impurities cause extrinsic absorption
loss.
• Some metal impurities are shown below, which causes
extrinsic absorption.

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 Extrinsic Absorption loss:
• How ever, another major extrinsic loss mechanism is caused
due to water(OH ion) dissolved in the glass.
• These OH ions may create fundamental vibrations in the
glass structure.
• These vibrations may occur at wave lengths between 2.7 and
4.2 μm depending on group position in the network.

This extrinsic absorption loss may reduced

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 Scattering Loss:

Linear Non-Linear

Rayleigh Mie SBS SRS

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Linear Scattering loss:

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 Rayleigh Scattering loss:
• It is the dominant intrinsic loss mechanism between uv
and IR region.
• It is due to in homogeneities of a random nature
occurring on a small scale compared with the
wavelength of light.
• The inhomogenities manifested as RI fluctuations due
to density and compositional variations.
• The compositional variations are reduced by improved
fabrication process and other are not.
• The scattering due to density fluctuations almost in all
directions produces attenuation.

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 Rayleigh Scattering loss:

• From the mention Rayleigh scattering coefficient we

understand that, ϓR=1/λ4
• The transmission loss factor (Transmitivity) of the fiber
Z=e(-ϓRL)
• From the above equation ϓR can be reduced by operating at
largest wave lengths.
• Theoretically attenuation due to Rayleigh scattering in silica
at o.63, 1.00, 1.3μm are 5.2, 0.8, 0.3 db/km. respectively.

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 Mie Scattering loss:
• These are due to non perfect cylindrical structure of waveguide(fiber).
• Imperfections like irregularities in
1. core-cladding interface,
2. core-cladding RI differences along fiber length
3. Diameter fluctuations
4. Strains and bubbles.
• The scattering occurs in forward direction.
• The Mie scattering losses are reduced significantly by,
1. Removing imperfections due to glass manufacturing process,
2. Carefully controlled extrusion and cladding of the fiber,
3. Increasing the fiber guidance by increasing the ∆.

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Non Linear Scattering Loss:

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 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering:

• The frequency shift is maximum in backward direction and

reducing to zero in the forward direction and hence making
SBS as mainly backward process.

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 Stimulated Brillouin Scattering:
• SBS is only significant above a threshold power density. The
threshold power

• The above equation allows the determination of threshold

optical power which must be launched into a single mode
optical fiber before SBS occurs.
• Hence non linear scattering losses may be avoided by
inducing optical input signal below threshold optical power.

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 Stimulated Raman Scattering losses:

• SRS occurs both in forward and backward directions in optical fiber.

The Raman scattering threshold power is

• SBS &SRS are not observed in multimode fibers because of their

relatively large core diameters making the threshold optical power
levels extremely high.

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 Bending losses:
• Optical fibers suffer radiation at bends or curves on their
paths.
• This is due Evanescent field at the bending the velocity of
light in the cladding and hence the guidance mechanism is
inhibited and hence it causes the energy to be radiated from
the fiber.
• Actually part of the mode which is on the outside of the
bend is required to travel faster than that on the side. So
that a wave front is perpendicular to the direction of
propagation is maintained.

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 Bending losses:
• Hence part of mode in cladding needs to travel faster and it
is not possible and hence energy associated with this part of
the mode is lost through radiation.
• The loss can be represented by a radiation attenuation
coefficient which has the form.
• αϓ=C1 e (-C2R)
• R= radius of curvature of fiber bend
• C1 and c2 are constants independent of R.
• Large bending losses tend to occur in multi mode fibers at a
critical radius of curvature Rc is given by,
• The bending losses can be reduced by,
1. Designing fibers with large ∆
2. Operating at the shortest wavelength possible.
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 Dispersion:
The pulse broadening effect causes the dispersion.

Dispersion causes low BW for foc.

Bt is the data bit rate

 Dispersion:
• The error rate is a function of signal attenuation and SNR
at receiver
• To reduce the ISI effect ,more accurate estimation of bit
rates for fiber optical channel is selected.

Band Width B=Bt/2

Band Width B=Bt

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Dispersion in different fibers

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 Dispersion in different fibers
• The pulse broadening is directly proportional
to length of fiber
• The information carrying capacity= Bopt* L
Mode of fiber Information carrying capacity
MMSI 20MHzKm
MMGI 1GHzKm
SMSI 100GHzKm

• The amount of pulse broadening in the fiber is mainly due

to
1.Material dispersion
2.Wave guide dispersion
3.Profile dispersion
4.Intermodel dispersion S MIRIYALA
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 Intramodal dispersion
• Sources ILD ----line width of light is narrow
LED----line width of light is large
• Due large line width of light causes the more no. of
modes, then dispersion occurs
• Any source doesn’t produce single frequency of
light. The source can produce different frequencies,
then propagation delay difference between each
mode happens, due to
1. Wave guide dispersion
2. Material dispersion
3. Guidance effect
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 Material dispersion
• It is mainly due to different group velocities of
spectral components(various frequencies) launched
into the fiber.
• Phase velocity of the mode propagating through fiber
is varied non-linearly with respect to wave length
• The condition for material dispersion is

• If the not equals to zero then the dispersion occurs.

Group delay

pulse delay

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Material dispersion

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 Material dispersion

The use of narrow spectral width sources (ILD) leads

to substantial reduction pulse broadening due to material
dispersion even in shorter wave length region
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Wave guide dispersion

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 Inter modal dispersion in MMSI
• By the use of GI fibers intermodal dispersion can
be reduced in MM fibers.
• Hence MMGI have substantial BW improvement
over MMSI fibers.
• The improved performance is due to parabolic
index profile of MMGI fiber with α=2.
• Greater the RI then lesser the speed of light pulse
propagating through it.

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 Inter modal dispersion in MMSI
• If we see the axial ray and several meridional rays along the
fiber core, the meridional rays follows the sinusoidal
trajectories of different path lengths, due to the RI grading.
• The various ray paths are considered to represent different
modes propagating in fiber, the graded index profile reduces
the disparity in the mode transit times.
• Therefore the delay difference between fastest and slowest
modes for the graded index profile

The theoretical improvement in pulse broadening reduce in

GI fiber to MMSI fiber is by a factor of 100
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 Modal Noise
• The intermodal dispersion properties of MM optical
fibers creates another phenomenon, which affects
the transmitted signal on the optical channel. This is
exhibited within the speckle patterns observed in
MM fibers as fluctuations.
• The fluctuations have characteristic times longer
than the resolution time of the detector and it is
known as Modal or Speckle noise.
• The speckle patterns are formed by the interference
of the modes from a coherent source when the
coherence time of the source is greater than the
intermodal dispersion time δT within the fiber.
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 Overall fiber dispersion
Multi mode fibers:

• It comprises both intra modal and inter modal

terms.
• The total rms pulse broadening

The wave guide dispersion is negligible when compared with

material dispersion In multi mode fibers.

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 Overall fiber dispersion
Single mode fibers:

• The pulse broadening is SM fiber is entirely due to intra

modal dispersion at only a single mode is allowed to
propagate.
• The transit time or specific group delay Tg for a light pulse
propagating along a unit length of a single mode fiber is,

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 Overall fiber dispersion

Now the total dispersion DT in practical SM fiber is

DT = DM+DW+DP

• But in the standard SM fibers total dispersion is dominated

by material dispersion
• The total dispersion depends on both fiber material composition
and dimensions. The DT may be minimized by trade off material
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Dispersion while limiting profile dispersion.
Conclusion about

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 Optical Fiber Connection Components
• The no. of intermediate fiber connections or joints is
dependent upon the length(between repeaters).

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 Optical Fiber Connection Components
• A major consideration with all types of fiber-fiber connection
is the optical loss encountered at the interface.
• Even when the two jointed fiber ends are smooth and
perpendicular to the fiber axes and the two fiber axes are
perfectly aligned.
• A small proportion of the light may be reflected back into the
transmitting fiber causing attenuation at the joint. This
phenomenon, known as Fresnel reflection, is associated with
the step changes in RI at the joint interface(glass-air-glass).
• The magnitude of this partial reflection of the light
transmitted through the interface maybe estimated by
Fresnel's formula,

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 Optical Fiber Connection Components

• To determine the amount of light reflected at a fiber

joint, Fresnel reflection at both fiber interfaces
must be taken into account.
• The loss in decibels due to Fresnel reflection at a
single interface is given by,

Example:

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 Optical Fiber Connection Components
• Slution:

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 Fiber Splices:
• A permanent joint formed in between two individual optical
fibers in the field or factory is known as a fiber splice.
• Fiber splices may be divided into two broad categories
depending upon the splicing technique utilized
* fusion splicing
* mechanical splicing
• Fusion splicing is accomplished by applying localized heating
(by flame) at the interface between two butted, prealigned fiber
ends causing them to soften and fuse.
• Mechanical splicing , in which the fibers are held alignment by
some mechanical means, may be achieved by various methods
including the use of tubes around the fiber ends(tube splices).
• All these techniques seek to optimize the splice
performance(reduce the insertion loss: 0.1 to 0.2 db for MM
fibers).
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 Fiber Splices:
• The insertion losses of fiber splices are generally much
less than the possible Fresnel reflection loss at a butted
fiber-fiber joint.

• This is because there is no large step change in RI with the

fusion splice as it forms a continuous fiber connection,
and some method of index matching(ex.fluid) tends to be
utilized with mechanical splices.

• The fusion splicing is not suitable for certain environment

and suffers from practical problems in the development of
field usable tools.
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 Fiber Splices:
• A requirement with fibers intended for splicing is that they
have smooth and square end faces. In general this end
preparation may be achieved using a suitable tool which
cleaves the fiber as shown in fig.

• This process is often referred to as scribe and break or score

and break.
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Fusion Splices:

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Fusion Splicing Apparatus:

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Pre fusion method:

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Mechanical Splices:

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Collapsed Steve Splicing:

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V Groove Splicing:

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 Multiple Fiber Splicing:

The fibers are inserted into the precision grooves and bonded with
adhesive.
They are then cut, polished and curved with index matching material
at the joining ends, before the two collars are brought together.

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Multiple Fiber Splicing:

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 Fiber Connectors:
• Demountable fiber connectors are more difficult to
achieve than optical fiber splices.

• The connectors must maintain similar tolerance

requirements to splices in order to couple light
between fibers efficiently, but they must accomplish
it in a removable fashion.

• In order to maintain an optimum performance the

connector must also protect the fiber ends from
damage which may occur due to handling
(connection- disconnection).

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Fiber Connectors:

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Butt Jointed Connectors:

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Butt Jointed Connectors:

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Biconical Connector

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Optical Couplers
 Optical Couplers and Switches

• As with coaxial cable and

microwave waveguides, it is
possible to build power splitters
and directional couplers for fiber-
optic systems
• It is more complex and expensive
to do this with fiber than with
copper wire
• Optical couplers are categorized
as either star couples with
multiple inputs and outputs or as
tees, which have one input and
two outputs
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 Fiber Coupler

Definition: an optical device that combines or splits power from optical fibers

1X2 coupler
(95/5, 90/10, 80/20, 50/50)

2X2 coupler

1X2 coupler

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 Coupler Construction
• Optical couplers can be made in many different ways:
– A number of fibers can be fused together to make a
transmissive coupler
– A reflective coupler allows a signal entering on any fiber to
exit on all other fibers, so the coupler is bidirectional

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 Optical Switches and Relays
• Occasionally, it is necessary to switch
optical signals from one fiber to another
• The simplest type of optical switch
moves fibers so that an input fiber can
be positioned next to the appropriate
output fiber
• Another approach is direct the incoming
light into a prism, which reflects it into
the outgoing fiber. By moving the prism,
the light can be switched between
different output fibers
• Lenses are necessary with this approach
to avoid excessive loss of light

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Cabling

LIU & Couplers

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 Star couplers
• Types
– Star
• All inputs mixed, available on all outputs
– Reflective
• Input on any fiber, output split equally among all

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Star couplers: construction

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