Design Theory – SAZZAD HOSSAIN

Design and the Design Process

Design is a decision making process. If Architectural Designing is a process then it

must have a reasonably rational basis of proceeding towards a predetermined goal
and at the end the out-come of the process must be considered as a ‘PRODUCT’ –
not just as a mere outcome of individualistic expression. Here it should be
remembered that we are talking about ‘ARCHITECTURAL DESIGN’ not just of
any design. That means designing Built Environment and its related activities.
DESIGN, in the context of architecture, is simply the activity of generating proposals that change something
that already exists into something that is better. DESIGN can be viewed as a three-part process consisting
of: an initial state, a method or process of transformation, and an imagined future state. These components
also define the functions of the architectural designer.
They are:
- to identify problems,
- to identify methods for achieving solutions, and
- to implement those solutions.
In more practical terms, these functions are: programming, generating alternative building designs, and
implementing plans.

DESIGN IN ARCHITECTURE
Although design is a broadly based activity touching everything from the visual arts to engineering to
business management and the study of logic, the potential for a unified introduction to design is usually
unmet. Most art schools have so-called design classes that everyone- including painters, ceramists, and
sculptors takes. These basic classes introduce a series of fundamental visual and problem-solving
experiences. At some schools, architects, landscape architects, product and industrial designers, and
interior designers join the art majors in the same design program. More typically, however, the basic design
courses for architects are taught within architectural schools.
There is a trend toward beginning design education that includes instruction in the design process as an
abstract experience. The emphasis is on creative problem solving as taught in logic courses or in
introductory problem-solving courses in engineering, often called systems design. The goal is to make the
study of design and problem solving the base/key intellectual activity of the profession. This strategy was
stimulated by changes in professional practice in the 1960s, when architects found themselves contracting
to solve management, programming, and the other problems not directly related to building design and
construction. However, the studio case study, where the student concentrates on designing a single
building type for a specific site, is still the dominant teaching mode used to develop the student’s ability to
design.
THE DESIGN PROCESS
The description of the design process as going from an initial state to a future imagined state does not
explain fully the activities undertaken along the way. These activities are described in the following section,
as the five-step design process.

The Five-Step Design Process

Design process, as conceptualized and taught in schools of architecture, includes a number of sequential
problem-solving steps. Basically, the steps are:

Initiation | Step 01
INITIATION involves the recognition and definition of the problem to be solved. Although architects are
often expected to identify problems and opportunities, the tradition is of the client bringing the problem to
the architect. The traditional image has the client walking unannounced into an office to tell the architects
that they have been picked because the client admires their work. Both clients and architects know this is
not the usual process. Projects are almost always awarded after competitive interview. Sometimes the
interviews are open to anyone who can meet the minimum qualifications, and sometimes the client limits
the interviews to three or four pre-selected firms. Architects also have begun to take more initiative in
making contacts with potential clients, and many have formed working associations with developers, especially in the housing and commercial
fields. Architects are often directly involved in the early stages of problem identification. Another aspect of the INITIATION step
involves the role of imagination and aspirations. That is, architects attempt to raise the aspirations of society in terms of the quality of the built
environment. They identify general problems, educate the public, and suggest alternative solutions. They supply critical imagination in their area
of expertise that stimulates the client’s aspirations. More than one architect has reflected that: good clients make good buildings.
Preparation | Step 02

The second step of the design process, PREPARATION, includes the collection and analysis of information
about the problem to be solved. In the broad sense, professional education is itself a PREPARATION for
delivering design services. Professional architects are constantly preparing to deliver services- informally,
by learning from each successive commission/project, and formally, by continuing education. More
specifically, PREPARATION involves the systematic collection and analysis of information about a
particular project. This activity is called programming. Programs generally include a written report
summarizing the needs of a project and can include extensive analysis that identifies the important issues
to be resolved.
Other PREPARATION activities include the gathering of base maps, of site and area data (about the natural and made
environment, traffic, utilities, and so on), of information about legal constraints and economics, and of financial data.
Another product of the PREPARATION stage is a list of criteria that describes the desired characteristics of an
architectural solution. Solutions are measured against these criteria as the project cycles through the PROPOSAL
MAKING and EVALUATION stages. Some PREPARATION activities are integrated into other stages of the design
process. For example, the criteria for a hospital design may change due to technological innovation during the total
design process. Thus, information collection and analysis is both an initial step in design and one that continues
Throughout the design process.
Proposal Making | Step 03

An informed architect is prepared to generate ideas and make bui lding proposals. Valid ideas can
come at any time in the design process, from the first meeting w ith a client to the end.The complexities
of contemporary buildings and their sites make initial, intuitiv e, or naively conceived solutions highly
suspect. Preconceived solutions represent an unfortunate tendenc y among beginning students and
experienced practitioners alike.Too often, the client, student, or architect proposes what the buil ding
should look like and then tries to force the required activities into that image.The actual process of
making design proposals is often called SYNTHESIS. That is, desi gn proposals must bring together a
variety of considerations from the context (social, economic, ph ysical), the program, the site, the client,
current technology, aesthetics, and the values of the designer. Proposals are expected to be
physical demonstrations of the integration of a very large numbe r of issues. The designer often makes
initial drawings as overlays to record the impact of information on the solution and to explore the
potentials of different physical arrangements and forms. The dra wings and notes together form a tool
for successive explorations and iterations that converge on a so lution. The inspection of these
drawings leads one from the designer’s initial assumptions to the proposed solution. At various stage s,
the design under study can be presented to the client to confirm or revise program intentions.
Evaluation | Step 04

EVALUATION in architectural design occurs at several scales and includes a variety of participants.
This discussion focuses on EVALUATION of alternative proposals by the designer,although designers
are typically reviewed by clients, certain review boards (building inspectors, zoning and subdivision
boarders, or financial institutions), and the building’s users, and in published news papers, magazines,
and journals. In addition, buildings are sometimes evaluated after they have been built and occupied
for some period of time. In this case, both the original program and the design can be evaluated in
terms of actual, measured performance. However, EVALUATION of proposals by the architect
involves comparing proposed design solutions with the goals and criteria evolved in the programming
stage. We can visualize the preparation-design-evaluation cycle as a three-part process, consisting of
The establishment of goals and criteria for the design, the generation of potential designs, and the
measurement of the proposed solutions against the program criteria. In addition, proposals or designs
may be evaluated in terms of implicit criteria, unstated in the program but generally accepted in the
profession.Most important, however, is the designer’s ability to evaluate his or her design proposals in
terms of large number of design issues and in an iterative fashion that converges on an appropriate
and successful proposal.

Action | Step 05

The ACTION stage of the design process includes the activities associated with preparing and
implementing a project, such are readying the construction documents and acting as an liaison
between the owner and the contractor. Construction documents include working drawings and written
specifications for the building.

Although the five-step design process provides with a comprehensive guideline to how architects should
carry on with their task from the beginning to the end, the creative boundaries of architecture does allow
them to choose any other means that might prove to be successful in achieving their goals.
 Basic Services and the Required Skills
In the Architectural Design Process:

1. Schematic design:
At first the design problem is identified, a conceptual statement is developed in
relation the main situation; and after identifying the conceptual elements
visualization process is initiated. In this stage a sketch design image is
presented to the user to start inter-communication and initiate the next design
process.

Skill required:
– Memory skill to collect/recollect data and relevant information
– Understanding skill to enhance intellectual ability to develop concept of the
design.
– Note & sketch books, spread-sheet analysis programs (MS word, excel or
access, SPSS etc.) to handle data and information.
– Mind mapping programs (Smart Draw, Inspiration) for concept development
and manual sketch-drawing skill and simple 3D generation programs (sketch
up with its sketchy quality Black & White (ie. Without material assignment)
output serves the purposes of the designer. Neither 3D studio Max; since it is
more efficient in rendering-animations; nor Auto-cad 3D; as its rigidity is
retarding to the design process should be used at this stage.
2. Design developments

Here different alternative design attitudes or proposals or are studied and by a process of
eliminating the ‘misfits’ the quality of the final product is ensured.Skill required:
• Understanding, self-criticism ability and Graphic skills are very helpful at this stage.
• Mass Models along with Sketch up models are used to develop the space and mass
quality of the built environment
• Basic Plan-Sections-Elevations should be studied and refined through proper use of
Sketch up Models and Auto-Cad drawings.
• At the final stage the Auto-Cad drawings can be made even more presentable by the
use of programs like Corel Draw, Photoshop etc. The final rendering of the 3D model
is usually done (with material assignment) in 3D Studio Max.

3.Construction documents
Preparation of the Working Drawing and management of the other required drawings.

4.Bidding & Negotiation

Designer watches over the process and provides logical advices.

5.Construction contract
Designer at this stage ensures the implementation of the legal procedures in the final
process.
Design Activity

 Design is a broadly based activity, it is used in visual art and as well as in state of
art business management!
 The Basic Design for the art schools and architecture schools are somewhat follows
the same principles – they are fundamentally visual.
 Except that, the architecture schools are space dominated and the art schools are
more interested in masses.

Design as visual language

1. Design is the Expression of visual organization

2. It has PRINCIPLES of its own, but-
3. Its Laws are flexible enough to be interpreted and re-interpreted.
4. Individual interpretation of the visual quality is possible and always welcomed.
 Elements of Design

There are four Elements of Design according to their involvement in the

design process. They are:

i. CONCEPTUAL: conceptual elements are not visible elements. That is,

they are to be imagined by the viewer. They do not have physical
existence but gives us guide-lines to perceive the surrounding world in a
more organized and logical manner. Example: point, line, plane and
volume.
ii. VISUAL: visual elements are the visible transformation of the
conceptual elements. They are maid visible; and needs no viewer’s
imagination to be perceived. Example: shape, size, color and texture.

i. RELATIONAL: relational elements express the force present in the

design. These dynamic forces are perceived in relation to the ‘Frame of
Reference’ of the viewer. ‘Frame of Reference ‘ is the visual field in
which we see different objects. The positional relationship between this
frame and the objects determines the static or dynamic character of our
perception. Example: direction, position, space and gravity

ii. PRACTICAL: practical contents involve the content of the design.

Example: representation, meaning, function and purpose.
 Elements of Design

 CONCEPTUAL point, line, plane, volume

(not visible)

 VISUAL shape, size, color, texture

(made visible)

 RELATIONAL direction, position, space

(in frame) gravity

 PRACTICAL representation, meaning

(content) function, purpose
 POINT

Point
 Position

A point marks a
position in
space.
 static,
 centralized
 directionless.
a point marks:

1. The two ends of a line

2. The intersection of two lines
3. The corner of a plane or
volume
4. The center of a field.
 Visual Fields:

Properties:

Indicates a position in
space.

At the center
 Stable
 at rest,
 organizing others about itself
 dominating.
Off-center
Aggressive
Demands Visual supremacy,
Creates ‘point-field’ tension
• A point has no dimension.
To visibly mark a position in
space or on the ground
plane,

• a point must be projected

vertically into linear form,

• as a column, obelisk or
tower.
Line

 A point extended becomes a

line.
 describing the path of a point
in motion
 visually expressing
 direction,
 Movement
 growth.
Line

Properties
 Length
 Direction
 Position
A line serve to:

Join, link, support,

surround, or
intersect other
visual elements.

Describe the edges

Articulate the surface

of planes.
 P L A N E S

Properties:
• Length and width
• Shape
• Surface
• Orientation
• Position

plane.
 Shape = contour of the line forming the edges of a
plane.

 The supplementary characteristics of a plane:

 surface color
 pattern and texture

They affect its visual weight and stability.

 a plane serves to define
the limits or
boundaries of a volume.

 Planes in architecture
define three-dimensional
volumes of mass and
space.
  There are three different
types of planes:
1. Base Plane
2. Wall Plane
3. Overhead Plane
Overhead Plane

Wall Plane

Base Plane
 Base Plane:
 ground plane
 floor plane

 Wall Plane:
 active in our normal field of vision
 shaping and enclosure of architectural space.

 Overhead Pane:
 the roof plane
 the ceiling
 V O L U M E

Volume
Properties:
• Length, width and depth
• Form and space
• Surface
• Orientation
• Position
 A plane extended becomes a volume.
 All volumes can be analyzed and understood to consist
of:
o Points or vertices where several planes come together.
o Lines or edges where two planes meet.
o Planes or surfaces which define the limits or
boundaries of s volume.
 Form is the primary identifying
characteristics of a volume
 As a 3D element, a volume can be
either a solid displaces by mass—or a void—
space contained or enclosed by planes.
In architecture, a volume
can
be seen to be either :
1. a portion of space
contained and defined
by wall, floor and
ceiling
2. Or roof planes
3. Or a quantity of space
displaced by the mass
of a building.
 FORM
Architectural form is the point of contact between mass and spac e. The
interaction between mass and space, their dynamic relationships
and our personal understanding about them constitutes the sense of
any form. Architectural forms .textures . Materials, modulation of light,
shade, color, all combine to inject a quality or spirit that art iculate
space.

Form denotes the formal structure of any architecture –the manner of

arranging and coordinating the elements and parts of a compositi on so
as to produce a coherent image.

mass: (SOLID) weight, height, color, texture etc.

space: (VOID) inside and outside the mass.

1. Regular Form: Refers to those whose parts are related to

one another in a consistence and orderly manner. Stable in
nature and symmetrical about one or more axis.

2. Irregular Form: Refers to those whose parts are

dissimilar in nature and related to one another in an
inconsistence manner. Asymmetric and dynamic.
Properties of Form:

1. Visual properties : Shape, size, color, texture.

2.Relational Properties: Position (location) , Orientation( direction

relative to the ground plane) , Visual inertia ( degree of concentration and
stability).
 Primary Solids

Properties of the primary

solids:

1. Sphere: Centralized
and highly concentrated
form.

2. Cylinder: stable when

rests on circular face ;
unstable when central
axis inclined from the
vertical.
3. Cone: stable when rests on circular face
; unstable when overturned or central
axis inclined from the vertical. Soft form.

4. Pyramid: stable when rests on face ;

unstable when overturned or central axis
inclined from the vertical. Hard form.

5. Cube: Static Form

 Transformation of Forms
Dimensional Transformation:

A form can be transformed by altering one or more of its dimensions

and still retains its identity as a member of family of forms. E x: A
cube can be transformed into a planner form.

Subtractive Transformation:

A form can be transformed by subtracting a portion of its volume .

Depending on the extent of subtraction the form can retain its i nitial
identity or be transformed into a form of another family. Throug h
subtraction a cube can be transformed into a regular polyhedron that
begins to approximate a sphere.

Additive Transformation:

A form can be transformed by the addition of elements to its

volume. Depending on the extent of addition the form can retain or
alter its initial identity .
 Dimensional
transformation

Subtractive
transformation

Additive transformation
Additive Forms
The basic possibilities of
grouping forms are by:
1.Spatial Tension:
depends on the close proximity
/Sharing common visual trait
like color , texture,
material.

2.Edge to Edge contact

3.Face to face contact

4.Interlocking volumes
 Formal Collisions of Geometry

Forms differing in geometry or orientation may be incorporated into a single

organization for following reasons:

 To accommodate or accentuate differing requirements of interior space &

exterior form.
 To express the functional or symbolic importance.
 To generate a composite for that incorporates the contrasting geometries
into its centralized organization.
 To inflect a space toward a specific feature of a building site.
 To carve a well defined volume of space from a building form.
 To articulate constructional or mechanical system.
 To reinforce a local condition of symmetry in a building form.
 To response to the contrasting geometries of the topography, boundaries
etc.
 To acknowledge a existing path of movement through a building site.
1.Two forms can subvert their
individual identities and merge to
create a new composite form.

2.One of the two forms can receive

the other totally within its volume.

3. The two forms can retain their

individual identities and share the
interlocking portion of their
volumes.

4.The two form can separate and be

linked by a third elements and
recalls the geometry of one of the
original forms .
 Articulation of Forms

Articulation refers to the manner in which the surface of a form come

together
to define its shape and volume. An articulated form clearly reve als the
precise
nature of its parts and their relationship to each other and to the whole.
A form can be articulated by:

 Differentiating adjoining planes with a change in material, color,

texture, or pattern.
 Developing corners as distinct linear elements independent of th e
abutting planes.
 Removing corners to physically separate neighboring planes.
 Lighting the form to create sharp contrasts in tonal value along
edges and corners.
Corners define the meeting of two
planes:

A corner condition can be visually

reinforced by introducing a separate
and distinct element that is independent
of the surface it joins.

If an opening is introduced to one side

of the corner, one of the planes will
appear to bypass the other.

If neither of the plane is extended to

define the corner , it allows the interior
space to leak outward and clearly
reveals the surface as planes in space.

Rounding off the corner emphasizes the

compactness of its volume.
Spatial Qualities
Spatial Relationship
Space within a Space
Interlocking Space
Adjacent Space
Space Linked by a common Space
Spatial Organization
Linear Organization
Radial Organization
Cluster Organization
Grid Organization