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Notes - Introduction To I/O Psychology
Notes - Introduction To I/O Psychology
industrial-organizational psychology
• a branch of psychology that applies the principles of psychology to the workplace
• purpose is “to enhance the dignity and performance of human beings, and the organizations
they work in, by advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior”
how is I/O psychology different from business field and from other branches of psychology?
• application of psychological principles in the work setting
• it examines factors that affect the people in an organization as opposed to the broader
aspects of running an organization
• I/O psychologists are not clinical psychologists in an industry, and they do not conduct
therapy for workers
• I/O psychologists are trained to use empirical data and statistics rather than intuition to make
decisions
• science-practitioner model: I/O psychologists act as scientists when they conduct research
and as practitioners when they work with actual organizations
industrial approach
• focuses on determining the competencies needed to perform a job, staffing the organization
with employees who have those competencies, and increasing those competencies through
training
a. determines competencies
b. recruits and hires employees
c. conducts training
organizational approach
• creates an organizational structure and culture that will motivate employees to perform well,
give them the necessary information to do their jobs, and provide working conditions that
are safe and result in an enjoyable and satisfying work/life environment
personnel psychology
• the field of study that concentrates on the selection and evaluation of employees
a. analyzing jobs
b. recruiting applicants
c. selecting employees
d. determining salary levels
e. training employees
f. evaluating employee performance
organizational psychology
• the field of study that investigates the behavior of employees within the context of an
organization
a. leadership
b. job satisfaction
c. employee motivation
d. organizational communication
e. conflict management
f. organizational change
g. group processes within an organization
human factors/ergonomics
• a field of study concentrating on the interaction between humans and machines
a. workplace design
b. human-machine interaction
c. ergonomics
d. physical fatigue and stress
1903
Walter Dill Scott
• the Theory of Advertising; applied psychology to business
1910
Hugo Munsterberg
• Psychology and Industrial Efficiency: published in 1913
1911
Walter Dill Scott
• Increasing Human Efficiency in Business
World war 1
• I/O psychologists were employed to screen and place recruits in appropriate positions in the
military
• psychological testing was utilized
a. army alpha - intelligence test for soldiers who can read
b. army beta - intelligence tests for soldiers who cannot read
John B. Watson
• developed perceptual and motor tests for potential pilots
Hawthorne studies
• a series of studies, conducted at the Western Electric plant in Hawthorne, Illinois, that have
come to represent any change in behavior when people react to a change in the environment
Hawthorne effect
• when employees change their behavior due solely to the fact that they are receiving attention
or are being observed
1960s
• characterized by the passage of several major pieces of civil rights legislation
1970s
• great strides in the understanding of many organizational psychology issues that involved
employee satisfaction and motivation
2000s
• rapid advances in technology changing demographic makeup of the workforce
• global economy
what to consider?
1. what to research
2. literature review
3. location of the study
4. research method
5. subject samples
6. running the study
7. statistical analysis
what to research?
hypothesis
• an educated prediction about the answer to the research question
theory
• a systematic set of assumptions regarding the cause and nature of behavior
literature reviews
journals
• a written collection of articles describing the methods and results of new research
trade magazines
• a collection of articles for those “in the biz,” about related professional topics, seldom
directly reporting the methods and results of new research
magazines
• an unscientific collection of articles about a wide range of topics
2. field research
• natural setting
• disadvantages:
• (a) control over extraneous variables
• (b) need for informed consent
informed consent
• the formal process by which subjects give permission to be included in a study
1. experiments
• cause-and-effect relationships
• the independent variable is manipulated by the experimenter
2. quasi-experiments
• research method in which the experimenter either does not manipulate the independent
variable or in which subjects are not randomly assigned to conditions
3. archival research
• research that involves the use of previously collected data
4. surveys
• using people of their opinion on certain topics
5. meta-analysis
• a statistical method of reaching conclusions based on previous research
effect size
- a statistics that indicates the amount of change caused by an experimental manipulation
correlation coefficients
• a statistic, resulting from performing a correlation, that indicates the magnitude and
direction of a relationship
subject samples
• size
• compositions
• method of selecting the subjects who will serve as the sample
random sample
• a sample in which every member of the relevant population had an equal chance of being
chosen to participate in the study
convenience sample
• a nonrandom research sample that is used because it is easily available
random assignment
• the random, unbiased assignment of subjects in a research same to the various experimental
and control conditions
debriefed
• informing the subject in an experiment about the purpose of the study in which he or she
was a participant and providing any other relevant information
statistical analysis
correlation
• a statistical procedure used to measure the relationship between 2 variables
intervening variable
• a third variable that can often explain the relationship between two other variables
ethical dilemmas
• ambiguous situations that require a personal judgment of what is right or wrong
type A dilemma
• there is a high level of uncertainty as to what is right or wrong, there appears to be no best
solution, and there are both positive and negative consequences to a decision
type B dilemma
• rationalizing dilemmas
• the difference between right and wrong is much clearer than in a type A dilemma
• usually, individuals know what is right but choose the solution that is most advantageous to
themselves
_____________ ________________________________________________
job analysis
• it is the systematic study of the tasks, duties, and responsibilities of a job and the
knowledge, skills, and abilities needed to perform it
Peter principle
• the idea that organizations tend to promote good employees until they reach the level at
which they are not competent — in other words, the highest level of incompetence
1. job title
• describes the nature of the job
• assists in employee selection and recruitment
• affects perceptions of job worth and status
• affects clarity of resumes
2. brief summary
• briefly describe the nature and purpose of the job
• useful for recruitment advertising
• should be written in an easy to understand style
• jargon and abbreviations should not be used
3. work activities
• organize by dimensions
• similar activities
• similar KSAOs
• temporal order
• task statements
4. tools and equipment used
5. job context
• the environment in which the employee works
• work schedule
• degree of supervision
• ergonomic information
6. work performance
• describes how performance is evaluated and what work standards are expected of the
employee
7. compensation information
• compensable factors to determine salary
• pay/salary grade
8. job competencies
• job specifications - a relatively dated term that refers to the knowledge, skills, and abilities
needed to successfully perform a job. “competencies" is the more common term used today
• competencies - the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) needed to
perform a job
job crafting
• a process in which employees unofficially change their job duties to better fit their interests
and skills
job analyst
• the person conducting the job analysis
SME conference
• a group job analysis interview consisting subject-matter experts
Ammerman technique
• a job analysis method in which a group of job experts identifies the objectives and standards
to be met by the ideal worker
observations
• a job analysis method in which the job analyst watches job incumbents perform their jobs
job participation
• a job analysis method in which the job analyst actually performs the job being analyzed
task inventory
• a questionnaire containing a list of tasks each of which the job incumbent rates on a series of
scales such as importance and time spent
task analysis
• the process of identifying the tasks for which employees need to be trained
step 4: determine essential KSAOs
• knowledge - a body of information needed to perform a task
• skill - the proficiency to perform a certain task
• ability - a basic capacity for performing a wide range of different tasks, acquiring
knowledge, or developing a skill
• other characteristics - personal factors such as personality, willingness, interest, and
motivation and such tangible factors as licenses, degrees, and years of experience
AET
• arbeitswissenschaftliches Erhebungsverfahrenzur Tatigkeitsanalyse
• aka “Ergonomic job analysis procedure”
• developed in Germany; Rohmert and Landau (1983)
• concerned with the relationship between the worker and work objects
• 216 items
• standardized
job evaluation
• the process of determining the monetary worth of a job
salary surveys
• a questionnaire sent to other organizations to see how much they are paying their employees
in positions similar to those in the organization sending the survey
direct compensation
• the amount of money paid to an employee (does not count benefits, time off, and so forth)
comparable worth
• the idea that jobs requiring the same levels of skill and responsibility should be paid the
same regardless of supply and demand
___________________________________________________________
employee recruitment
recruitment
• the process of attracting employees to an organization
external recruitment
• recruiting employees from outside the organization
internal recruitment
• recruiting employees already employed by the organization
media advertisements
1. newspaper ads
respond by calling
• recruitment ads in which applicants are instructed to call rather than apply in person or send
resumes
apply-in-person ads
• recruitment ads that instruct applicants to apply in person rather than to call or send resumes
send-resume ads
• recruitment ads in which applicants are instructed to send their resume to the company
rather than call or apply in person
blind box
• recruitment ads that instruct applicants to send their resume to a box at the newspaper;
neither the name nor the address of the company is provided
2. electronic media
3. point-of-purchase methods
recruiters
1. campus recruiters
2. outside recruiters
• private employment agencies
• public employment agencies
• executive search firms - headhunters; employment agencies that specialize in placing
applicants in high-paying jobs
employment agencies
• an organization that specializes in finding jobs for applicants and finding applicants for
organizations looking for employees
employee referrals
• a method of recruitment in which a current employee refers a friend or family member for a
job
direct mail
• a method of recruitment in which an organization sends out mass mailings of information
about job openings to potential applicants
internet
1. employer-based websites
• an organization lists available job openings and provides infuriation about itself and the
minimum requirements needed to apply to a particular job
2. job boards
• a private company whose website lists job openings for hundred or thousands of
organizations and resumes for millions of applicants
3. social media
4. job fairs
• several employees are available at one location so that many applicants can obtain
information at one time
employment interviews
types of interviews
1. structure
structured interviews
• interviews in which questions are based on a job analysis, every applicant is asked the same
questions, and there is a standardized scoring system so that identical answers are given
identical scores
unstructured interview
• an interview in which applicants are not asked the same questions and in which there is no
standard scoring system to score applicant answers
2. style
• one-on-one interviews
• serial interviews
• return interviews
• panel interviews
• group interviews
3. medium
• face-to-face interviews
• telephone interviews
• videoconference interviews
• written interviews
primacy effect
• the fact that information presented early in an interview carries more weight than
information presented later
contrast effect
• when the performance of one applicant affects the performance of the next applicant
negative-information bias
• the fact that negative information receives more weight in an employment decision than
does positive information
nonverbal communication
• factors such as eye contact and posture that are not associated with actual words spoken
1. clarifier
• a type of structured interview question that clarifies information on the resume or
application
2. disqualifier
• a type of structured interview question in which a wrong answer will disqualify the applicant
from further consideration
3. skill-level determinator
• a type of structured interview question designed to tap an applicant’s knowledge or skill
4. future-focused question
• situational questions
• a type of structured interview question in which applicants are given a situation and asked
how they would handle it
5. past-focused questions
• patterned-behavior description interview (PBDI)
• a type of structured interview question that taps an applicant’s experience
1. right/wrong approach
2. typical-answer approach
• compares an applicant’s answer with benchmark answers
benchmark answers
• standard answers to interview questions, the quality of which has been agreed on by job
experts
3. key-issue approach
• provides points for each part of an answer that matches the scoring key
job search skills
cover letter
• a letter that accompanies a resume or job application
• never be longer than 1 page
• contains a salutation, 4 basic paragraphs, and a closing signature
writing a resume
resume
• a formal summary of an applicant’s professional and educational background
• can be viewed in one of two ways: as a history of your life or as an advertisement of your
skills
types of resumes
1. chronological resumes
• jobs are listed in order from most to least recent
2. functional resume
• jobs are grouped by function rather than listed in order by date
3. psychological resume
• takes advantage of psychological principles pertaining to memory organization and
impression formatting
_______________________________________________________________
peter principle
• the idea that organizations tend to promote good employees until they wreathe level at
which they are not competent — in other words, their highest level of incompetence
360-degree feedback
• a performance appraisal system in which feedback is obtained from multiple sources such as
supervisors, subordinates, and peers
multiple-source feedback
• a performance appraisal strategy in which an employee receives feedback from sources
other than just his or her supervisor
1. supervisors
2. peers
3. subordinates (also called upward feedback)
4. customers
5. self-appraissal
contextual performance
• the effort an employee makes to get along with peers, improve the organization, and perform
tasks that are needed but are not necessarily an official part of the employee’s job
description
decision 2: should dimensions be weighted?
employee comparisons
rank order
• a method of performance appraisal in which employees are ranked from best to worst
paired comparisons
• a form of ranking in which a group of employees to be ranked are compared one pair at a
time
objective measures
quantity of work
• a type of objective criterion used to measure job performance by counting the number of
relevant job behaviors that occur
quality of work
• a type of objective criterion used to measure job performance by comparing a hob behavior
with a standard
• usually measured in terms of error (deviation from a standard of quality)
attendance
• can be separated into 3 distinct criteria: absenteeism, tardiness, and tenure
safety
ratings of performance
behavioral checklists
• consists of a list of behaviors, expectations, or results for each dimension
• this list is used to force the supervisor to concentrate on the relevant behaviors that fall
under a dimension
result-focused statements
• concentrate on what an employee accomplished as a result of what she did
contamination
• the condition in which a criterion score is affected by things other than those under the
control of the employee
frame-of-reference training
• a method of training in which the rater is provided with job-related information, a chance to
practice ratings, examples of ratings made by experts, and the rationale behind the expert
ratings
critical incidents
• a method of performance appraisal in which the supervisor records employee behaviors that
were observed on the job and rates the employee on the basis of that record
importance of documentation:
1. forces a supervisor to focus on employee behaviors rather than trains and provides
behavioral examples to use when reviewing performance ratings with employees
2. helps supervisors recall behaviors when they are evaluating performance
3. provides examples to use when reviewing performance ratings with employees
4. helps an organization defend against legal action taken against it by an employee who was
terminated or denied a raise or promotion
distribution errors
• rating errors in which a rater will use only a certain part of a rating scale when evaluating
employee performance
leniency error
• a type of error in which a rater consistently gives all employees high ratings, regardless of
their actual levels of performance
strictness error
• a type of rating error in which a rater consistently gives all employees low ratings,
regardless of their actual levels of performance
halo errors
• occurs when a rater allows either a single attributable or an overall impression of an
individual to affect the ratings that she makes on each relevant job dimension
proximity errors
• occur when a rating made on one dimension affects the rating made on the dimension that
immediately follows it on the rating scale
contrast errors
• the performance rating one person receives can be influenced by the performance of a
previously evaluated person
assimilation
• a type of rating error in which raters base their rating of an employee during one rating
period on the ratings the rater gave during a previous period
sampling problems
• recent effect - recent behaviors are given more weight in the performance evaluation that
occurred during the first few months of the evaluation period
• infrequent observation - the idea that supervisors do not see most of an employee’s behavior
feedback sandwich
• positive feedback, negative feedback, and finishing with more positive feedback
employment-at-will doctrine
• the opinion of courts in most states that employers have the right to hire and fire an
employee at will and without any specific case
• some limitations:
a. state law
b. provisions of federal or state law
c. contracts
d. implied contracts
e. covenants of good faith and fair dealing
employment-at-will-statements
• statements in employment applications and company manuals reaffirming an organization’s
right to hire and fire at will
progressive discipline
• providing employees with punishments if increasing severity, as needed, in order to change
behavior
• inability to perform
• reduction in force (layoff)
step 10: monitor the legality and fairness of the appraisal system
_____________________________________________________________
module 5: training and development
training
• a planned effort by an organization to facilitate the learning of job-related behavior on the
part of its employees
needs analysis
• the process of determining the training needs of an organization
1. organizational analysis
• the process of determining the organizational factors that will either facilitate or inhibit
training effectiveness
2. task analysis
3. person analysis
• the process of identifying the employees who need training and determining the area in
which each individual employee needs to be trained
surveys
• questionnaires asking employees about the areas in which they feel they need training
interviews
skill test
• a test that measures an employee’s level of some job-related skill
knowledge test
• a test that measures the level of an employee’s knowledge about a job-related topic
critical incidents
case study
• a training technique in which employees, usually in a group, are presented with a real or
hypothetical workplace problem and are asked to propose the best solution
living case
• a case study based on a real situation rather than a hypothetical one
simulation
• an exercise designed to place an applicant in a situation that is similar to the one that will be
encountered on the job
role-play
• a training technique in which employees act out stimulated roles
behavior modeling
• a training technique in which employees observe correct behavior, practice that behavior,
and the receive feedback about their performance
massed practice
• concentrating learning into a short period of time
asynchronous technologies
• distance learning programs in which employees can complete the training at their own pace
and at a time of their choosing
synchronous technologies
• distance learning programs that require employees to complete the training at the same time
and at the same pace although they may be in different physical locations
interactive video
• a training technique in which an employee is presented with a videotaped situation and is
asked to respond to the situation and then receives feedback based on the response
programmed instruction
• a training method in which employees learn information at their own pace
webinars
• web seminar
• an interactive training method in which training is transmitted over the internet
webcast
• a non interactive training method in which the trainer transmits training information over the
internet
blog
• a website in which the host regularly posts commentaries on a topic that readers can respond
to
wiki
• a collection of web pages in which users can create web pages on a topic and readers can
freely edit those pages
listserv
• a program that automatically distributes e-mail messages to a group of people who have a
common interest
modeling
• social learning
• learning through watching and imitating behavior of others
job rotation
• a system in which employees are given the opportunity to perform several different job in an
organization
cross training
• teaching employees how to perform tasks traditionally performed by other employees
apprentice training
• a training program, usually found in the craft and building trades, in which employees
combine formal coursework with formal on the job training
pass-through programs
• a formal method of coaching in which excellent employees spend a period of time in the
training department learning training techniques and training employees
mentor
• an experienced employee who advises and looks out for a new employee
skill-based pay
• compensating an employee who participates in a training program designed to increase a
particular job-related skill
1. vertical skill plans - for skill in a single job
2. horizontal skill plans - focus on skills across multiple jobs
3. depth skill plans - reward employees for learning specialized skills
4. basic skill plans - focus on such basic skills such as Math and English
feedback
• providing employees with specific information about how well they are performing a task or
series of tasks
negative feedback
• telling employees what they are doing incorrectly in order to improve their performance of a
task
transfer of training
• the extent to which behavior learned in training will be performed on the job
overlearning
• practicing a task even after it has been mastered in order to retain learning
pretest
• a measure of job performance or knowledge taken before the implementation of a training
program
posttest
— a measure of job performance or knowledge taken after a training program has been completed
evaluation criteria
1. content validity
2. employee reactions
• a method of evaluating training in which employees are asked their opinions of a training
program
3. employee learning
• evaluating the effectiveness of a training program by measuring how much employees
learned from it
4. application of training
• measurement of the effectiveness of training by determining the extern to which employees
apply the material taught in a training program
5. business impact
• a method of evaluating the effectiveness of training by determining whether the goals of the
training were met
6. return on investment (ROI)
• the amount of money an organization makes after subtracting the cost of training or other
interventions
____________________________________________________________________
motivation
• the force that drives an employee to perform well
2. self -esteem
• the extent to which a person views him or herself as a valuable and worthy individual
consistency theory
• employees will be motivated to perform at levels consistent with their levels of self-esteem
increasing self-esteem
• self-esteem workshops
• experience with success
self-fulfilling prophecy
• the idea that people behave in ways consistent with their self-image
Galatea effect
• when high self-expectations result in higher levels of performance
• supervisor behavior
Pygmalion effect
• the idea that if people believe that something is true, they will act in a manner consistent
with that belief
golem effect
• when negative expectations of an individual cause a decrease in the individual’s
performance
intrinsic motivation
• work motivation in the absence of such external factors as pay, promotion, and coworkers
extrinsic motivation
• work motivation that arises from such nonpersonal factors as pay, coworkers, and
opportunities for advancement
self-regulation
• a theory that employees can be motivated by monitoring their own progress towards the goal
they set and adjusting their behavior to reach those goals
self-regulation process
1. choose their goals and set levels for each goals
2. plan how to accomplish goals
3. take action to accomplish goals
4. evaluate progress
needs-based theories
process-based theories
premack principle
• different things reinforce different people
• we can get people to engage in behaviors they don’t like by reinforcing them with the
opportunity to engage in behaviors they like better
• stock options - employees are given the option of buying stocks in the future at the
price of the stock when the options were granted
• if employees perceive that they are being treated fairly, they will be more likely to
be satisfied with their jobs and motivated to do well