• CHAPTER 9

• SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY
MAPS & BULK VOLUME
ESTIMATION
 Topographic Maps
• Topographic maps not only display the
locations of rivers, streets, buildings, etc. as
planimetric maps (such as road maps) do, but
also show the topography (land elevation and
shape).
• Map Grids:
• Latitude: Rings around Earth parallel to
equator .
• Divided into 90°S and 90°N around the equator
(0°).
 Topographic Maps
• Longitude: Circles that pass through both poles
(MERIDIANS).
• Divided into 180°E and 180°W around the Prime
Meridian. The Prime Meridian passes through
Greenwich, England.
• Ex: Latitude: 37°14'32"N Longitude: 97°32'15"E
• Conversions:
• 1 degree(°) = 60 minutes(') = 3600 seconds(")
 Topographic Maps

• Contour Lines:
• Contour Line: Connects all points of equal
elevation on the land surface.
• Contour Interval: The difference in elevation
between adjacent contour lines.
• Relief: The difference in elevation between local
high and low spots.
 Topographic Maps
• Important Rules obeyed by Contour Lines:
• Contour lines never run into a body of water
• Contour lines never cross one another
• ALL contour lines are closed loops
• Contour lines point, or "V" upstream
• Additional things to know about Contour Lines:
• If contour lines are closely spaced it represents a steep
slope.
• Conversely, if contour lines are widely spaced it
represents a gentle slope.
• Review methods on how to contour a map and know the
symbol for a depression.
 Topographic Maps
• Types of Map Scales:
• Ratio Scale: ratio where 1 unit on the map equals X
units on the ground
• Ex; 1:24000 (1 inch on map = 24000 inches in the real
world). Note that the units are the same (a ratio of
inches to inches or feet to feet...).
• Verbal Scale: 1 inch = 2000 feet
• Bar Scale: a map "ruler"; graphical scale (example
below)
 Topographic Maps
• Note that unlike the other map scales, the bar scale will
always remain accurate for a map even when the map is
reduced or enlarged.

• Gradient
• The gradient tells you the slope of the land between two
points. It is calculated by dividing the relief by the path
distance. Path distance is the distance measured along
the path travelled (NOT necessarily the straight line
distance!).
 Topographic Maps
• Vertical Exaggeration
• Vertical Exaggeration gives the number of times the
vertical scale is exaggerated relative to the horizontal
scale.
• Ex; Horizontal Scale: 1 inch = 2000 feet, Vertical Scale:
1 inch = 500 feet
• VERTICAL EXAGGERATION = (1/500)/(1/2000)= 4
times
 Geologic Map
• Geologic Map: contains geologic units and
structures displayed upon a topographic base
• The term "units" refers to geologic formations
• The term "structures" refers to faults and folds
• Usually the rock units are colored on the map using the
same standard colors as on a geologic time scale.
• Formation: a distinctive body of rock that is large
enough to symbolize on a geologic map.
• The map symbol for a formation contains an
abbreviation for its age of origin followed by an
abbreviation of its name in lower-case letters
• (ex., Kgr for the Cretaceous age Glen Rose formation).
Geologic Map

Geology Map of Batu Pahat, Johor

 Geologic Map
• Geologic cross-sections are like topographic profiles
(review the one which we drew for the topographic map
lab).
• They show "side views" of the topography along with the
inferred underground geology. For example, the geologic
cross-section below (in two parts) shows a slice of the
topography along a straight line (a "transect") running
northeast to southwest across the geologic map.
• Look for this line on the geologic map above -- it is a
diagonal line that cuts across the Corstorphine Hill. It is
along this line that the cross-sections below have been
drawn.
Geologic Map
 Geologic Map
Trap Analysis A’
Synclinal Spill Point Synclinal Spill Point
Controls HC Level

Low

Low
Cross-Section View A Map View
 SUBSURFACE GEOLOGY MAPS
• Many different types:
• – Structure contour maps
• – Isopach maps

• Structure contour maps:

• This map shows the configuration of a particular horizon
with respect to a particular datum, generally sea level.
• This information may be based on seismic data.
Indicating the morphology of basins and traps and are
essentially for reserve calculations.
STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP
STRUCTURE CONTOUR MAP
Gas Flushing
 DOMAL TRAP
• Are hydrocarbons in this field oil or gas?
• What is the volume of hydrocarbons
In this trap?
• What are the reserves?

Closure. In map view (top),

closure is the area within the
deepest structural contour that
forms a trapping geometry, in
this case 1300 ft [390 m]. In
cross section A-A', closure is the
vertical distance from the top of
the structure to the lowest
closing contour, in this case
about 350 ft [105 m]. The point
beyond which hydrocarbons
could leak from or migrate
beyond the trap is the spill
point.

From Schlumberger Oilfield Gl

 ISOPACH MAPS
• Graphical representation of the vertical thickness
of a particular unit or feature.
– Vertical thickness of reservoir
– Vertical thickness saturated with oil
– Vertical thickness saturated with gas.
• Not to be confused with Isolith maps
– True stratigraphic thickness of a lithological
horizon.
• In reserves estimation, the Isopach maps are
projected onto the flat map surface.
 ISOPACH MAPS
• Overlying a structure contour map with an
isopach map allows determination of the true
vertical thickness of the unit of interest within a
particular structure
• Designing an isopach map:
– Lots of available data and reservoir is
irregular: make the contour intervals small.
– Little data and/or reservoir regular: make
larger contour intervals.
 ISOPACH MAPS
• The subsurface isopach map is based
primarily on formation thicknesses
determined from well cuttings, cores or
geophysical logs.
• Different types of isopach map
– Gross sand thickness isopachs
– Net pay thickness isopachs
– Variable reservoir thickness isopachs
Net Pay thickness isopachs
 Net Pay thickness isopachs

• Refers to the gross reservoir thickness with

tight zones thrown out.
• If the reservoir is homogeneous we can
simply take the net to gross of the reservoir
and multiply the thickness of the unit by
this reduction.
• Otherwise, heterogeneity can considerably
complicate matters.
 Variable reservoir thickness isopachs

• Reservoir thickness changes rapidly

– e.g. edge of reef, channel
– Requires a net reservoir thickness isopach
map
• Basically, the thicknesses are modified so that
the net gas or net oil thickness isopachs do not
exceed the thickness of the reservoir.
 ISOPACH MAPS
• An example of an isopach map is shown in
following Figures.
• Close spacing of contours from zero to
200 feet on the west side of the map
indicates the area of truncation where the
formations are tilted along the granite
mass.
 ISOPACH MAPS

Top and cross-sectional views of an isopach map of the

thickness of sediments between an unconformity and basement.
 ISOPACH MAPS

Top and cross-sectional views of an isopach map of reservoir

shale-out.
 ISOPACH MAPS
• An isochore map (more precise term) is one that shows
by contours drilled thicknesses of formations without
regard to true stratigraphic thicknesses.
• Isopach (or isochore) maps are generally used:
a) for predetermining drilling depths to specific horizons
in wildcat wells;
b) to locate buried structures in regions where formations
habitually become thinner over structural crests.
c) In estimating the elevation of a datum bed below the
total depth of a well that penetrated a higher known
stratigraphic horizon.
d) To calculate the volume of oil in a formation
 ISOPACH MAPS

A typical geological net pay isopach map

 ISOPACH MAPS

A typical geological net pay isopach map

ISOPACH MAPS
 Isometric view of dipping plane

Isometric view of
dipping plane
intersecting three
horizontal planes
 Bulk Volume Estimation
• The are several methods to estimate volumes
from an isopach map:
 Grid square counting.
 To use a planimeter to estimate the
average thickness within the isopach area.
 Utilizes a software package that includes
digitizing the isopach map and applying
geostatistics to determine the volumetrics.
 Planimeter
•
 Planimeter
Part # Name Part # Name
1 Tracer Arm 9 Revolution
Recording Dial
2 Pole Arm 10 Measuring Wheel

3 Pole Weight 11 Measuring Wheel

Vernier
4 Hand Grip 12 Idler Wheel
5 Tracing Magnifier (Tracing Pin) 13 Carriage

6 Clamp Screw 14 Zero Setting Slide Bar

7 Fine Movement Screw 15 Checking Bar

8 Tracer Arm Vernier
 Reserve Estimation
Reserve estimation methods

• Volumetric
• Material balance
• Decline curve
• Reservoir Simulation
 Hydrocarbon in Place by the
Volumetric Method
• Most commonly used after discovery and
early stage of production.

• The bulk reservoir volume Vb is commonly expressed

in acre-feet, and the standard cubic feet of gas in
place, G, is given by
G = 43,560 × Vb × φ × (1 - Sw) × 1/Bg

• Similarly for an oil well, the standard barrel of oil in

place N is given by
N = 7758 × Vb × φ × (1 - Sw) × 1/Bo
 Hydrocarbon in Place by the
Volumetric Method
• The contour map is used in preparing the
isopachous maps where there is an oil-water,
gas-water, or gas-oil contact. The contact line
is the zero isopach line.
• The volume is obtained by planimetering the
areas between the isopach lines of the entire
reservoir or of the individual units under
consideration.
 Hydrocarbon in Place by the
Volumetric Method
• Two
. methods are commonly used to determine
the approximate volume of the productive zone
from the planimeter readings.
1) Pyramidal Method
The volume of the frustum of a pyramid is given by

h

Vb  A  An1  A  An1
3
where ΔVb is the bulk volume in acre-feet, An is the area
enclosed by the lower isopach line in acres, An+1 is the
area enclosed by the upper isopach line in acres, and h is
the interval between the isopach lines in feet.
 Hydrocarbon in Place by the
Volumetric Method
2). Trapezoidal Method
The volume of a trapezoid is
Vb  A  An1 
h
2
so, for a series of successive trapezoids
Vb   A0  2 A1  2 A2 ....2 An1  2 An   t avg An ,
h
2
where A0 is the area enclosed by the zero isopach line
in acres; A1, A2, . . . An are the areas enclosed by
successive isopach lines in acres; tavg is the average
thickness above the top or maximum thickness isopach
line in feet; and h is the isopach interval.
 GROSS SAND THICKNESS ISOPACH
MAP (GST)
• GST = total thickness of rock saturated with oil
or gas irrespective of:
– Tight/shaly intervals
– Low porosity areas
– Low permeability areas etc..
• Zero contour is the down-dip limit (GOC, GWC
or Spill Point)
• Gross isopachs should increase up-dip
correspondingly with the structure contour
elevations
 GROSS SAND THICKNESS ISOPACH
MAP (GST)
• E.g. if OWC is at -7,000’ subsea, then the
following isopach lines should overlay the
structure contour lines as shown:
• Structure Contour Line Gross Isopach Line
• -7000 0
• -6995 5
• -6990 10
• -6985 15
• -6980 20
• -6975 25
• Until sand becomes full or top of structure is reached.
 GST
• Trapezoidal Rule
• – Used to calculate rock volume from an isopach:
• BV = (h/2) [A0 + 2A1 + 2A2 + …+ 2An-1 + An] +hn An/2
• Where
• BV = bulk volume (acre feet)
• h = contour interval
• A0 = area enclosed by zero contour line
• A1 = area enclosed by first contour line
• An-1 = area enclosed by first contour line above top contour
• An = top contour line
• hn = vertical distance from top contour to top of reservoir
• i.e. take the average area between two intervals and multiply that
area by contour interval thickness to get the volume it encloses.
 Volumetric Method

Figure 1: Cross section and isopachous map of an idealized

reservoir (Net oil isopach over a dome structure).
Procedures to Calculate Hydrocarbon Pore
Volume from Planimeter Measurements
.
Calculating the net volume of an idealized
reservoir from the iopachous map shown in
Figure 1.
Given: The planimetered areas in Figure 1
within each isopach line, A0, A1, A2, etc.
The volume between areas A4 and A5, by the
trapezoidal equation is 570 ac-ft, compared
with the more accurate figure of 558 ac-ft by
the pyramidal equation.
 Procedures to Calculate Hydrocarbon Pore
Volume from Planimeter Measurements

Productive Planimeter Area Ratio of Interval Equation ΔV

Area Area Acres Areas h, ft ac-ft
Sq in.

Ao 19.64 450
A1 16.34 375 0.83 5 Trap. 2063
A2 13.19 303 0.80 5 Trap. 1695
A3 10.05 231 0.76 5 Trap. 1335
A4 6.69 154 0.67 5 Trap. 963a
A5 3.22 74 0.48 5 Pyr. 558b
A6 0.0 0 0.0 4 Pyr. 99c
Total 6713
Procedures to Calculate Hydrocarbon Pore
Volume from Planimeter Measurements

For a map scale of one inch = 1000 ft; one

square inch = 22.96 acres.
a V = 5/2(231+154) = 963 ac-ft.
b V = 5/3(154+74+(154x74)0.5 = 558 ac-ft.
c V = 4/3(74) = 99 ac-ft.
Procedures to Calculate Hydrocarbon Pore
Volume from Planimeter Measurements

For a map scale of one inch = 1000 ft; one

square inch = 22.96 acres.
a V = 5/2(231+154) = 963 ac-ft.
b V = 5/3(154+74+(154x74)0.5 = 558 ac-ft.
c V = 4/3(74) = 99 ac-ft.
 Volumetric Method
• Q = 7758 x At x f(1 – SW) x FVF x RF

Amount of oil in reservoir Amount of recoverable oil

Q= reserves
7758 = conversion from acre ft to barrels
A= area of porous rock
T= thickness in feet
f= porosity
(1-SW) = water saturation of reservoir
FVF = Formation Volume Factor
RF = Recovery Factor
 Oil Reserve Estimation
- Volumetric Method
Example:
Porosity = 8%
Average Swi = 45%
Initial reservoir pressure, pi = 2980 psia
FVF (or Bo) at pi = 1.68 bbl/STB

Q = 7758 x 6713 x 0.08(1-0.45) x 1/1.68

Q (STOIIP) = 1.36MM STB
 Oil Reserve Estimation
- Volumetric Method
Example:
Porosity = 8%
Average Swi = 45%
Initial reservoir pressure, pi = 2980 psia
FVF (or Bo) at pi = 1.68 bbl/STB

Q = 7758 x 6713 x 0.08(1-0.45) x 1/1.68

Q (STOIIP) = 1.36MM STB
GROSS BULK VOLUME
Area-Depth method
 Assignment 3: Oil Reserve Estimation
Figure 2 presents the structure map of X field which
integrated with Fault A. The contour interval is 200ft., and the
depth in ft. subsea. The bold contour outlines the oil/water
contact. Small circles indicate wells.
a) Prepare an isopach contour map represents of the vertical
thickness saturated with oil.
b) Construct a cross section profile through Well #3 along
West to East of the map.
c) Given the following data: Porosity (ϕ) = 20%, Water
saturation (Sw)= 25%, initial oil formation volume factor (Boi)
= 1.25 bbl/STB, and recovery factor is estimated to be 0.19.
Estimate the bulk volume and calculate the oil reserves for
the reservoir in the west and east blocks of Fault A.
Gas Flushing
Gas Flushing