BUTZ sf OY NY NAVAN YY) 3 }) AX AM LSD I XA XA i i WY ‘\ NAM i AISA) i | i KY ASL NNN LISD LA. METHODS AND APPLICATIONS * c ‘AE uabsfoday. Bette Yeter- reaching imponsnce ofthe mbt. ite ‘ai nei rine 15 he Porson equiting a practical working Knowle iF li iq 7 1 i it i sip Londen nC “Thesbooicstts with wp easy undemtood sumnisy ofthe sbessahy teary” | snd sin osuRvain how ubragound is general and receiv The resto ‘ho woll-decustesttie verioetechniques and provides 2 study of thew ‘upon: oF plications of Both fow and Figh intensity tras, Thoushiout ‘ha book the yl. of mattemetics hos boar apt o:e-inimum, but numerous "cast: provided for those who wsh-c stud tho-subioct Greater ‘Phyeiciss. chemists, tect engineer, mochatical engitogrs bibliste, ‘diet peetionées ard student wl find thie bok isa trprowiding a id leer coneige, Up-to-date ascount ef the techniques and epoicions of ‘itrasonics unelouted bya the Gigoraeat dota, This gop in the sets i “rece. WaEby Uniaboniess Methods and Arphreetions. he'tuicterwoetn Grounampaietatetiientinn Won agnosis. lean, sting, nom detain testa, en Pv sw smo he say vd esi wich tment nn Be ge tinc er | ty beso Yr the garsoneacing a proc! wong knoe vitaqalis usw ty all Ye Wcritioa! dats. Ths gain tha en (he oy Sarsiee Methods and Aepcation, | toi Ho wh ay endemtod say ol te cen Pa | ond ga ental tow vaca gent and at ht | Wo wok iscusses the various techniques and proven» tady of thaw stanc) provides one acre! cong withthe tanedicer elec he ther i prowded bythe pring, whic shuld be aight ae pombe ‘miimiselarping, The imoedines of the exiting and ecivng eat fal cults shuld be corey matched 20th lace npadanoe of the vanslver to provide maim efisency For pulted wave poration fs xslt the pulses re Kept _affciently short to proven thei overapping and t eure that, Stavonary waves ae not st up inthe material of the medium. As stated far war Ie required 10 produce very shor ules ard where « 40arom frequency tnd isnot neded, i best ow a anedvcer rater uch se» ceramic, which provides high internal ding ond ‘a mount ftw ghe high external domping, Figure 2.5 usrats@ ‘ypicl method of housing a longitudinal wae cami transducer. Tho ‘vansduer is backed by abock of a atrial heving » very high acount absorption coefclent but, a the came timo, of utiienty are eee Ceoncatty to provide contact with that rane surfooe remake ‘ram the material of propagation, A mbar of sngsten powder end ‘Auld ea for this purpose Further damping is rowed by a heer sorng whith lio ensures good mehonizl contact withthe tet material A fany high dct vltge typically from 300 V to 600 V} of instantaneous duration is applid peraciealy to the ansccer actor a the required pulse epaiion Krequbncy (usally betwean 50s" end 1009s"), Atcacheletcs! impute traneducar experiences ahigh inital srin offer which i omslates over about two ‘of trae cycles during which me the amide es down rapidly (eee Figure 2.11, Ths, fora eansdua? operating at equancy of 6 Me ‘te produce ples cach of thebe wavelengths, the pulse ration f about only 0 for propagation into most met. The plgength (PL) in ‘Rcofte is apronimaely ele to the treeney bandwidth follow: es a PO raguancy ST For eartsin applcaiong, usualy in reearch laboratory wher is important forth bandwidth tobe at narrow es pote, or the ressurement of stanustion, which varies with frequany, the us OF rash longer ples Irnecestary. In this eat, the wana ela by arasiorequesy osilstor at te required resonance frequency of ‘the traniducar and tha pule angi controled letonialy Crystal ‘wansducrs, having much lower absorption costient, te then employes 3.27 Pleroeenie probe resivers Piezoalowi peobarecsiver are used principally for measuring insti in aorent parts of uratonie bras in ule, msinly in invasigating the oonfigrtion of scour lds, e.g, for determining the intensity caributons in fron of trenémitingWantdcnr. Tho ‘equrermans of thei design are that the cmon of tho eenstve ment shouldbe smal eorapred withthe wavelength (typically lst ‘han one-tenth), hat he feaquaney reponse constant over he‘ole of the requ range, and thatthe sensitivity of th pleco ‘teorc element te constant fr al decors. deal, for an omniaectionl respons, the recaver should be shri in shp, Romanenke (ae Racer) has dascribad the con ftruction of 'mierosnitir mse berm titanate receiving ans ‘hoes in the shape of shes eels of outide diameters af ow at cree our bal (0-Smeneiamatery " capi Fine 30 tno mio mint’ ha mt ram Rem, (1 em an tices 005 men fe Figure 3.10), which in eis isactory at frequencies af upto ME (ylindro! tener, in he for of tuber, re more say constructed and are qute uitabeltane (concerned only with assure: rants in aingle lane They sre expat of vibeaing ina numberof dfrent modes, aia mgt, and walkers, ane er Is ‘sully enough overtop tetneen these mad 2 ge re ofall lt rexponse over a wisa band of equencies, Cara tube of out ‘Banter 1-5 rr, tength 15 rr, and wal thicknart 3 mm are ey Cbzined commercially and can be used to measure intents at requen- ‘28 af up £0 100K In guid and 25 kien gases, without citing ‘he sous fa a3.3 Magnetositve tapsducers Magnetortrictve transducers are gunealy mad of frromannetic rater, carain metal, uch eck, cba, an ron, which con carly be magnetized and which dsglay magnetostetion or the Joule ect. When a bar o odo ane a these materials paced in Imapnti Rode suersa change in ngth, ether an neeaca oF ezraase, pending onthe nature of he mstara sd the strat oF the fh Whechar de sin a poste or negative ae indepen ofthe sanse a the fel (c letrosrtion~ sa Section 3.2.1). Thus, ‘shon the magnet fad ireversed in cecion ther ea charge nthe {anae ofthe san, an increzan length remsina an ineeae. Figae 3.11 shows haw the mechanical stain varies with tho magnitude = { Tieton aaa aT ogi i (Oe) lof the fel seongth fora fe eromognetic materia. ti en tht, in ‘ener, te vation nat liner one. n practice one find that nickel {Ethamast factory rate for magnetostrictive want, thas an clciromechanical coupling coefficient of 31 pa ant ana Cae temperatura of 358°C. Peemendir an aig, has a Cue poit of about 9047C but the dectromechanial coupling coxtiient ow The magnetortictiva effect cn ald be observed in satan non-retae known a ferrites. Tey have the evantage that, being poo leis eanductors, they are not overated by oY currents which ae Indus by the alternating stants mxciting the period magnetic fal. How er, bacaie ofthe por mechani! properties, they re not often edi the sen of ultraonis wanudhcers‘Themis convere magnetostrictive affect, knonen a the Vici effect, for wbich a mechenicl sexs woplied to «frromegnti od ing ina magnetic field gta 0 change in tho mageadc fox dons. ‘Magnetostritve raneduers re aten mac inthe forms of roe sxcrounded by col windings (seo Figure 3.12) An etematingsuront ‘trough the col induces an aternating mognatic Fad of the sane Frequanoy this gives rise to logitudinlosllations of hero. _ pies da _Mosnataticive gine Potoriing “a “tibet Pu 3.12 Wahed of exoing eager ted nthe frm ofr ‘Boceuse the value of th sain inthe rod depends only on he magnitude ‘ofthe eplid magnetic fla and is independent of sans, hase ‘vilations take pce at a requancy tice that ofthe fla and eke on the form of an unsmoothed retife alternating curent, te ioe tions ae of low amplitude and contain many unwanted frequencies As theca of corm ranedce' (go Section 32.1), this sadvartage overcome by poareton tis not wally posible to oain a high polaing field by permanant magnetcaton, anda seady dec ld of fultble mapritue is provided by paling a direct current through nother coll wound round the transduce. Thus, Inead ofthe ol tons taking lace about the origin ofthe eure of Fire 2.11, they ‘enur about some other point, sy D. Provided that de mpltuce of ‘he applied sarating fed i low anough for changes to take place ‘long an approximately linear portion ofthe curve beter, sy, A and Band, in any cases las than the value ofthe polarlsing fed he ‘sation: are purely sinutolel and coeur at the apple faquanoy ‘As with lezoelic transducers, maximum afin ofthe ‘xolctons is obtained at the fundamental resenanes frequency f (ent ‘Section 2.9}. The effects f armenice are minimised by node! mount ing (ne Figure 3.12, “‘The resonance feauensy varies invest with the lnath ofthe ‘transduce od, Fo example, aniskel rod 125 min engi he ‘fundamental reconance reavency of 20 kHz, at which high tenses are posible, The fequancy is increased by decreasing the eng, but, {the sme ine, theres lowering of Intent for ard of gen eros ‘ectionaldimondons rating trom the eduction in ie ofthe wating ras. Tha output from this typeof trareduear becom vanishingly ‘al at Frequencies much higher than 100 kHz. However, magneto ‘jee wansducersare wed mally for hivinuandty eppiatons end ‘he uso of fequencis higher than about 20 KH is nat common. ‘A luadvantage of using roe-capod oxileter isin tho fact that there icon doable leakage of magnetic ox. Fe hiintontty Larpatee 1 s cote a4 Nodal eiamp 4 tor i Finee 213M tance ue 214 Rig ype andet soiatons, ie common to Use trance designe 0 form closed ranatie crcults se Figures 2.13 and 3.14). The windowetype rane ‘oer asta ia Figure 2.13 clamped nodal, ands vitraions| fro longitudinal. The rng ype tensor, ower, brates in ris tanner (se Figue 9.14} 0 that ultatoniceneeay le toouted at the ‘tee where, conesquenti, the courts Intensity may be very Nigh. In Section 46.3 explained that ferromagneio material absorb sieraound a aul of hysteresis ae also ofthe induction of ey Curent, Both thet phenomena give rea toe considerable amount of beating, Toore ar @ numberof frromegnetis materia having low bysterel loses, tt unfortonaay, tir magnetosvietvepropetoe tre poor Howeter, ey curent ones may be redacod by using Taminate stacks consting of altering shes ofthe metal and of| sma insulating materia uch ab mica, Its imporean to eool te rns dicerdrng its operation, therwis the rs torpor Broughshout by hysteresis and eddy currents may proce a reduction, or even aappeaence of tha magnetstistive properties, ‘An increased intensty, distributed over sir aan an alo be btsned with both rd en window typos of traesducers by using what Isknown a aveocty tmnsformen This consis of apered causing ‘ox (ae Figure 2.13) ane provides an increase inthe value ofthe tse velocity a the end remote fom the vansducer For maximum en ay7]t ome of ae go war Vf a a | sffcency, the transformer cesgned to resonate by making i on ‘wovlengs ong and suppting tata nodal point, i. ata distance of @ ‘urrerataelnat from the renadicer. The sigrm illus ates the ppleton ofthe wlocty trnefomer #9 the construction ofthe Ulasone dil (se Section 7.7) ‘Armethod of coupling magnetostrictive anaes to liquids decribed in Section 78m connection with utvasoneceoring apples: tions The action a0 contains ret comperson of ta propria of magnetostrictive and crate aries Usd for this ype oF ark, Magnetoswstive oeiltor ae reverie snd hue cant aad ae reese. An examplo of amagnetositve probe reaver is ilustrated Jn Figure 3.18 consists of ical raaheld vial na fui io ‘which ultrasound Ierdste n an urd ireesion. Th rod ican. ‘ined in a pltic tbe so what only the free and ir exposed to the wares ‘which ae then ance sing ite length. Acurent is inde by the Vilar effet inthe pup eo placed nas the upper end ofthe ro Another col carrying a ect currant provides the plasing fed, The formation of ststonary wove: i prevented by pacing en abeorbent rmatril st the top of ha rod.‘enti shold be made ofthe we of nickel fim vaneduers for ‘rosin and reeling ultrasound of very high frequencies raning from 100.42 #9 109 GH inaolide. Athi im a nickl, of thicknoss erresponding to on halfwavelength atthe resonant feauency is Poa ind 9 § Pri cover ou 316 Mewtorzne pose £0. ‘mioptone out oposite on the enesurtse of the specimen inte which sound Ito be ‘ated, The rod I loated with tpt en Inside a microwave tctomagnatccaviy esontor, excited at the required Freque “Thoreceiner may condi of «aa fl coated onthe opposie surface ofthe specimen ands locate in a cavity resonator. Alteratvely, ting 2 tetlecton method, a single ek! fm ean act as oth source aed reorver. The method is snl to that used with wh pazoeleewie transducers (ne Fite 3.5) except that» policing magnetic ies rnecesary. On the ther hand, no colin material segues and no special tachnique is mecesary for coating the rick fr. 234 Mechanical wansducers Mechanical ultrasonle generators are now used amos exclusively or high-intensity repepation in gul nd gaa at Vequenciee of Up 0 shout 25 kis an eit mainly in the forms of wise an sens. They a+o gonaaly more powarfl ands expensive han pieonlnctic oe mognetosyitve treneducers, but thei applations are more tinted in Unratonic whistles are oF two types, namely the eit cesonstor, used mainly fr aos, and the wee resonator, erpayed fr bth get td tude, Th cavity centor exes in tv forms, Th fs, calad the Galton white lee Figure 3.17 consists of nevlindr termined “wD Woes Aglaor Canty Pion bo the encaurface of» piston which canbe acuta in pasion ta provide resonance atthe requied frequency, Le for which he ength/ ofthe cavity is one quara-navelengih. The fui usualy gas, fowe ‘through en annular si at high speed ad strikes therm af the ube hare vortices peer and produce edgetones. The frequency of the gp tones dapends onthe vlonty ofthe laid which can beaded ‘unl he cavity resonates For alt, at a eaquency of 20 ke, fondant resonance takes place for 8 covity langth of apotoxinetaly 4mm. siti to excite pure tana resonances at equarcies of much higher ‘han thi “The stand typo cavity resonator the Hartmann generator, imi in design fo the Gatton whist cxcapt thatthe annul eT toplaced by conta! nozzle (ne Figure 3.18). Tha hi ie oreed Fie 2.58 Hartman greeter trough the nozle and emerges 2t a mperanic velit t produce thon wae, which cause th avi tbe exited at high ints, Resonance i achived by adjusting te Rul veloc. This vie ‘a‘much mare poxtecul then the Galton whine, anda frequency of 2OKHz, tis possible i sir to produce up ta 50 W af scousical energy ‘The wee resonator consists of eactangular pte with wedgeshoped cae, sina to 2rnar Blade, mountedon nods! suppartsand dead in 1 ful jet stream ke that used forthe Harcmonn generator (oe Figure 3.19). The wedhe Iss up into flocs vibeations hoving an Fur 259 Sie aw of range for web ronan Intensity comparable with hat artanad ty the Hartmann generator Thistype of ranucer is especialy aultable for we with Haein employed extensively to produce emtions, epeily inthe food and cosmetic industries se Section 7,3), Operating frequencies we, ai, ofthe order of 2042, Siren els reused for geneatinghlh-enerayulravound in Hs, Init basic form, the sven consists ofa ise (he rotor in which recut humor of Weta holes sara evenly round the ckcurfarnce of ‘cle slighty smaller then the dis. The rotor ture concensiesly in front of asimfar des (th stator, whi kop atest whi fui jets deed through the hals. Tha frequency ofthe emitted lrazound equal othe frequency of ineruption of the jet fom, athe holes ‘move elativly tone another, ad fe given bythe produto the ruber of holes dhe rotor andthe sped of revolution, Ths ‘ith rotor having 100 perforations and revolving spend of 12000 rev/min (200) eit ound waves of 3 frequency of 20 He, The ‘one emit by the don i nota pute one but this unimpavtant for ‘he applicatlons fr which Is used, ne advantage of thi Instrument Is thee the fequency con be vated in ¢ continous manner simply by slarng the speed of otation, “The ute of mehsnial receives his been restricted to mesurements cof intentas in iquide ad gars. Homever, nce meaairemente can ‘be med of intestinalis by coupling the ola to 3 iui in which ‘theres isituatec ant alelting tha decreas nites 2 the sel tigul incre, sig equation 2.18, Te to principal type of ‘mechanical caivrs ata the ayligh cies he rato‘The Reylegh ic consias ofa shin eur dive suspended verily Inthe ultratonc ed by means of 2 torsion fire, nly the des ottoned, inthe absence of sound waves, with i ane suraoae allel with the erection of propagation. The sound waves thn exert ‘couple onthe de, which rotates ntl brought fo et ne stedy Potton as est of en epposhg count exerted by the suspension. ‘The sgl of rotation required orech te sate of lium depend onthe particle velocity ard, here, the acoustic intensity Arediomter ia = device which mesures doch the pesure of radistion, a quantity whichis proportion! to th soustc intensity (so Section 2.6). The simplest form of radiometer ia iy slid phere ‘sponded in the sound fi deflected harzantay i the istion| ‘of pronettion whan she ultezound is present, The device cltrated Dy subleting ita known fd pretues and than matting the esl: {ng eplecemenrs Other type of radiometer exit nthe forms of ‘doin tances (ee Fighter 3.20 ae 3.21) fr which the presares , MZ Soa of ratiaton re exerted on plane srfses of boas of malt weight, “Tho torsion blancs raiometar ie deigned for waves trovlling 2 horizontal cretion ae the common belance ype for vrtialy direcred wavs, bor tho se of 245" reflector cen rediy render horiaontl wove verte! and vice ves, Sensitivity ef detection s\restst whan the depres of mismatch of characterise impedence ‘between the material andthe efector stached to te balaee ise ‘maxlmum. For fui meth, his condition maybe achieved by making ‘thereasing clrment frm two thin sheets of alight slid meter, ‘ch 9 mia with an ir space in beeen. “The Rayleigh dic nd orion belance radiometers ae employed = robe receivers, and itis exten that thir dimensions be small comm ated with wevdength therwise the acouste fed istry the reesver. This stan upper frequency lit of sbout 60 KH tthe ‘partion The common bala-e typeof radlameter may, howover, act 1 the terminal ofthe acoustic path and its upper raqueey init is eterna only by issensvity. ths ben used to mesure intensities in liquide at equencias inthe meno hertz range (ee Wels) 5 Elerromamnticvansducers Electromagnetic types of traneducers are commonly used a aude frequencies in the forms of ioudipeakers and mzrephones, but thee pplietions a lrasanlefequencies ae romawhat ined because of ‘the epi cree of nari ae: with frequency above he aula ‘ange. However, with modern technigues of deporting thin metal fins, ‘hie ditacvantage has Boon overco™e, and lightweight elotromapnaieansscer hove ben vad fo some owns on mere Inna pory cocina sir nd ii A sees ofthe Intl that te constontaeton of 9 dy meme elie “A device used successfully by Giacomini (see Mason!) for internat tron mowurenents a Saevon Sa equ of 4 about Suir oats rate nigra 3.22. of pony contig jomsre ‘ear td newer Fatt Perenarty Bane'et opto — nse cto ot atersing ere en Seton of macancat Fe Csvcucing ne rare insane wean sel iscontod with thin conducting rip of nage mast over oppesiehave of the upper snd lomer ura and the ae faze is ‘ported havizonaly a the nodal pasiors by dectclly conducting wires, and the coat end is subjects toa horizontal magnetic fea at Fig angles te exis, hen am iterating cuernt ke prted through ‘he conducting strip, the bar vitates longltatinaly, in sccordence with Fleming’ otha rule of eacsromegnetism ‘Becasse letromnneti transducer are reversible, vibrations nthe br are peed up by the conducting sip whieh inthe presence of © ‘ead magnate il, wil have induced fo a erating ‘xcordance with Fleming's righthand ul of elctromognats, This ‘um olted tothe acouste intensity, Thus the device canbe used at both ansmitar en fester of ulestoun, 52More recenty, Fipexyskl™* designed an elastramagnetic rece {or measuring intense of pulsed utesonk waves la pooty conde {ng guide at lower megehert frequencies Se Figure 3.23). An sharminiur film the form of acontinous and winding ntrow sip rosie } reper Sece ium 223 Pivcensseuctronmeeric tanalcr for ently mses ‘goat const iause ‘evaporated onto 8 perspex back 025 1 provide col of neiite ‘mass. The Boek is then immersed in the liga and oeated nse 2 gap betwoen the pole place of a permanant magnot wich supple stexdy ‘magnesite of high ntnsty. Urtratone waves bass rom the utd ‘no the black, giving sa 0 osc atons of the aluminium coll which induce in ican esr related to the intensity in he block. The Intensity Inthe iq could be aula by allowing for ection and trans rmsion atthe prspex-Iluid intrfoce in accordance wth equations 215and216. 36 Electrosttle wansducors ‘An dectomatic trance const eentaly of two parallel pate of ‘conducting motaril place closet one another to orm an ectrieat 59‘expactor. On pati fixed nd the others eo wbrate fn a dineson St rght angle tothe surface ofthe pate. high reristence of he order fof omega is placed n series with the capacitor and a drctpotetil “itferance of serra bund vols maintains steady charge on he plates {ove Figure 3.24), The device i reverse int action and my be se ascither a tranamiter ora reer For operation ac 2 warsmittar, signal at he desired frequency, ‘ving n outeu vltageof amplitude not exceeding the dict potenti ved pte ur 224 incor te ecstacy of tance stron, se othe pars. The reutan period variation ofthe ‘chatgas induces vibrations ofthe movable late, For use a3 Fenn, the moval le peed i position to recive th ound wave and oneaquent veto gers to prod variations of the eects! apasitane ofthe trensducer. This ia turn, produces an aerating eutvent which hows though th high eesetanes the reseing alternating ‘oltageappuoring sre hs raitence Ie tlted tote nteny ofthe ‘eeahed round, "The elector transdcar nthe form of the condenser microphone tos ong been usd at auc feqatncis, thas the enti that he moving yr, Lethe dapheagm,feexremey light, 2 arts oft are negiibe and the senthvity remains consanc over a wide requeney 5‘range. cn be usd fe cates and igus a bth 8 recor an trams: Intra raquncies of up to about S00 ke, an, eau i non ‘esanance deve, con be sed without any epprecible change of Sensitivity a all frequencies within teange of operation. “The upeartrequncy ini fe determined bythe increasing inertia of the lepragm, bythe cernperaivy low senstvty of hada sand by the fact that ts output can easty be shunted to earth by the ‘apeitace ofthe lead connecting It the detecting cet. The last Electrostatic mirashere Ai ced atce weet ll nn 3:28 Enctert mctfr anria tee meget ‘to lkadvanages may be overcome by the use of recently developed Imire circu placa in uracs contact with the ined plate. Tis provides an ampli ouput of low estive mpeaance which sexy detected, even a igh fequonces, When on elee-estai ranselice sued ith soi, the setting ofan star frequaney lint by the inrtia of the vibrating plate doesnot oe becuse the end surface of the sol an save aU pst; this fucfaco must be covered witha mara inf the soi ea poor con- eto, Eletostate transducers have been used for detecting lraround tt raquencen of to 100 Me in solids. By using solid as» bate, %the device can be used for measuring atenstes at mepeher:feauen Tui (te Figur 3.25) veletions a the ltertaca ar allowed 27 Misclaneous wensucors Other methods of senaratng ae receiving ltresound involve the ves cof thermal, chemical and optical deve, anda short account of them ingen ssemher!”, The oteeratons of chemical change in mores inadate with utrsound have sometines provided 6 means of dete tion Also tis posible o generate uliasone waves ina ansparent ecaste glass “pine Oe “Gass stopper ‘et ‘Pe 28 bv forming tn ny xt yl st medium by the erosting of ft later baa arinting from 9 cornmon eure, n genes owen, chemicel and optical raneducer ate not ‘often ee, ‘Oh the ther hand thar are @ numberof aplications which make see of thrmaltranzdcars, One thermal ye of anima te pak {generator which oats utrasqund result of plod temper ture changer ang place when a high aarnating voltage of «gen ‘equancy is issherged aro gap in x ict, The ha. wie mierphone, orginally developed during the 1014-1018 war, avecelving thermal onaduce, Icons of thin wire, oF ‘he order of 25 (0.001 nt eameter, usally mede frm platinum ang Iestid to jst below rene, Whan sound waves ke the wit, it cole Padon by an wmount ciety depandent on the intensity, This ineaed bby decane ins eleercalresance, The hot ire mlerophone hes been used sucestlly for gatas at frequencies of up to 600 ke but as not proved aitble fr ligule nose of low sry ee to com ‘ection ln ‘Urarone ies can also be messured from the sen tempers ‘ure within the brar. An netrumant designed forthe purpore and ‘plied to high ieonsity meosiermant i Thuatd In igure 2.25, The hse peoduchd by the oratound i abeorad By the gid in thea, whic is tharely insulted, Th ila consaquonty expands, end ‘hae son the lev! ofthe luli the prasad capillary tube, which s ealibated by supplying a messured emount of hast from tho Hesting col, Theshape a the Tasks designed to prevent waves elected 1 tho walls pain back into the acoustic el. The was tonenited ‘tough the liquid ae finally abearbes by the gles woo! placed tthe tec of the vestel, Acoustic powers of fom SO to 20 W oan be ‘messured 1 an acosary of beter than 10 pe cnt with this dee BECHIMANN, R Tontenrong 41718998) Sued Rndrenf one 2d Bern Londen SSCAMET €or DRANSFELD, Ky an Lot 2,28 (10581 BUSTER, TF and LT, RH. Sond ey, Now Yorker ate Condon 726 G58) IASON. Praca Acne pcan Yo 1A PEER A ke We Pann Pr New Yk RORENSERG, 2, Souss of His itnsy Utena. Vo. 2, Pe CARLIN: tone, nd wn, Gra, New Yk 900) Wet. Pua rc of sont Digan, Renter onde 7a, owned non 69 (foes : 12. ilureesi 0 anon ont noma, Tet Maron, £09 {356 Sua Penman fom Sdn ea Ln fatto. 0. A Soe Pnys Acai, 3,410 poe ”CHAPTER FOUR ‘THE PROPAGATION OF ULTRASOUND IN MATERIALS 4.1 General eonidrations Urrstound travels hrough uniform materia @ constant pend pro vied tet th detrmaton: produced In by the ation of the wees 2a purely ei, the aouste intensity flow, The velocity eof the fund depends on the density p and the modulus of elarcty Sporopiate tothe type of detarmation produced by the waver be. of ay ‘The laste modulus Fused inthe above equation doas not bave the seme vlve the one determined by ordinary states measurements. Tothe latter cae, he body is detrmed lately domly withthe tenperature remaining constant and iti the othorma laste modulus whieh Iameasured Wan sound pases rough a substance, theresulting Aeformadonsstemate eta rapid at, eve at low frequencies, During the compression phase of soya, the temperate res, and, ding ‘the exporion phase ffl, Heat Should ow far the ogons of cos brstion co thse of rrafcton, bu, before enough tie hs lapse for ‘ire happen, the sound waves wil tave moved a auc ditnct for a reersl yphas wo hve occured, Le comoresions wil have become retecons and vice versa, Thus no time would become aalble fF hoot exchanges to occur seuss any tperatre gradients setup by the eves end can be sid that thee exchanges are eabatie. The symbol Eimequation 4.1 then repens the aot east modus. THs his a hicher value than hat ofthe corexponding othermal modulus For liquids and sles, the diffrence betveen the two Quonttosis suey very sil but, for gues, thie ference fe conaiderabie ee Seo¥on 42) [Athigh ita, the weocty of sound may be somewhat garter ‘than tht preccted by equstion 1 and its value, which depend on the wove amplitude, gen by 8 more complisted nepesron, However, ‘fen one measures spend of tound nota o determina the valve oF the sla moduli, te inary Is kaart low for equation 4. oe applicable, The sty ofthe seouicalpropartie ofa materia ‘tested yond ts latte highly specials one and isnot Tay to eancer he rade. s‘Alaa of importance the nbsrpton of sound waves by mail, “Thee area numberof efferent ways in which thiscanoxcur, an hey ll be ant th rly i this chapter 4.2 Propeaition in sss ‘Goes wil support only compressional and tonsil stoses but not shes stress, and its ths pssibieto pas only longitudinal waves through them, The applications ofthese types of stnsss gv ise to 8 chang in ‘elie, an Bw appropiate elastic modulus ithe ble redulsK. For the salle permanent gases, 03. oxygen bydrogen, and nitrogen, which condense at very lm teperatres ad obey Boyle's nw tom hig degree of precision, K le aqul tothe hyeroratle presure for xtheal ‘condition and the product for abate condition, Here roprarene the ratio, forthe gt, ofthe spac stat constant presi to the speci heat a constant volume. It has aveluc whieh usually es between 12 and 1.7, depending onthe mature and physi tee ofthe de, Exton 4,1 con thus be rewrten at JE wa ‘This equation aplis to ahah degre of approximation to most gases, except for some beary organic vapouts, fF which the speed of sauna ray be somewhat her. It ean be showm thet, or a del oa, on ‘boving Boyes ew, the speed of sound veres with te empertire f {in degreas Gesu) 25 olows: ava ‘and ce rpretent the acute vlositie at temperatures tnd O°C, ‘espactivly, Thu, fone messes he voy ata ven tamper Isao at OC can be easily caleuiated, Acoustic velocity measurement ‘an thus provide a method of tmperaure destination. Values of co focanamber of gras ae given in Table 41 [Excop st very high o very low pressures, the woocly of sound in mcramoine constant when the prsaie change, “The seouste velocity im amixture of two ghee vr liner with ‘the degrae of concinvation, by wah, of each component. Thus for 8 rmictureofexygen ep = 330 ms") and nrogen ley" 310.5) pant in qual mass, te velooty at °C 15320 mse «a‘aaa veLocrmies oF SOUND, Fon sole cowuon Gusts are aoe 1 14.990 + 310) ms", Thus velocity measuraments ca provide» rears ‘of massing relative coneantatons in mictres of gs, Sound wave are absried ingot 2 reut of the folowing t phenomena: (a) acaiy, therm conduction and thermal relaxation, Absorption due to veo ad therm conduction takes ‘ace n al gates, Tha absorption coal reeares withthe sare ff the Fequeney, but it value dows not become appreciably high, for laboratory purposs, unt the frequency ris above 2 fw hundred kl rts, Th total absorption resulting fom both these phenomena called the lia bsarption tbacaue the rlvant theory i ered from consideration of purely cascl physics and typle valve of the carespoadleg sbsorprloncoaffelans are 012 8 mm forme, 0-154 mm" for oxen, and021 JS om for eicoghn at © frequency of 1s, ‘Abeoption ratuling fain theme relaxation my occu nal ‘exeept monatomic gases, such wrgan end nen. A proper secount of phenomenon beyond the scape ofan sementary wor of thi rture, and the reader who it intrest refered lashee (e.g te). Teissuticten to sate ete that thermal relaxation rel rom exchange of energy berween the vatious atoms contained within esch gee molec these oxchange affoct the peice ofthe gas, The coreesponing absorption coetfilent i obtained by subtracting the value ofthe Clazical absorption cosfcient athe tequency concerned, trom the renee strorption coolant, Figure 4.1 shows th reltonship beeween the absorption per wavelength (a) (se Section 2.19} en fRequency, Ata fequency called te reexetlontaquancy f the curve ees aps, Gelaw the relaxation frequency, a income withthe sua of the frequency, The gir sit shows that th velocity of Cysound varios with frequency. At Tow frequencies it has a constant value «but, 5 the relation frequney isapprosched, the veloity incense: Sand then level of oahighor constant value gt 2 frequency above “This higher velocity sa few per cnt greater than the velocity at lower ‘equencien The variation of couse velety with quency isealed isperion ‘AT etmospheri presuro, the relocation frequencies for most ofthe salle isl gates aut en he megoherts range, fr same of o a 8 Feoguaney (i) owe 41 Tpis xtten vet tal mean, of ssetin per ie: Rig end oy of sue wn boner the heavier gaa ae vapours, thy may be somewhat Lowe for carbon clove wera isa relocation at 15k at sp. Gases may possess more than ore elation frequency, ad tha curve in Figure 4.1 then becames somewhat more complex. ‘Inpro, stansation in gsesbcomes very high at mages frequencies an the pracesl upper init for measurements rary stctede 5 Hie. Consoquantly i not always posible to measure a arecuited eaten frequency at anorphere res, However, the ‘loxton frequency varies newly wth presure Fllot a where ond ae the ration reutrseacomeponing to 1 Dromures, and? Thug Ite presure aden 9 ble vais £ teaxaton pose maybe olerved and ts cation tequeney omeapending to some pressure can easly be deduced rom scuatien 4. Another advange of the epeication ofthis aqaton that a entinuous vation of oth sbeomption ad caue vlcty ‘wth pret ort vestigated Curves sir tothe sewn In Figure 1 canbe obsined witout tenacity of verying taqency ‘Tats important wh the une of hig query ances ‘ich can be operated only tingle frequen “Abortion collin snd aloation egies an ching rormtznly te puries even in minute quant oe iroduced Into a. For example, te ited of 1 por cent by wei of star pour ntacarn dade wil rote oe ft relaxation frequtries From about 18Hz to more thon 2 M2 with omenpond ing change of sbcrlin confit. In aude case the messrerent of rexation reqaney cen be «hl env method of dtemiing the gre of concentration of Empat emt in sme pets parts pe ition). ay 4.3 Propaytin of onautinal waves in iid In common with esa, quid coliopn under the sti of shear stresae With heey ques eine taken forthe clap to tke place may be ‘somewhat lange ad it maybe posse o pas hear waves tough thom for Hite eistarees (se Setion 4, Howie, the psge of ‘tees nats throug gids sa exomtional phenomenon and in irra ey bn taken hae rat only longtunal wane proaeoation| posible in qui For longitudinal wave propagation, therlovant eesti moduhis snpiable to equstion 41 i the bulk modulus andthe citfresce lates ts gotarma and eigbati ates usualy reggie. The velocity € of sud igivan bythe expressionlahere pis the deny ofthe quid Values of for «eumbar of ‘commonly used quis are gen In Tabi 4.2. The velocity of sun ‘varies wth emparaure but rot inthe simple manners wih ses most eses Tt ecreass as the empertur ise, bur, For water under notes eandions, share isfist an ierene with terse, ng to {peak a 73°C at simorpherepresre, hen a desrea In gener the ‘locity of sound ina iid rises wien there fan Inerease in res, Soue como uauos ar 208 AND tbsmnrnre ascune “iui aoc tne? Garver weslonae 50 Stnorall 10 Serobancne 1820 Emy score! 10 lye (er) 1300 at ct 120 wer 14a When to ivi re mined together, the variation of the acoustic seocty with the degree of concntaton I or alaysa simple one, fen win ne chemi ection aks lars between the component ‘nen to snmncined liquids oe mixed togetter, the variation near, a ecurrng with gases, bul if one or both of the ids are ‘astcited thee, In mas eases fst a crease fa oosity with com ‘eanvation ul aminimum Isreeched and then alner cress. Ihave, one of the qui is water, which is ascite, the curve shows ‘maximum, Figure 4.2 Ikastates variations of the velocity of sound ‘ith conzantration for ey eleah!carbon tetrachloride snl thy seohol-water mixtures a ferent tumperatres. wil be en frm this Maura tat the vleity ina 17 par cent concen ation of ey sleahol in eatbon terahloride remains costant fo ll temperatures, This is uaflconsderasion inthe design of lguid clay tins, Claseal absorption due to vseity and thermal conduction takes place in iui a6 well 3¢n goes butte thermal conduction eects ‘3 uaaly negligible n sors ques, xpetaly erase ones, thermal relation may be tsered Ie other lewis, inching wate, absorption 631600 3 z rr a tg atcobat et ‘owe 42 Aauonayo aceon te vay 0 sand ood crcntatin at ee <2 Ae man tts Sal ican Wan me) anarBatiat nad acm‘cocir 9resut af structure elexetlon, Sometimes known x bulk cosy. This 2g, 6 te to beatin pene and cepeston in the trannar previously shown (te Figure 4.1) [ts not Tes here even toattempt ey expansion of thispharomenon, andthe inte teader a referredelsoher te, Blt) 4.4 Propagation of shear wavering Although the propegstion of shar (racic) wavs in ulin ‘cceptional phenomenon ard (sof ls: importance than the propagation cof longituainl waves, ti, nevertheless, of et interet Artec ear liquis wl ake ite amount a ine tocol under the stion af sear stave, sc shear wave propagtion may be jostle evan though the range of penetration mey bees than 1m. For igidshovng low Viscose Le eh liquids the shes wane velesity ey fe gen by the epreson s ‘where ls the coatfcient of viscosity, the density ofthe guid, en ‘the angular frequency, The aeorstion coeticint ais gvan by on Irieseen thet, the higher the vost fe heavier the ithe aster the welocity of sound nd the lower the abeorption, Further more, both the velelty an the atanution inereast with frequency. “Type, tors fequancy of 1 MHE wits valet a oom temperature, ferhich n 2 1 cetipaie (107 ms), the approximat vue of cy andaare 26 me" and 18 10" reper mm (18 10 3 mw Fespectively. Thus intensity op of 100d8 takes place aftr the ‘ltrecund has treed dtance of only 26 um, co-esponding vo 2 tin terval of estan ts. With meevscous ls, tha velsiy vil be crrssondingy higher but the range of ponetration vil be Feduced,perhape om ie as 10" nm. However, ths may well be ot (he same ode’ of mapitude a he tiknes ofa film of ubcaing sil, and the rechnique of shear wave propagation Sends self to inex ‘ions into te Deoperis af this typeof materia. For avery heey ii, the tne of collapse under the action of shear stress ch loge! ad acount must now be ake ofthe chesr modulus for this kind of subancs. Gs relted tothe vicosity 6conte bythe allowing eatin: on? ao te ica te eto ne, wich depen he tne aan forte i tcolpa under heaton of usta The copon trash wave walt sama a fort aly ft a Ligids whch eae sowly ae refered to ox bing wkcaeltic or ‘nom Newnan an tei relaxation Yes may Fangs fom slow 10" for castro to many year or even centuries fr glass, whic rein ray supercooled iui 45 Propagation in sli Sound can be trasmited trough sold in sve woys, depending 09 ‘the shape, #30, annette ofthe otal andalig an the typeof wate fexetation, Solid ill usally Wibstand see stemes, and ts thu ‘oribe to pass anevera wave wl a longue! waves though ‘them. The frances between thet adnate sn ixthermal elie ‘modula very srl For asl ate shape ota bar, ro, oF wit, for which the eros “sctana dimensions ae astred ta be srl compared withthe weve Tenet, th Meloy of longtuinal wave is gen by ae equation ay 60) where ¥ isthe Young's modus and the density ofthe soli Is _smurned tht the bran of sound extends ver the whole cosrsection of {he od td thee no rection Yo the apoied tesa tera ‘beurdares Equation 410 s no longer apse when the rose scion dimensions exceed about one-tenth of a waveenath bnesose the motel wil then act as 2 wavegulde and other zonsideratlons mist bn tac inte secourt In determining te vlacty of sound This stem ‘upper reasene limit forthe propagation of sound wave with an exily ‘alctatd velocity i fods and wires, 2g about 80 KH for sea od “Or in ameter and 500 ke for 3 ste! wie 1mm in emer “Thus when wad for delay line appicaions tage hart frequencies, wie mast have dlameters of sl fractions of milimstes. ‘Tha propeption of altarating sheers along a rod” wiee usally takes th frm of rrsionai waves for which te wbrtion are detesour ares of cts coneanti with the ax The coresponcing velocity ey tegen by ae. where G she sheer madslis. Most applietons involving velo mesaurements, ether directly coriractiy are mage on materia in Bll form. The operating ‘eequarey is chan forthe erosrsetiona dimersons ofthe spe to coszupy et last several wavelengths Furthermora, he later boundaries fof the beam should uo conttnad within the mater, Fraquencios tr ‘which conditions intermedia between those of foe nel bulk aera {ppl shouldbe aoided Ifa simple expretion forthe velocity of sound ‘seguir. ‘Wher fongltuainal waves pes through a-matertal in bulk frm, the reactions ofthe noreradiated part of the material onthe lateral ‘boundaries ofthe eam of sound must be considered, These estions produce shee tress ination tothe comoresondl esas ‘scoviated wit the waves, The soovstio velocity wl hs beg furction of both the bulk modulus and the shew modulus, Le 4 ene makes use ofthe ralatons connecting the principal lsc constants, equation 4123 may be rewritten Inthe following fcr, whlch ‘smote familiar to enginoas yore a Joti a8) ster sPosr'st forhe tal For pute sen ware ropgrton nik ls te eat of urd legen ty etn", Val acon lio vas ads seston Tobie €3, whats ta the roe weve Cotsen ery rout elt aos al he orpondig lang: ‘na wove vlc. The lori wore ots ods ome ‘artes han tho nut materi shuld be ma tht se only arg vay, cane thy ae ated by the presaur Foro te mats, whee they anna, whan, ‘leo draw Eto 1412s thatthe mil in gion i owen pysel proper, ach an esis, tera sons Sty, an Serena, remain ses fora sone. Tis aan ois ganeraly tue for unstressed polyerysaline ad omotphous solids but rato for matrasextng Inthe form of sng eeystal, Furthermore, the equine are rot neceiaily appiceble to prstened striae, Such 25 olad ar extruded metals, where anizowopy introduced by the pre atresing proce The velocities of sud anisotrope material ‘ay wit craton, andthe mepreioe for thom 3 somewhat compl ‘ate. For further deals the reader is reered to Masor* POLYGRVavALLINE ron AT 976 AND ATMOSMHEMG PRESSURE etsy ans) Cott ort Login mein Saad ‘moss ‘maar a ome) tort) wey iamnow mea] $198 eo a8 ee Ftd 3200 ize Soa it 52m ox. 250 ‘Asoo importaree isthe propegstion of exaust waves cross the surlaes of wid, Le. ure waves, te theory of hich f somewhat involved the std of witasonss, one susullyintarered in the Feyivghoype of surtoc waves, fr which the particle iratlons take aoe In those planes at rghtanls to the srfce al orientated inthe ‘ction of propaation, ia manner to someextent nit to that ‘occuring with waves ond suraces, The vibration hve wo com- ‘onants of maton, one wansers and the other longitudinal The Dae of ech of these modes of bration vere et ferent rate, anda {Feen particle, in its wbrtion, wi onary flow an eliial pth ‘The equation forthe weosty oF Rayleigh wes a campinx on 0, for example, Bl" the valu of thi wletty can bo shou £0 bo spproviatay 0.9 tes that for shear wmv nthe nate coneemed “The depth of penetration of Rayleigh aves below the surface fry smal, 2d the goretry of the beam can be considered to be 0 SimensionaL The atenvationfsconsequerity mach ower dan dat tvpetenced by bulk waves the same mater, Ravcigh waves ae 68reflected at icontiuitos onthe surface, e.g corners ad cracks, nd ‘or thir, they are sometimes used for surfee Maw detection ‘nother type of surface waves, in which the vibrations take place a the plane ofthe surface but in dhe ection perpendisar ta thet of the bem, knowns Love waves Love wevs are employed extensively by seemaogéts bt have litle application nthe sty of cronies (eva stated previously that Rayleigh waves penetrate only a short \Sstaen below the surface If, howevel, the sl sin the form of 8 hin placa, thetek complete penetration and flexural wbrtios toe aoe {a gv zat sna ra Known o Lamb wes (ee, or example, Fiipceynskl, Paws and Wh). Lamb waves provide 8 saul tok forthe detacton of laminar defects just blow the surfaces of slid ‘A dotled account of Reylegh end Lamb waeshas been sven by vicoro? 45 Ateatlon in satis _Avienuation of sound waves in solids may te caused by numberof factors the moet import of which are follow: 1. Lowes characrsti of payerystaline nd non homoganesut rmatoriaie 2 Arsorption duet imperfections ofthe crystal latins, 41. Atecrtion reiting rom Ferromagoatc and fertoeecrc phonomong 4. Abscrpion caused by interactions of sound waves with roe sectors, 15, Ateortion causa by Inteastonsot sound waves with thermal “Thace phenamana a sss bly blow, ut, oF 8 more detaled ‘secount, tha rade refered lowe (ai), (46,1 Loses charscoite of poiyeryteline and non homogeneous mareriie Praca all mets used ja the construction ofthe commodities of everyy life re poyrystaine io their structure, Polyerystaline ‘lid are made up af very lrg number of asim, having microscopic lmeosions, af the mate Each of these rin i ise a single cya sd thor In geet srteopic. Mower, caucn the ins aeorientated a random ad becae they exstin very large aur, the fold ara whole, from steal considerations, plays kote prope eres Now ia straight ine fs raven through the mata the phy cat ropes, laste moduli, of tha masta change abrupay et each ‘yaln boundary owing ta the vatations of exlenttion af the rystline ber of the esi. Thus sound waves traveling long thane wil ufor bron chagrin thee vlog oftan by more than 20 per cent, with fartespancig changes in thee chaacterinte pens, nd ection wil ke pace a ach grin boundary. Wher, a sal, he wave length large compare with the mean carsion ofthe ras, relfletion sal ot he ular bt wil taka the form of scatring equally Inalldcctions, Le. Rayelh sattring deere in Section 2.1. “The wes wl hs be attanvated in accordance with equation 2.27 for vihich he value of K wl depend on the degree of anisropy ofthe inal pais. For most polyeryraline meas, the vlue of the mean aan see sufeenty tow for no appreciable dogs of craruation co appear at frequencies much le than 1 Me: However, th attention cosficiant ‘han increase ory rapidly wich trequeney,becausa of he fourth-power law, and, except for extamay fine gained matrias, Iti rectally ‘imposible wo poss utaiound through polyerysalline matt at requen- cer aove 1 Mit, For coarse eained metal the upper knit may be only 1 Hz, Th, if bam of ltasaied of Requaney 22 ie _sterusted by 108 253 result of Rayeih setting, the stenuason ieiroresed to 160.46 when the fFequercy wraed to 1AM. With most commeval ultrasonic equipment, thi cutfiient 0 rondo the ares undetcteble. n Sarton 6.7 shawn how Rayleigh oataring Provides a mean of estimating tain sles in meta In nonthomogenoacs materia suchas corres, Reylelgh saterng ‘okes ple because of the presence of aaeecte, The velocities of sound incaneretes are generally mic ower than thoe in metal, ypialy by ssctorf ene, andthe ses a the aopesetes ae consiaertly larger then those of metalic yans. Fr ths reason, messurement on ereetes ae made at frequencies of round YOO kil, Ateniation measurements prove a maan of determining sogregite ze incon ‘rote and, together with velocity measurements, provide valuable Information about the quality ofthe produc ‘Anather use a attesuation I polyerystline meters friction ‘cxcuring tthe grain boundaries. In hiscam the atersation cost felent-an be shown tbe proportional tothe frst power of the 70‘requeney tat independ of he gain ses Provided thatthe other ‘uses of atanuaton ae ret, the total attenuation coeticient {ora poiveryzaline metal may be expressed sfllows: anareer a3) here tha Toquercy ad A and aa constants fr aghen sample of materia and type of wave, Le. longitudinal or ranserse ‘rtenuation in polyerystalinesiatonces may ao be cased by ‘thermal eanductlon effects, Bena of abrupt changes in asthe ‘mosis alng te ection ofthe sound waves atthe gal boundries, ‘he strain mffered by each rans eltferant from that sforad by it ralahbowt, fora gven stress Consaquory, the temperature variations Der eyete dtr fom grin to grain and temperature gracients ae se up {if edltlon to thew eaoclated withthe wave maton The redler cnoling-hentingycls ae hus upset, and a generar in temperate, ethan very snl ake place, The energy require to supply ths ise {in temperatures taken from the sourd wate whlch consaquentysutler ‘ateniaton. “The phanomenon cca the herelastc effet ar not ‘gsaralyobaarved In polycrystalline metals at frequercles above 100 iz, shouldbe noted tha «ima effet hasbeen atriaute to absorption i singlecrystl lens materials at fraquercis tn the ‘appar megahertz and glphertz ren. 4.8.2 Absorption i to ipertecions of the erstling latce Under motma cumstances, most solid, hich include al metas ore _xptlin in nature. THe atom Inside te ertas are arranged in 2 ‘ogo pattern called erie, och ator balng loeated at etre Geaness fom ls nlghbours, coresponcing to specified phys! ‘ditions, constant temperature are presure. Fora perfect rst, ‘he regular atice trate is roksn ony atthe tounary. However, rmosterystaleanteln deft nthe frm of Impurity stoms, vacancies inane tatten rvctre, and dslocaons Le. sontinutis In the lune stuoure Each of thase detects may be resporsibe for ultasonic stmortion a teu of thelr aking energy from the was ‘OF grostst Interest the absorpcion reulting From the iteration ‘ofsund was with dblocation.Dislcatonscn be ltrodiced into & ‘material by ftige, co working oF rough treatment. and, In general the Niher th density of the dslecations, tho greater He harnes. ‘the materia. Ulrasone attention mesturements may, In ome case, nprovide a mean of studying thet dslocatons Flgue 4:3 Wastrates the results of experiments cae out by Bardon on attenuation in copper samples a frequency of 30 k¥2at diferent temperatures, teen te Intra trcton method fee Section 6.4) In toga tate, ‘he atenuotin inthe sample was small (curve Al, tt, ate old ‘working there Wasa considerate reeasleuve 8), #94, 9 annealing, Suarked decrease In ettenoatin was observed leureC). The peas Ineate thst the sbzortion process aelattlon one shar to that ausd by thermal relaxation ie pase. The value of the absorption ‘oafclnt athe peak dpands onthe dsoestion deol, but the a a Taree A pestion ofthe peak depends on the nature the dslestons, There area numberof woys in which dlecatins con ghe ie to ulrsons sorption, ad the reader steered to Mason? for 9 delle’ seeount. 463 Absorption sulting trom fomomogaetc and feroeecrie Phenomene fn Sections 3.2 and 3:31 was stated tht (rtotecti and feeromagaeti speetiely, the phesomena oF alcrortrition ana ‘moanetoetriton, Those materiale ae made p of are mumbs of what ‘ecall ‘domain elementary regions each behaving at an lst Fedor magntied body having nique plarition, When ultrasonic wavs pas or example, shroush a domain of aeromagnetic mater, the domaln suffers parade stresses and, because ofthe carves ‘magretostthe (Var effect, changes take pce nis intensity oF ‘magratistion. The domins tai sutfr magnetic hytereie curing ech (ye, and anergy taken fom te accuse Beare converted ina hes nsvg rs to atenaaton. Asia phenomenon takes place with ferroolciis materia, in the domsir of which csc hyatre takes place. ‘An aetionl les oF energy occurring in fercomagnetc matali ta induction of minute edey currents nth dome, 3 result ofthe yar. The loses decused above provide Important consdeations in the chsigs of magnetortitive ond electors tLe. pizosect ‘enrmic) rrsducers In which much energy is convert nto hes ring ‘mai operation. 46.4 Absorption cause bythe Interactions of uasound with fa0 tects ultrasound ofa suffiinty high frequency is pasa through asingle crt ofa pure mata ata vary low temperature, eg less than ~255°C (20K, atenuationrzting from intrations with tee (eonduction) electrons my tak pac, This ttonuton ceases whan he temper ‘ures redues stl further. Frequencies a which the phenomenon c2” be obearved le ualy fo the mide and upper meget range, she ‘he aeaustic wavelength of the sane order of magetude the mean ‘tee path of he eactons at he temperature concerned. The absorption cvetfclnt ean bovried by the splistion ofa sttte magna a 'n interesting ganemenon ors with certin metal known at sxeronductrs (etd i, and nium) for whieh the electrical resistence abr reduced to zr a the tanston temperate, mally iti 9 few degrees ofthe absolute zero (-275°C. The ‘tonsston i shel reduced to raat the oie of auperconditvey tartcen be made to rapprae bythe application of amacnet fed of satficlnty high vue, which destroys the superconduc. Eleconle sttnuation has ao bean chow to ozcur at Lowe tamper tures in henly doped single crystal of semiconductors uch as, ‘mentum and szon. 485 Absorption covsed by Interactions oF uzasonke waves with therm tice vieavons Uhh raqueney utrasound (above 100 Ms) pase thrush a Slog crystal of «pure insultiog or itrins amiconductina materia ‘res fom lotice defects, at room temperature, a gh attnuaton may be observed, Tht would esl rom thelateraction a the Sound waves‘ith the thermal vitzation of the atoms forming the erstaling atte “This exenation incross withthe square ofthe requeney, and, with @ few exceptions, notably quar, ytsiam ion garnet (YIGI, and aby ropogstion ot microwave quencies fs vrwally imposible e oom temperature, Howser, an reduction ofthe temperate, te pita ofthe late vibration is eouoed and, 6 ery ow erperstare, the Stenution de to thi phinomenon tama. The teat elif to Dbsirve in metals besa ofthe alitiona mttervatin sling fam the ltrstin ofthe sound waves with te fre ectons (oe Section 486.4 46.6 Misceleneous caves of etenvaton ‘Othe cases of attewustion in slide ncade thermal relaxation in lasts and rubbertke materia, structural reexation in lass ‘ucla magntis Monance, paramagnetic rzonanc, and aterley ‘estterng 2 phovomenon ober in some seionditing ingle 447 Utessnic splifetion in solids "in 1951, Hutson, Meee, nd White! published repute ofan experiment {nhc they suceeded in ampifying ltranoand peting tough» Be Pile Tess], == vane ET Teutte Sie mae} I singe crystal of cadmium suphide,»piezsterie semiconductor. The sample inthe form of» tock {6 Figure 44) pated on wo appt feeas with elctodes, wa ploced clas contact beta ta sedue buffers td xpos to tvmination. Two iden hear wave ‘Wanaducers one acting a a ransntter andthe other a5 a recor, were onced tothe outer surface ofthe bers Pale shew waves were ropezsted trough the sample, simutaneoutly end in phase with dc pla of the same iength and pulse repetition frequency, and, provided that hed pale amplitude wer euficiently high, amplization ofthe ltrzound was obtaved. Thisamourted to 248 ata Kequeney of TS end over 30 dat 45 Me ‘Tha mathod has since buen explakedexterively and het vlunbie pplication isthe fad af lecommunizstions Ragent wat has invaved ‘the use of surface waves in vow of thei tow attenuation compared with, blk weve, LITE. enna ns, ty Berar Lor 4. AGH pen Aran i aed Va 1, 5 BLE), Fumsmenute! Litany, Zea, arene, Lox, Ae 6. FPCEYNSK |. PARLOWS', 2, ond WEHR, 1, Wino Method of Fstog ira, Senarvor Londen, 18 968) 2 GIEBROW A hyd ies Pane en Ya 8, BORDON fc eau Sox Am 26,495 (195 5 MASON WP Pa sous” Pon an etod, Vo. IA, ‘Nerd ras Nor Yor (8) 18(CHAPTER FIVE LOW.NTENSITY TECHNIQUES 5.1 totreducton 151.1 General conlderatons Lrtrasnund regarded a bing of ow intensity when no pcmanent changes take plein the properties ofthe material af propagation, an ‘esantal condition for any non destructive testing technigie. The ‘rouse powers are ganealy very low ard rraly exceed a few ters of mila. “The principal methods see for lowinteniy applications area fellows Pulse methods, Progra continu wave mothods, Stationary seme oF rsonancs methods (i aging nous ite feroretry and damping capacity techniques. Mode conversion and tot retetion methods, ‘Optzal methods (ncucing Schieren mi frecin techniques, everbecation methods, Impedance methods some ‘The maths inva, ether ieetly of indirectly, measroment of scout tects md attentions in many instances, a angle ot Imant provides both these messvemerts, often simultaneously, “The choie of fraquency kr determined, or expe by the #20 of ‘esa of dhe mata, bythe King of infrmation required fom the measurements nd bythe optim reurements ft sot In practice, most low-intensity applications are mace within te requeney rage from OG MH to 10 He 1.2 Mesurements in gas Gatos ay characterise by thr elatively high absorption coeicents and low characterise impedances. Thelt absorption coeticint nese ensdabiy with frequency and become vty high 3 mage irs frequencies (se Seton 4.2). Forti eszon and ago Beem of the %poor mismatch of characterise Impedance with slid warsdacer materials, It isviaally impossible to pass ulrasund though goss et ‘Requoncis higher thn about 5 MHz. Unil he 1950s the only feast method of measuring the acouste ‘lost ad absorptlon coelfents a gees at megahertz trequecle, ‘wos the aaustie Interferometer, using 2 quer crystal ansdver. This ‘Gan exacting instrument requg earful mavating and adjusting of the araducer and reflector, becave ofthe vry short wavelengths ad oor ranamssion trem the sure to the 935, even under conlitions ef ‘esonavee. With the development of eum tranesuces, Ngher have become posible nd tha leas exacting pul ‘eehnique can be ued ‘The ciackantage oF using plezodeerc wransduces Forgas is that ‘the equency is fee, baoase any resonance operations practicable fing to thelr high @ facts However, as dsced a Section 4.2, in the investigation of relexational phanomens, 8 virion in pte produces the sre effect a3 variation i frequoncy. With the sof loctrosatic wansdcers s2 Seon 3.6), continous raqueny changes far possible but-anfortunately, there ison upper tequency limit of es thon 300 KH, For applications to ange qantas of gies, contral type of experiment fe a, for whieh the uo ofa parallel bam isnot Important fesse to work at aquencs inthe lower Kliatt ‘ange. thiscae, use canbe made of mechanical, magwostictie, tnd earamic wersducos, from which comparatively hig eaustc out puts ean be obtained, Further dicate with massuremants in pes aise fom the Introduction of impurities, hich ean afect the reais seriously. For example, ceisnereumstanoxs se Section 4.2), the introduction of 1 pe cont wate vopout to a ea might lnereae the measured vako of the attention by 2 much a 40 par cent es thus eset that the Interferometer chamber be eskproot and lz thatthe at under ‘examination iemateontrinatd by any of the mattis ured nthe Scwipmant eg vacuum areas and mereur. TRB mot avery easy an te steve booms soma mars must be found for moving the rector reinve tthe sure. Any meconicl connection tothe efector might Fae to passthrough 2 gst gan self serious source o ekoge, tar the culty has been overcome oy the Sef use of expanding bellows. On tho ote hae che problem dees not aise with the use of {he multpiesrho pulse iciniqu for whi the source and reRecor can ”‘bekept stationary, This Int method may a, however, be sultabe for mesurements with highly exanuating ses 5.1.3 Moseuromnes a Haus Because the mismatch of characteristic impedance snot seis, he ‘vansmision af ul asound from a sold transducer to aad medium presents te citiulty. Furthermore, absorption ceticen's in Tul re generally semeuat lower than those ase rd wrk at higher traqeneles spose, €9.up to severe! husdted mega here Diffouties can arse with mesures nel tcally conduction luis, uch as tep-ate, and exe me ear mt be token to enaite thatthe liquid des not provide share elt scroa the letoder of ‘he vanadicar. One way oF doing this st© mount the ensductr on To ‘the ute of the containing ves So that the sound artes the quid ‘hrouth the walls Thi mathod may suffer fom Yansmission fone st the liquid—sontaingt Boundary and Sor the possi thet the wale Luque Flor 5 Arargernt ore rans! tng —— ‘pre ancecray concn ae fo ofthe at may rot bo exactly paral or omogsneads In srucue ‘Another wny isto contain the transduce nan stating ll pated ‘tom the conducting au bya rubber haphragm (ae gure 5.1), The characterise kypedanceof the type of rubber used for ths purpose (keoun age rubber versio Yo that af water ond of many other Tigul to that tromison loss are minimised. In pra, the water {ight probe of a commercial ultsonic Haw detector sn often seve the sme purpose see Fite 2.5), The protectingcover mode rom 8 raters, such a¢ PVC, which aso hae achat artic impedance ose ‘tw tha of water. A third mth ito eaparate the tanaduee nd lui by 2 almost non abzorbent solid bute, such a fused quar Figure 8.8 shows now this mathod Isppliad to the pace comparcon 7”‘uchnique, which is partclarly suitable for hly attenuating lauds ore acouste path lengths are short ‘Alare choice af mesaement cvor a wld ecuency ranges wala for both contained ul nde quid fe. 514 Moseuroments io sotide easements can be made in side oer 2 wide ange of raquencla, ‘extending ta mare than 100 Gis. Howse, the majory of them are ‘nade on palyerysaline mater for which thee fan upper frequency Timi of about 10 ils, ar deter by the fete oF Rayleigh scattering. Ths tint may be exceeded for amorphous materials. sch {fused sea and other Kinds of gases The most whey usd ‘esouring technic fr slides the pulse method. Tn rerly al eats, a vibrating resonance typeof tareduce is used for transmitting and rctving nd ocatsoctory means of coupling to the oid sample must be achieved oe good mashing a characte Ia inpedsness As cussed In Seaton 28, whan 3 Yanucar or eansducer assembly (i.e. prob) Isplaed In contac with aol, there i always thin sir gep beeen the neighbouring surfaces unis they 0 ground to opie atest fn expensive and time-consuming proces The sirgxp mac therefor be iled with sabe gud moderate trnamiton losis ae no important, the Fnmerlon technique, for which the transduce nd sid sample ae mesa Insome louis andeaarated bya fixed distances highly aul (ne Figure 6.2, 52 Pulte methods fatally, he pulse mathod consists ofthe generation of short regular pees of ultraontewaees inthe ts sample the ne taken for then to as through measured dstnce being mesuted.Thismethod i limited spe bythe accuracy of massuriag very Sher period of tims, ang, until eomparatly rarely, i coud be wed ony fot Feld work, measring acoustic velocities in atmoepher si nd swat Hower with the sdrancemnt of modern electfonie facie in which ie intel ofl than 107" can be mised erty the pulse mitnod ein nou be used for determining acount velocities ‘an atonuetions in vry hort spl of material: the shores of the ‘apie determine by the lowes limit of wavelength and, hen, byhe highest nit of Frequency n since erst at ow temperatures, ispositie to generate ultveound a frequecie at high ae 100 GH, for which the corresponding wovelength i oF the adr of 60mm (Le. 5x 10°? mb Measurements on srples of only af milimetres tick, reeing frequeeies of some ens of meas te now aulte “The apoiction of utasonc pute tchiique wat brought sbout by the developmont of raat, I ws it wend by Sproul In Gre Brin Bd by Firestone Inthe USA outing the 19981948 war for flow tee tion i solids, bat teappiaton has bean raialyextmned t a! ‘ypet of mosiramsnts nal Kinds of mots “The bate weenie, whieh el the are most commonly used call te pute echo method face Figure 2). At regula itervas {uaselly axwoan 60 and 1600 times per second) a tiga oxits simultaneously bet the me base an the pulse generator. The te tne control connected wo the X plate of the cathode ray ozo ‘cop function i to move the electron beam am lt wright in ‘Gooner short time (anything aetwean 1 ys and tm! and than to Fetu ft tos rigial poiien almost nstentanacly. Inthe sence fey signal ing apotied tothe Y plats, bright horizontal race Soper on the Soran. The pulse gnertor causes a signal of sveral hhondred volts andof negiible duction to be applied 1.8 piezoletis ‘merece nd to excite i ats nota Hoquencias (sce Section 3.2.1. “The transducer then emitea very shor pulse of ultrazound constrg of ‘few wavelengths, deroeing in empltue (see Figure 51a) into the rater under er. Atte same tm, the sige] pas rough te {Une amplifier tothe Y plats Ue osclascape and a age pak A ‘ppeare atthe lechandexwemity ofthe ste, The eit ultrasonic le vetected ot the opposte sounder ofthe test sample and sees bck at the wencducer,wbich now functions asa recive The ‘eetoal slgal, provided by the reclvng warsdvcer sa resut af Is ‘tciteion By the occu ple, ic amplified andthe retitled so 3.0 sional sppeats exo the Y plats ofthe oselosope. ocauze the ampli tuned, only sigsalshaving a frequercy equal to one of the natural frequencies ofthe waracuoy usally the fundamental, fe dotcte by the excoscape. Dung te time taken {or the ultrscund to complete ane et passage hreugy the mata, ‘he letron been in the esclosepe wl haremovad «given distance to tha right and the sgl caresparag to the resived pulse il inciexted by 3 mailer punk 8 (08 Fiore 5.2). The stance of separation 0‘of A from 8 depends om this tne econ the calito ofthe time tow. Becaus the time ba petition frequency is nehroned with ‘te pulse repetition frequency, the peaks A and B spp tobe statlorary. “The velocity of sound inthe medium obtained by ving te smenved ale of te cous ath length by the time of travel 5 do termined rom the tinebuse ofthe esciloscope, which ean be calla Ione of two ways. The fst ito fed ena rom atandard Requency source tothe Y plats ofthe oxllosope, The scand, whe isto te refereed, ito snd ultrasonic puss rough a materi in whi the ue 83 Ragen of re on atc ame with mae era ie te oc of ‘ed of sound Isknown and to ote the polos of the peaks Aan 8. ‘the medium fr eaibeationatellecing surfs, which t kept praet to the wansucer surface, en be moved in 3 precie manner tomy requited postion. A material wad fortis sorte elation = ually calle delay tre tn the delay ire method, the wo transient in contact wth the medium andthe other withthe cay line, ae connected in paral ‘witvone anothers thatthe pul ram eaeh can be propagntee Sim.tancousy through the two metas. Two peaks, ewrewponding 12 Bona forthe uid and the er fr the west mater, eppsar on os‘the screen, The potion ofthe eto forthe delay ins acted ‘until the poks colle with one another. Th detrination isp fied by placing etanvator in sre th the troveduears and aasting them wei ha peeks are the same eight when they apprach coincidence. “The sbeorpton osfiient of a material can be mamared Dy the ‘mullpe acho method fr which tm occszope time tan ie cstrated Unt vera paks of deeeaxng heights corrsponding fo maliple ‘efloctone athe end borate of the mata, appear of the sores (are Fire 8:3). Provied tet the surfaces ee accurately pall wlth ‘one another, the ateauationcoeflicent ean be measited trom the logwrithmie decrement of the pr heights: The usu method is 9 Fun 4 Locwon of vanniing and rating Yoneuce fre th the seeteeess rae items otal acon connects elibratedsteustor In sere withthe transducer and to sot the le of one of the aks (eg, the thie). The vertical ent! ‘adlusee ntl hie levl cols witha horizontal awe 0 9 patel pce in front af ha sveen. The Etting of te atanustr is then aosted unt peak carresponding to an eal defection (a. the ‘sxoon fais to tis ee. Tho attenuaton I then gen by the aumber (of dectbee chang inthe sting of he atest dvd by the oust pathlength (La. twee the lrgth ofthe samp). Grote sanstvty may be obtaiced by comparing peaks of wildly dferog ‘orders (the twentysteond and the scone), proved that they both eoerepond to elections taking place neither the near ld oe {he far iid, the Inte cm, aliowasce must be made for atterwaton used by the spreading a the ber ee Seton 214). When te dated to std the weveormeof terete pus, the rectifier istoned out ofthe eeu.eis someones advantgious, efor highly attenuating meters or for can lowedetction applications, to oe separate taneting ad recdving tansduoes (ee Figure 6.4), Le. the double probe method ss apposed tothe singleprobe method jum desrbed The pak A. ths not appear on the xilscope sree, ut, anit pak reaulred, ot cts 8 zara time mark, the ect chou be modified te alow fora sort tobe fed to the ¥ plates tthe instant of extation ofthe transmitting tonne For seme appiction, eg: messrements of absorption and vwlocty depersion, which re requeney dapendent, long pulse of AV roe eerste ttt obo niapaees emeereees ta ee constant amit is equte. In tis ae, tebeatione of the luarecucar ate zontallod bya radiatauecy oslstor and he pulse ng is controlled by an alectone pls generator or» gtig divin connected to the cout. Figure 8 shaw # camparaon between the ‘ovo ofthe long pls resulting rom ths King of exclation ane ‘he short pulse characteristic of» heslly damper ranedcor cexeted by a high ample de ig of shot durin, “The bee pues echo method crzrbee abe, carefully spied can measure the velacty of sound wih on accuracy af about part a 10. However, 2 davies usd by Willams and Lamb provider an scirecy of btte than 1 part in 10". This makes se ofl! method in wich ‘wo idertcal quire crystal wransdscers T and Rae acted at opposite endothe simple (Figure 88). The ranaicer ate donped st teieny 1 providea iat rosponse over required mites range of fequerces “The pul repetition frequency i adusted forthe sacond ple ro lave osrrniter T hws the fst errs beck from the ecevr after & single reletion.lterference takes pce between the two pulse, end the wave frequney saved nt the combined dgna ample 8 ‘nium. In order to observe th phenomenon the signals fe othe Y plates ofthe asclloscope ae rot retied. The pubs epaition frequency is than equal to te ectprcel of the te (ake forthe uses to complet one tur pasagethragh the simple ard he elocty can be calulted te thisknes of the sample fon, ‘Aether technique, decribed by Skin’ ith ‘ing around method devised ay Holbrook (re Figure 6.7). Thee pulse rensmision Rep — LA secctnen:ff- Perse Fears Piya 7 Bioeng for tein arundmthod ae essai? device for whic short pula from the tranaitorT pats thrash the ‘moter and are picked up fy the receiver The reel ofeach pulse by R activates the pulse generator to cause another pute to be wate mite by. The pulse repetition requeny fetus determined by the tine akan forthe pulses to pas through the material. The valacity fe {pun determined ithe thickness of te ample 'skown, ater de sllewance ha beer made for sny tine day characteris of the ‘eeranie cloury. Th acciteey of hismarthod comparable with ‘ha anared by Wloms 2nd Lamb,A technique which is specially stable for mesuements with smal samples of li, 29. frre ot Nighy absorbent materials or where {sersrte temperature conta isequle Is the pas comperisan ‘method. One version, debe by Mskimin sf ilusraed schemat ‘aly in Figure 3.8 The Hui consid wing fused sila spacer fing seed botineen two fund ies tode, Fay long Balt rom 8 ‘quart crystal arasiee ore propagates through ane f the rods, and the flected pul ram opposite srfoes of te quid inurfre with ‘one another. On changes af wae frequen, the amplinide ares Incident mean /epcca lexorecire Boma releied “Fused alow (ienedosor® Siged metaaes Soot tteovah mexima snd minim and te waitin la fequency corepond- ing to two successive minima sequal athe reproal ofthe ime ken for the return pesoge of the pulse thru the lal after reflection the emote surface. The scousti velcly ean than be eaeulted fem 2 hnowledg of the theknes of te ould sole «gepree of sceutcy af upto 1 pert in 10° i pose Tha method an lo be Utd for determining the sbiorption stfclnt a the liquid by moasrig the apltuds ofthe pales ‘reflected st both arfaces, efter ellowanoe he ban made forthe eharsc- terse impedances ofthe iuld and aa butler (86 equations 2.18 ard 2.16) In thir cae, the pulses should bo short enouch to eliminate 15.2 Prognsvecontinsous wave method For progresive continuout wave methods the (ans tng tracer iced st content emplitide ad ove very rarow band a he ‘equiad frequency so as to gererate continaous wovs Inthe sme %“The waves are detectod bya rotting wansduce ane at 2 rmossured stance fom the source. This method is lable only whem {the atenuation in the material high or when same damping device seit, fon oe four} ANI? copped ance ‘romesaltr) ee ee {a sovewaten or tor on orton an placa atthe remote end of the sample to prevent ay reflections om taking place andthe conseqient foaton of selon waves ‘A type rangement uso [a Figue 6.93. Stns at a len frequency 20 ed from 2 cortinous wave oseilitr tothe wersmiting lworsduce and, atthe same time, to the Y; plots ofa double beam tnthede ray osilostpe. Thi laters gal provides reference trace on ‘he ocllonenpeseren [Figure 5 te] The sound ware picked up by C7{he rcevingLranedvcar ace converted to on akemating voltage ofthe same frequency and wevetorm and or fd othe Ya pate ofthe oxo: seone ta provide a acond trae. When the rcave saved away fom (0: toweeds the saute, this socand trace moves athe fo the relerrce tac, The wovelength is éatrmingd by measuring the dla ‘ment ofthe ractive: which gs a phase dererce of 360° between the {wo Cac, ord the frequency may be abtalnes fram the ealioration of Fe 8.10 Tok Bard rma ated represert ase rays te tina base. The stenuaton is measured fran tha dacese Issn tude ot th saeond trae atthe ecewer fe mowed way frm the sure “The method can also be Usd for materials having ow abuorption| coatfeant alow fequercas, where the apaliation of probe recover Iefosible es, for sxampe, Section 3.2.7), For fs, the cantaiing eal shoul be daignd in asc 8 way thi shor isn intrfrance ue {reflections atthe wal oF frend. This can ba achieved by the ue of a pitsblesorbert mtr or by shaping the vel im auch away tat ‘ie wavs ter multiple lateral lectins snd are absorbed fialy by ‘he wal 0 Fipie 810) For slid rods and wie, the receer may be looted 3 these of the specimen and te postion vared by sing The for and of tt rod may be damped by using platicene oF some other salable abort, 88534 Stationary wove o resonance methods the aeoutesnererometer} With resonance methods, tttonary wove ate setup Inthe sample end titer the acute ath length or the frequency i vared until rsononce takes place fn the mri. the thickness ether an exact nombne of haltravelengths or an add qumber of quarter woveengths, depending on the typeof resonance occuring ee Scton 2. For memirements nique and gis, a single everalbe transducer sd paral soll electing arfee simmered in tha mocha ee Fgute 511). The refactor, controlled In poston by some kind of _— seer LB Wontar ZZ aaa Flt oak Seen paste Tae poston in. i tn of eae tard fr ty nig miscometic vie, moved unt stat of cesonance i obtained. The ‘ranaduoer is mourte for minimum damping lt, for exam, Fou 3.4), end an eectrone detector cornactd to it wil indiat the amoliude of 5 lations The inal ected bythe detect Is sheerad for diferent potions of the rllectr and peks wil odcete ‘sonance, The peaks decease in amlituda asthe dance fom the ‘urea sincrese, and hey a7 sparse trom one another by 8 Gianee of one halt-weveangth. For low station, the resonance Deak ae sharp andthe decree la amit with tse i mal tt, with high attanuation, the peaks re brosd and ie damn ay. “Tho method of measuring attenuation somewhat imvlve, but, wore this Slow, an aporoximet valu svn by the peck decrement. Figure 512 chow 9 plot of tha oot mann squnre currant throu he ‘roneduce gue the poston of th relent for 3 iqudsampe. 6leis important espckly fr gases where te woven maybe 8 shor as 03 mm at frequency of 1 Mie, thet the eurface athe scuree and eeflctor are acutely earl with ane another otherie fle ‘adi nyt Obaied, The effects of row paraielsm nd eo of ifactionmey give rie to the appearance of Unwanted alton peaks. ‘One method of checking paalelim co brain esonuace and to sau ‘the cremation of te refletor and alto is position lathe to he tour unl the obsaved signa sa meximum. For masaurmontsn solide, the endaurfaces of de ampli should be sczuraly parallel te ono another, The trader mounted on one of Ms. estat current {hess srfoces and the oppose one acts the flr. ts nat posible to change the acoustic path enh, ad, stead tho frequency varied. The dbiered ragonancetequencie ms harmonics ofthe fundamen, fr which the thickness oe halfavelngth, an this sequal othe difference in fraquency betwen Sv aacant harmonic, “The etenvationcoetfelent fora soll may be desrmined bythe apoticationof stationary wnces by the ue ofthe damping cacy oF Incerat ction method, especialy sultabe for Trequeeles of up to 50, iz. Tha sole inthe frm of aba, slap igh 9° mid poit and et ina lbratin a is undernenal natural frequency by means ta miaby designed tansucer. The rate of Seay of the bation it ‘ote, and the attnvatin coefficient thus cetrinad (sae Sactons 2.11 tnd 2.13). A method, orjinmed by Born stated in Figure %5.1240) The 0d, typically fromm 60.mm to 100 mm in length, mounted 1 itsmld pot been wo Krfe-edg supports or three neste pants, located at gles of 120" apart, and is excnd eletrostatically atone (see Section 3.8) For this purpose the end-urfoce of ht rod must be metal pated if he mater is9 poor electrical conductor. The (1. ea? Sra Pa 58 eotathon to wig Ot cots Coureay Daw sans 8 etectrostntle vaneticer en an impule of hish amplitude, snd the fo execus fee damped omilaione which ae detest by 2 simlar ctonateansccer lsat is er and, The abeorption cot tents derined by counting elctenieall te mumberm of vibrations regaled forthe amplitude fl teow eheteotion Ve Le, 2.71828) of Sint smpltuce. Equation 2194 show that = 1/0= Vad.A sinor device exiginted by Giacomini sing electromagnetic exciton Is daribed in Seaton 3.5. Figure 81318) shows how the ‘arming capacity method fused fr tertng the proper of concrete samples 155 Mode comersion and tort reflection matnods “The tt! retetion mathed tL. the utatone goniometer may be used formeaaiting the vse ofboth longitudinal and waneveres waves in isavaple wali specimare when only aslagiepanesurtace ie eccesbe, Wt employs the pinlpiee of ee relleeion and rfrection of ules plane boundary, a deus in Section 2.12 For shi method he ‘old immersed with ite pane boundary uppermost na iqu: Materia Ain Figure 212 raprasants the Hauld and naterll B the sil, Pulsed Uuluasone waves are ransmitted from a piaoelacti traneucer inmarsnd inthe quid along the draction AO atan angle / tothe norma nd tho reflected waves following the path O8 are picked UP by ‘sm rans, sutbly pied stings 9 acivr A pak repre ‘senting the reve reflected ple ceplayedon te screen of an ‘losope “The two ranyer rotated mgttaneousty Psich 8 way that both the aaa inelden ane retecad ages to the corms, for lon tudinal waves, emai the some. Theale of ineldencs increased un ‘her iran teupt cree the height ofthe received race. This india tat the Incident ang hae ach he fe ita a fe. ‘The velcity a, of longtucinal waves nthe sls feed to the velocity ci of longtudio! ves in the iquidy equation 222 Ife, ‘Sknown, ca, can use ealeustd rom the measurement of. To ererine the velocity czy of transverse wave nthe 0, the sgl ‘screed stl further und has esched ts eoond eri vale a, for lahich ther another abut inezeee inthe heh the obsaed race “The va of erie tan dons by equation 273 ‘est rests ae obtained I the obeered scouts path enh emis ‘ently witha the rea Meld (se Section 214). For the eaton one Shou work frequencies exceecing 2 Hs, with tranedior dma ofa sae 10mm. ‘sense metbod, Sevked ty Rolin for massing tase wave Velocities with aslng teanedvet const of enmoring the materi in wate with 3 verte! anasto! vetting surface contact with 2itt ight engies (Fire 5.14. The trnsdcor i rotted about the ais formed bythe verti line of intereecton of the surfaces of the Samole and the retlectr unt the second critical agli reached, a: Indte by 8 sharp ines in he sal strength. When this happens Wf, eu 9.14 Dyanna meet of Ral geno sseface waves refracted slong tha surfer ofthe sm ae immediamly reflected back bythe saints see sufoce and reconared nko longi! wave which tel Bock tothe ransoce 55 Optica methods 56.1. The optical action method “The optical lfaction method may be wie for measurements fn ‘ranepacen ils ae slide Wen sound waver passthrough 9 ae porent ater, periods vriatiane take place inthe reactive Inde, this being a maximum Inthe regions of eompresion ana mln in the regione of expansion. Thess varlatons produces eoare optical, faction grating having epacing equa othe ulrasani wavelength, “The gravng moves with zh vlocty of sound, tat, Because his is ‘neplle compared with th eletty of gn athe material (ypialy| {e108 me" er omparad with 2 10° me" the gating may be coneidered tobe stetanary with respect tothe light pang throu @Aaa of lit, rsnatng fom 8 monochromatic source (6.8.8 rmereury decarae te pised behinds suitable filter r sodium lamp] {nd posing through » narow at ie ender paral by loetng Tater at the focal point of 3 comvérsing optical lene ese Figure 5.5). Loa] ororene “The pura monochromatle beam pases dough the medium, a show, and Is brought 10 2 fous tn the focal plane f he twscope Inthe eenor of ultraaund, cnly 2 ingle aoe ofthe ait observe, but, ten propagation takes place, several equally sped paral! image of tet ere abervedl (ee Fgura 6,16) a. esultotdtretion. The dlance of separation of nalghbourig Imbs, which can be measuted bop maans ofthe gatile inthe eyepice ofthe slescope, vein o%Inverse proportion tothe spacing of the grating Le. the wavelength ‘The raticuefsallerated ether by means of preliminary measurement ‘with quid ia which the velocity of sound is known or by employing conse optial gating of known spacing (9. 40 ines per ilies) “The welectyof sound Is determined by mulpylng the neared value ofthe wavelength bythe frequency of tha oures ‘An advantage ofthis athod shat velo es can be determined i ‘comparatively smal sis of teri, One the optic! system st ‘Up, measurements can te made an aeret amps fly rapid sxceaton If the arrangement dovisd by the author Ieused ee Figure 5.17). The leu is contained in an aecurataly praised gas col ~tisie Mi sos pate paced ant ofa te! lat good sooustl contact witha cuertz {Tonsduce.A thin fim af ofl ents metehing ofthe bas of the el wi opts “The serait of the method depends on the fineness ofthe uit sone grating (i.e heshorte the waeleneth, the fina the ating). ‘the grating co coarse, the images formed bythe recta light booms sa t00 close together for proper reolution. For qué, the lowest, Drocticabe ques Isabeut TOM: for which «quer cyst ource 'sneceesry. The Hrequerey corresponds toa wavelength of spproximately 018 mm for whlch the equivalent opel eating spacing is about 7 ies por ilinte. The upper frequency limits determined bythe ebeerptioncoefclant of the mete “The method Is unsutabe for gases baause ofthe low degree of contrast retrace tndox betwen the compressed ad rarefied faglns of the wave‘A prope explanation of the phenoranon of opt fraction Isto be found n textbooks ceting with pois opti lan, fr example, Longhurst) O2 The Sohlieen method “The Schileren method provides an elective way of vavasingultaronke teas, bat Isnt nrmsalyragerded ar 2 ens of measuring sound ‘alot or attenuations typical arargement for tis method iustoted tn Figure 5.18, Asit ie ilumiated by 2 source of mone: chromate gh, and ts imei ocasedon toa wir paral tothe ated tor oe we ee a we Frequency "ee 7 errs, after ach ce ans ant j "wm #0 reaased by eattaton may be determined by absening the lox of veld from easion, dus to eavtston, of metal fle suspended nthe cui, This ean also be dene by eluting te chums! shang rough abeut by he process, £3 ve amount of chlrine liberated by 9 quantity Df eabon tear eerlved i he ig igre 7.1 Sho how the trecholditeity varies with frequancy. ‘Cues for aerated water and for as ee wate, fe shown As one woul cexpect, the trsholdscansiderably lowe for strated water than for 1meee water Th theedold remain fay constant a low frequencies, bt itrises ail for foquencies higher shan ebout 10 kis, This le Is arabuted to the fact hat, at highr frequencies, thee may aot be touah time betwen cycles t alow for aficint grown ofthe bubbles {er catation to ota (Cvitstion may be mupprassed by asbincting he qu oan increased hottie pressure soa orl the dreholdineny. A decrease In dheshol intensity takes place when the time of exposure to lt ‘cued is nereaize, his beng eto fit ine dapsing between the Start of scout exeltaon and the onset of eaitation. Thos, when ped wavs are ceneritad ithe liquid, the threat tent it ‘eve on te lngthe of the pul bing creed “Te Intorty of oeitation loeroses wit amperatre a 9 eh of ‘the production of further entation use de to heating: Howere, 3 a / i 3 10 O88 FAB Temperature (°C) 7.2 Cans ain 9 nena ng osm an temperance lo brings abut lowering ofthe surace tension 1 the liquid and an ereae Ine eatraton vapour pres, both of ‘which affect coviaton. The energy reso by cavitation wil generally tft increas wit wmperatre, then pas throug 2 peak, and ily ‘dcresa a the temperate i nereaed sil urher. Figure 72 usteates ress of measurement of eavttinaleoson asa funtion of trpete {re for» number af qulde. Thus, o proce maximum cavitation 10etfrcsin given liquid, one should operate ot» terpartur eotspand- Jing othe pas on the curve. This snot always feasible because the Piszosec tc ot maprototrictve affct othe trneducor nay decree onaderbiy tthe temperature said 100 high Water, becaust of ts comparatively high surfoo sension is very tected for evitation ftean be rade tl more efecto by the adtan of about pat sem akc, which eslsin a onslerebe ‘crass in the aturted vapour pres but » decrees In wre tenon. However, the basis fect aised by the ein vspcut preruremore than compensate for any lite dito the fall stan Cevitation may be aecompanig by 2 wk ersion of Hohe ‘phenomenon Known a sonafuminescrce, From which & continues Spocirum can bo observe. This prababty are rom the incandescence ‘ofthe vpour inthe bubbles is raul flea ncteaus In temperature ‘of thousand f egret. other posite eae ofthe phenomenon i the production of eectrcal charges across the bubbles ar eat of Tonitation pried by eaitaton, "The vrlas effects of catation and thar appiaons ae eizused in some ofthe following sections ofthis chapter. One choose alow ‘operating frequency Wo obtnin the mexinu effect, but the lowest practzabe limit about 1B. low this frequency, the saudi utile, and, because of the very high inansy requires to produce fetaon, cantons fr the opetstor and ethers the iii are bth ‘unpleasnt and han 1.3 Emulsiieaion ‘An ingortant application of ultrxonialy induced evttion eth ‘emulieation ot two immitcbe guide sen a oll and water. Oe Injectd into the water, whic then excited ulranesly te price eatin, As result very fine dople's of lar orced with hgh ears ota the body af he water an he mins partis of "epiyelipetse to form a high eable emultlon. The aeme home _tian is tan ali to this proces [EmulsReatlon can alan occur 9s direct contecnnce of alton stone, even inthe abahoe of cavitation. An example ofthe he mixing ‘together af two guid having wiely ering demog ee wat and rmereury. However, the erulston so formed not very tabla andthe Migies parte ater avery short te. 130‘The production of enusions by ulrasolealy Induced covaton has extansive app ization in uc, whore often found to be mote affective thanby the mathed of mechanical aitation orig Urtrasosieteheiques ae advantagoousbacae hee iess mechani! war ofthe equipomntand no unwanted i bubies vetoed There tno aged tore the temperate, an edvantage whe esting might otherwise afte calty ofthe product, ano time ie ‘wasted in wating fr the emulsion to cool dav ‘Appictions of utrsonically induced homogeistion oe numerous. In the food industry, be method isuzd inthe propsration of ery products, av60 nd gis, mayonnaise nd sad creas, and sybat ‘reams nthe froze ood inestry, the sauces prepared by ultreson homostnation wl withstand repested fezzing and thawing becouse © Pump and wsete ine 7.3 Peducin femasins ig trans wedge whit sar Crm nt rap)! ae othe hich stably of th emulson. The phenomsnon is appliedaso te the preparation of phormaceutiel prague, incluing at Bate preparation, endo comnts, pint, nd pie, “Theresnant wed whist, dsribad In Section 3.4, soften usec forthe production of enusion, Figure 7.3 lysates amethod of preacing an oi-witeremulslon wth tis devia First of alan “mulion fe frmedultraonlsly a the ol itroducod into te wate [Figaee7l], and then dhe etre efined by cevlation. Fil, 135the oll wooly is dimonnected and the mulon fs frced through the white ata th steond sontaier to produce an even fine spendin, “The dlometers ofthe suspended pariles may be a ile a 21m, 74 Uasonestomisaton ‘As eatly 9 1927, Weod and Loomis showed thet whan bam of interes ultrasound emerging fom a raradacer meer in Tigi eactes upware, 2 fa mist appears above the race. Tho deity of ‘the mist depends onthe intensy ofthe waves and the sae ofthe ropes rane to the frequency ard othe surface tension ofthe oud Surface waves re propagated as eran of the detrtance, 3 thei wovelongth Is determined by tet ante. Isher been shown ‘that the lameters of tho droplets are approximately equal to aie —L way | ~troneaucer ies than the hlfawoeength ofthe surface waves, This spits hat ‘he droplesare formed by thesscion ofthe wave peaks, Frequencies vse for atari atmisaton rang rom about KH to rrorat megnterz, depending onthe equled se of the opie. which may extend fom 100,um to 10am. Appleations hve ben made {elinhaaton therapy adaio to th dedgn of of burrs. Inthe otter ‘2e, ont can dsperse uth to small ashy Blocked ofc which aeroquited fot conventional ll trees Inany ease, blaekaats which do ‘eeu canbe seared by the action of theul-ound.Flgute 7.4 IMusrates the properties of doves uted by Mullard Equipment Lc for ltrcon tensa, 17 fect of ultrasound on aepenslone ‘nen utesoure pases through fal in which partes ae suspended, the prestre of racatlon (se Section 2.6) pues the pate long the direction of propagation. tna satonary wave system, however, the motion takes paca tor the artnodet to Ue nodes of couse Bree, whore the ports cong, lt ae fl when heavy enough 10 ‘rercome both the viscosity and the hyérosatic upthnst of the ‘nen the porteles rein the form af a gas, the bubbles codese atthe nodes ad then ibe to Ue sul, ‘Aoplictins of ther eects nude the pasion of fog and smoke end alo the dogesing of molten gas, molten meas, liquid foodstlts {pilot to vaesum packing. and bear prior to bern) For the deaasing of bottled quis, ltrasoundat a freauency of about 20 KH ‘enerated to produce sallonary wees The caleced bubbles ze co the ok ofthe bot and into teat after whlch the stopper sited. “The effects jue deter ore caved by agtaton alone adn mo ‘wey, a6 du to ealaton. Ito happens he, Hf the insensty is igh ‘eaigh in liauid for cvitalon to ke place, the parties may beak ‘op an form an erulion, 76. Uaioe leaning reson elesning i» procas whieh can fvole bath agitation and ‘envitstion, Mos applications, nung the claning of lage camponests, tee cava out Inte low fequeney range, frm TBkHz 10 40 KH, in which evttion I mar abtive, Howover, with dlleat aries, which tre oxy daraged higher requeneles within the ange rom 10D KH2 {01 MHz, where civitation Feral absent, or uss, ‘The tances ofan atlached tothe aut af dhe cleaning en te prevent any damage toil by ea Cleaning ot low frequencies ie normaly carted ou with ceramic and imagnettstve tranacier, te formar. nowadays, beng lcladein 2 137sandwich astemby fee Seton 3.2.4, Ceramic ransucer are excite ‘by madatey high act voltages, eyplealy about 15 kV, In the frm ‘of pues, and cae must be take in thelr design 0 eliminate he possibilty of thermal hocks (which may ave ts to depolaistion and ctl socks (wbich might ose damogt, The chareteristic ‘mpednes of exam traeductr ae arly well matched ta thew of ‘heclesning figs ands high output pow is hut posi Mogretasetve racer require onl comparatively low vltges {or thelr operation bu eke high currents However, becauzs they ae ‘made of envy meta, thal character imaadsnce fe hgh compared ‘ith thom ofthe cleaning uae, their power outputs re reiatvaly lower nd hey are goseraliy len eficiert than cram tansdacer. On the other hand hey ar very robust compared with the Bitte ceramics ‘nd thor is rch les chance of esicenal damage. Furthermore magnetostrictive transducers hoe high Cri temperate, xncia om ‘3 for rckal to aboot 900°C for germond, and wil withstand high temperatures witout depolarisation ‘The dation of mapnetsrcetransducershas now baen improved to provide beta matching wih leaning ids by spacing apart the ‘aminains bo 35 to reduce the overall density ofthe vibating 5) sed tus the lfctve charecarite Impedance, Output einai: of the let caigs compre fevouraby with those of ceramic ranssver, “Tha ideal ean Mul should possess the flowing prope: 1. Low surface tenlon for eavtatian atlover eels 2. High saturation vapour pressure fr hither eovitation eet 3. Good uertng properties to peeve better cont with the component be cleaod 4 Low viszosty 1 provide rapid panetration into the si 5 Abily to react chamiealy with ther 6. Abity to hold theo in eperson to peeves Ttichloreethylene an eyelohexone have proved to be atlfoctory for ost purpoee, But manufacturers hive non deeloped new acatins ‘with 2 view to sat ng the above mentioned reuireents in he ost ffiient manner Figure 7.5 hows a types! cleaning bth for sa eae opera and Fite 16 Husttes a method of leaning» large numberof omponers, ui a conve belt atrngerent, ‘Uitreonis claaing not only rapid and eat process ut ie ao los tiabeto cause damage to components than the mere conventions! 138Hor 78 uration tr eaten prin. Cary ane (Merk at ‘ge 1 Convayor be wangeon fr rps stn csning? methods. Apelicition include the removal, without srtehing, of Tapping paste fom leat ft” gaing, the cleaning of erase snd tar from sl offen engine components, theremavel af i, dt, (tse, soluble fax resis, buffering compounds, god procesig soils ‘tom semiconductor devies, printed cies and jew, the ramoal of trish fom metal surfaces, and te moval f bleed ee, from surgical iasvuments. The method, howaver, has ot paved ts factory forthe laundering of clothes, rainy becaute ofthe Op ing tite of textes on the wltrazoni waves Furthemote, i doesnot Sepeat te have competed very successfully withthe conventions rethods ine eld of automatic dehwashing. ne17 opinions wot caren tigen one ua «sic Sen pl it tbe tw materia ih has ae ror en ree rth 2 igen 17 ean rns one cian eet 8 1 ase rest, virsories bs cr atin wo Hae NE errs aod OF fo oor ered I 4 ee vue es ae iaent ME in sig acoustic paws cat dw anatne seen zo kpnesezemay bes met nea 10 erginein ae ae rae Corey BY pny ers sore a cis with conventions ofp i to Cee vata ade at option 07010 Ee vehi 8 anand, Toa aedon of he gS resect wie ate a nT meri dae may BOK re Fe 3:15 (CNP 7 suai cost = wend 8 ome 140to omagnatoncte wansducet. Acting too screwed tnt nto the sarrow end. The od, which of resort long, ets a3 Yelacty transformer (ee Section 2.2), The tool need be made of oly 3 eat tater sch amid tel, becavm the actual tting fe potormed by trvabraie sry, boron carbide, silicon carbide, oF slum im serbide In suspension, The slur i apie’ between the work sd the ‘ool, and x continualy renewed during th eutng ptocom The rmatiod as ben found tobe highly acrantagicus fr the dling of herd and breve materia, sucha ls, cetele,tungston ear, ermaciu thas bee pid extensvely to sh process a the cutting of wire-dawing dies semiconductor mizrolectroni devon, ‘ed jovels for watch bearings. Figure 7.8 ilusratesatypeal comers Uulussonl dt together with aselecton of coupling ods. 78 Metarjenapplontions ch asees hat teen aehleved by the applications of hier ntensty sitrtound to the Wastment and working of metal. As wel 3 eiting Vriabe canaotiance Manetatrcton PESO ieraer i Elecrostave 7 Sitastc otocke odat étamp and fatigue toting, a: beusted in the previous action, the applications Inciode te resonant of melts, solelng, and welding ‘When a moltan mata & cooled, tesa! tat apse bubbles are removed prior reaching he soll stote. Dgasing con be achieved by iracting tie mat with Nigh latndy ultrasound (se Section 7.5) {Weodling czars unde normal soaditions, etls bein t form atthe 1atemperature of slication. The crys grow tosires which depend an thereof cooling and the types oF Impure, amy, aese inthe ‘eta Ulraocie cavitation cause the breaking upof the crystal, od ‘he sod which nally fommed es then amlch ner san stuctre than ft would have cooing wate to take place withthe mt ond sunbed. ‘The ulwasonle soldering of metelcan te efenng without the use of ty fh, a4 roubles aii rom he troduction of errs su stanens re thus eminated Aa ultrasonic soldering ro someuhst ‘Sriar in sign a theuleasone dil was introduced some yeas 20 fd i iusuated in Figura 7.8, Te ese iorence betwen the to Instruments shat he Solan ron hat an leroy nested bi nthe poston ocwupied by te too 38 the endo te ultmeonic il, The vibrations ofthe bit praguce catalan In thesolde, sus eeaning me Surface ofthe work a emoving oxide costogt An excellant adhesion ‘tthe wert the metal surface wll hen ake pce, nother instrument fr soldering she ultrasois toning bar, whieh ‘sued for small pars ong wires. It conde ofa metal bath contzning ‘moltn solder in which ultratone cavitation is produced by the action af a igh power transducer. ee ee ‘owe 7.30 Unni wetng mated, Sone Pama Unt the discovery of Foxe suitable fr aluminium, the us of Uulasonss provided the only aly eoctve way fgoering he meta, Untrasoie soldering ha proved Ks tobe highly ficient for iro Joint, ne older jolts hae an md why OS mm (002 damier gold wire on gotplsed slison an soon ehinha fit 115m (0064) thik 192‘Another aplication of hi intent ultrasonic i het of welding ‘The ueasaiewalging of metas canbe Berormed strom temperatures ‘without the need fr any special urtece preparation, and pacteally no deformation of he work takes place. The pysial mechani Tnvaled in tis proche ae nt fully understood, but it rprobebe thet rmoleule dition takes place aroc he sures n contact wth one nother When the ehniqua wat feet developed in about 1955, ar hough that it wuld ontrace a wide ange af aplieation, but, for cata ope hasbeen ited othe welding of thin meta ets nd fol Figure 7.10 ilvsatera typical arrangement ung 2 magret Scie wansduce working wt fequency of 25 kHz It an b 800 ‘tht the proces takes pare under th ation of sanaveree wave This icin coecrast tothe vibrations acting normaly tothe contacting ertaces forthe welding of plete materials lie Section 7.11), Devices ofthis kind hive prove to be ust oF sot end am wo 79 Chernin efoste One of te afets of emittion in lula the promotion of chemial reactions. This caused bythe elacrolytc action Draught about Dy the sopenrence of sou and apposite fre elcricneheret 9 opposite feof the bubs, the enorme localiereate of presi and temperature when the Bobbes claps, ana the rele af ey Korn the bubotes hen esonating with the utzon was, (Orainary tp-waterelectrolses a 8 res of ctation, and It certain aubrance are Giolved in, either oxidation of retin may fccur, depending om the rate ofthe dasa substance. A wel noun xarpl she eectalyte separation alte K and ins when crystals of potasdum loci (Kt) are ssoed i ute. The K fons are then orn nd fre loine i produced Because ofthe vary slo rats of rear, the chem changes brought about by ultrmound hae very ite practical appiotion, How ver, thar been found het ultrasonics have acclested by « considerable fect those chemi! change ita by ober rar Uiteesos as ‘en been apie with sues To polymaistion pracesas and mete ‘Acuccusfi application a ultrasonics to chara ston has bean nade to alkyiston proces, whieh require vigraus agitation ering ure 7.17 Mostra ane rype of arrangement were the a‘The quality i acwaly improved because the proces dost not require ny boing, wih ls eauntal forthe oder methods af hop extraction. igh intensity ulrxound ie often uted for serisaton, Applications hove been made to the sterilisation af milk, bu, onfrtunsty, the so rtgemrair J] oe / | restation tp na 2.19 urgent esa wut nr toni lovour is samen: Ipaird probably owing to sme chemi rection tukiog place Another eof wrasones isthe tandrsog of meat by the breaking down af ee Menton sould be made a the akan efertof ultrasound on hur tangs Care must be akan inulratant medial eagnod 10 restrict helen level 0 wal below th in aban why colar dhenape ta and drupe effects on chromosomes may oozir Atborne| Usraxound of hah intensity ean alsa havea harm afec a i, Far team, persons operating high-power ultasonic equipment to eng periods hav been subjected fatigue and nausa even 3 requencas ar 6removed fom the sce rage. In foc, hig-nnany urasound es eon succesfully employed in the xaring ay of Medial appstion of hishintensity ultrasound ae omens Finite. For cult lng tine, the eating eects have ber uted for the tresment of muscular admerts suchas mbedo, Becaise of the rnaceasty of focuting the waves io sleted tone, to avid nage to senatve tues, frequencies in he magpiera range are oem used Fecent sdvances have bean made in uluasonle surgery, espellly in the field of neurology and tology, ena sneiderebe gout of seco ‘he trestmant of Métis cic, a affletion of the ee, hae bee schloved Figo 7.13Tasraes 2 trenaaoer, described by Crawford one ‘Brown ang Gordon®) omgned for neuromirgey. A pevosecre rane ducer operating at a ower megahertz requency fs coupled 109 tnd snetal at and then to fcusing polystyrene ens. A cone fed with Ahiseted water and maunted over he fen couple ths converging baa ‘hous a membrane ard coupling Fld to the pti’ lp "Te ultrasonic ei, weeking na Feiprocal manne se Section 7.7), thas been apoliod ta dentistry ts ptincpal advantage ae simplicity in uttng andthe fc that the ection i painless. On the orn hand, owt ver, acontnuautevply of eluryifegired, much heel geste, ted its found thatthe cutting action is wholly satisfactory for stk Istria such a5 decay. When ftnarodueed, the device was consiered Tohaves promising fara, bat iter int than dined, Rec, however, improvements have taken poe and Ta intares as snes boon renewed in view ofthe pony of applying ultresound tothe atustior ot highapredtotery ots Fuller secount of utresnic splieatiors to balay and medicine se given by Brown and Gordon, 71 Ultraonicwalding of pli a bras Following the oscowery ofthe poibilty of widing mae by lratonic ‘methods extenivedevlapments nave been mad in the welding together of pastes meter, Succes hat been arhived wth oforsted polyesrs, polyetylanes, polystyrene, polyanigs, vin, Pai ropenes,poiyearbonees, and a numberof fuoraeatbons. On the other hand, some pasts, Including Teton, do ao eng thars'2s 10 rs treatment. The physi proertins ofthe welding proces, though not 147vet fully understood, are vigenty not the seme a those governing the ‘ding together of met The wlding of lute takes place under ‘he action of longitudinal vibration, 6 opposed o deb batons for the meging of meta The effet ofutaxound fs probobly To clean The touching surfaces, fatten thom ta prove a more efficiant means of onto and ten ge rie to fon from one materia othe otha. Prowded that canbe allowad by the molecular smucture of the ‘wo meterals beading then occur. The welling proces Is schleved by the eee applestion of thetip cof avelocitytanstorner connenad at broad and toa high sd lowsfrequancy (eg 20k) transducer, an arongoment used inthe sluaeonic (se Section 7-7, The ime ace for the proces Ico ‘idea longe han that equied forma be the oi arenas ‘every high, ually ch higher than thos which ean be aenve, tall, by othermethods “Thi muthoghas bres extended to the welding Sogetee of man-made ‘oes, ireting nylon, acrylic, ane polgroprlene, ay wal 9 metres fof manmade and nora fixes, 9 aylon an Wool. Tesie strengths Of the nts have buen cnsiraly higher tan those ablnabe by other methods Furhermore,amuch beter Jant an be achieves sitaronely, An account ofthe ultsonie welding of threads hes ben tren by Crowtord ‘ROW, Band GOODMAN, Highine Ultonle = neat ‘estat it congo B65 a NER as Rr, Rhy So ey, on Yon lCho 8a 4 CRAWFOMD, A. unsmone Eger ute won London (1985) fates ovat tS, En ede, London 1511837 Shon a, ane GOMDOM, 0. Urasnt eign Bier ond Searoto, in Uren, Logon, 148INDEX xemnaaes or deoiacrment, ° ‘maasirawents of, 75, 29) cipal Sassy eons one Emam Same Deby ey 228 ‘Eevonschane! conning olin, Ferien, erin Fromme mah daton rin 10,18 rasan nation 118PS en ore mpedance mots, 97 =a lene pasate Fes Laminin dtston of, 04 ena apa, 29 (aiden ot tide 982,69 ose conerson ethed, 92 Nike 47 Petceweecaett Proce esr, 47 Fonerytine rat propeptn oi rte oan, 2 Peete, 2, 100 eat 0) tr, 19,20,24.22 ‘aes, 2 efecto ton oe Mccnemccaltse Basonaee, 16,35 Treen foes Foot man square (im) vale, 13, sig en Siieenmrtied 98 Sorina wisi 98Thera seen, 6063 ‘Tora recton metho, 92, 98 Froscor 2? ery 3294.28 47, 128 Sl 269,78 cote Pret at sete 27 Sees @ \eiciot ee saith 0.08 Veet aren tn, 8,108, Fh, 268. 10 rena, 1,21, 28, 36,65 edn incor, Wit tea 40,17 ec 6, incon, 2,37