CHAPTER EIGHT € PLANAR GRAPHS G1 Introduction In this chapter, we consider graphs that can be drawn in the plane without their edges crossing. Such graphs we call planar graphs. Definitions. A planar graph is a graph that can be drawn in the plane in such a way that no two edges meet each other except at a vertex to which they ate both incident. A graph that is so drawn in the plane is said to be embedded in the plane. A planar graph that is embedded in the plane is called a plane graph . ‘The graph G & K, of Figure 8.1(a) is drawn with intersecting edges. Nevertheless, G is a planar graph because it can be drawn in the plane without any of its edges intersecting, Figure 8.1(b) shows G redrawn with no edges crossing. Thus, the graph of Figure 8.1(a), though planar, is not a plane graph. On the other hand, the graph of Figure 8.1(8) is @ plane graph. The drawing of a planar graph in the plane is not unique. Indeed, a given planar graph can give rise to several different plane graphs. oR oo A (a) ® Figure 6:1. A planar graph. Planar graphs have many practical applications, such as to circuit layout problems. In the design of electronic chips, we wish to locate several nodes on a circuit board (a flat board of insulating material) and connect certain pairs of these nodes by electrical wires (or conducting strips) printed directly onto the circuit board, The electrical wires may not cross, since this would lead to undesirable electrical contact at crossing points. Can we connect the nodes in such a way that no two of the connecting wires cross? In graph theory terms, the problem is to determine whether the graph associated with the cireuit (where vertices represent nodes, and edges correspond to electrical wires connecting pairs of nodes) is planar,Another area where planar graphs are important is in utility problems. Suppose, for example, we have three houses and three utilities, namely, electricity, gas, and water. Is it possible to connect each utility with each of the three houses without the utility lines cross- ing? This well-known problem is referred to as the Three Houses and Three Utilities Problem. This situation can be represented by the complete bipartite graph K3.3. Be Figure §.2. The graph Kaa. So the Three Houses and ‘Three Utilities Problem can be restated in graph theory terms: Is Kya a planar graph? We will return to this question once we have established a few basic results about planar graphs. We close this introduction to planar graphs with the following poem: In Central Spain, in mainly rain ‘Three houses stood upon the plain, ‘The houses of our mystery To which, from realms of industry Came wires with power to light and heat, And pipes with gas to cook their meat And other pipes with water sweet. ‘The owners said, Where these things cross, Burn, leak or short, we'll suffer loss. So let a graphman living near Plan each from each to keep them clear.” Tell them graphman, come in vain, ‘They'll bear one cross that must remain Explain the planeness of the plain. Blanche Descartes 6.2 Properties of Planar Graphs In this subsection, we present some properties of planar graphs. We begin with a formula developed by Euler which plays a central role in the study of planar graphs. First, we introduce some definitions. SBDefinitions. Given a plane graph G, the regions of G are the connected pieces of the plane that remain after we romove the vertices and edges of @. Every plane graph contains exactly one unbounded region, which we call the exterior region. The vertices and the edges of G that are incident with a region R form a subgraph called the boundary of R. ‘To illustrate these concepts, consider the plane graph @ of Figure 8.3. The plane graph G has five regions, labelled Rj, Ra,.-., Rs. The boundary of Ry consists of the four vertices 1,02, Us, 09, and the four edges v:v2, v2v9, Uovs, v1vs. The boundary of the exterior region consists of all the vertices of G, except vp, and the eight edges v.02, v202, v04, Us, UsUs, vev7, U7vp, and vgvs. Observe that each eycle edge belongs to the boundary of two regions, while each bridge is on the boundary of only one region. vy Bs vt ty of G: er % Figure 63. Boundaries of regions. ‘The plane graph G of Figure 8.3 has p = 9 vertices, q = 12 edges, and r = 5 regions ‘Thus, the graph G satisfies p— q-+r = 2. This equality always holds in a connected plane graph. This well-known formula was discovered by Buler [3] in 1752, and is a classical result, of graph theory. ‘Theorem §.1 (Euler's Formula) If G is a connected plane graph with p vertices, q edges, and r regions, then poate Proof. We proceed by induction on q. If g = 0, then G & Ki; so p = 1, and p—q+r = 2. Thus, the result is true if g = 0. Assume that the result holds for all connected plane graph with fewer than q edges, where q > 1, and let G be a connected plane graph with q edges. Suppose that G have p vertices and r regions. We show that p-atr Gis a tree, then r = 1 and, by Theorem 3.2, q = p—1, 0 p—q+r = p—(p—1) +1 we have the desired formula. On the other hand, if G is not a tree, then G contains a cycle edge e. Then G —e is a connected plane graph p vertices and g — 1 edges. Furthermore, the two regions incident with e in G produce one region in G—e, so G—e has r— 1 region. Applying the inductive hypothesis to G — e we have p-(g-N)Fr-1)=2, on, equivalently, p= q-+r=2. 0 FT SGIt follows from Theorem 8.1 that no matter how a connected planar graph is embedding in the plane, the number of regions of the resulting plane graph is always the same. ‘Thus cone can speak of the number of regions of a connected planar graph. Our next result: shows that a planar graph on a fixed number p of vertices cannot, have too many edges. ‘Theorem 6.2 If G is a planar graph with p > 3 vertices and q edges, then 15 3p~6. Proof. Consider an embedding of G in the plane (as a plane graph), resulting in r regions. Every edge lies on the boundary of either one or two regions. Therefore, if the number of ‘edges on the boundary of a region is summed over all the regions, the result is at most 2g. However, the boundary of every region contains at least three odges, so such a sum is at least 3r. Hence, 3r < 2g, or r < 24/3. Applying Theorem 8.1, we obtain 2=p-g4rSp-q+2q/3 =p— 4/3. Therefore, ¢ < 3p—6. 0 We are now in a position to return to our question of whether or not the graph Ks is planar. Theorem $3 The graph Ks, is nonplanar. Proof. Assume, to the contrary, that Ks is planar. Consider any embedding of Ks. is the plane, resulting in r regions. Since Ka,3 is a bipartite graph, it has no triangles; so the boundary of every region contains at least four edges. Let « be the number of edges on the boundary of a region summed over all r regions. Then, 2 > 4r. However, since Ks,3 contains no bridges, every edge lies on the boundary of exactly two regions. Thus, the sum counts each edge twice; that is, + = 2g = 18. Therefore, 4r < 2 = 18, or, equivalently, + $ 9/2. Thus, r < 4, However, by Theorem 8.1, r= 2+q—p=24+9-6=5. This produced a contradiction. We deduce, therefore, that Ka. is planar. G We can now see that in the Three Houses and Three Utilities Problem it is impossible to connect each utility with each of the three houses without the utility lines crossing. It tums out that Ks,3 plays a major role in the study of planar graphs, as does the complete graph Kg on five vertices. As an immediate consequence of Theorem 8.2, we can show that Ks is nonplanar. Theorem 6.4 The graph Ks is nonplanar. Proof. Assume, to the contrary, that Ks is planar. Since Ks has p = 5 vertices and = 10 edges, 10= 49> 3p-6=9, which contradicts the result of Theorem 8.2. Thus, Ks is nonplanar. mS‘We close this subsection with a well-known characterization of planar graphs due to Kuratowski. For this purpose, we define a relation on a graph called a subdivision. Definition. A subdivision of a graph is the graph obtained by inserting vertices (of degree 2) into the edges of the graph. For the graph G of Figure 8.4, the graph H is a subdivision of G. Figure 64. Subdivisions of graphs. We are now in a position to state Kuratowski’s Theorem [7]. However, we omit the proof, which is too involved and lengthy to present here. ‘Theorem.6.5 (Kuratowski’s Theorem) A graph is planar if and only if it contains no subgraph that is isomorphic to a subdivision of Ks or Ka. Exercises G.1 Suppose the Three Houses and Three Utilities Problem were the Four Houses and ‘Two Utilities Problem. What would the solution be? 6.2 Show that the graph Kz, is planar for every positive integer n. §.3 For the plane graph G in the accompanying figure, determine the vertices and the edges of the boundary of the region R and the boundary of the exterior region. 6.4 Show that the graph obtained from Ks by removing an edge is planar. @.5 For which values of n is the complete graph Ky planar? SE6.6 Prove or disprove: If G is a connected graph on p vertices and q edges with q = 3p—6, then G is planar. 6.7 (2) Show that if a shortest cycle in a planar graph with p vertices and g edges has length k, then < he-2) k-2 (b) Deduce that a planar bipartite graph of order p > 4 has at most 2p — 4 edges. (c) Use this result to show that Ks; is nonplanar. 6.8 Prove that if a graph G and its complement G are both planar, then G has at most 10 vertices. §9 Use the fact that every cycle of the Petersen graph (shown below) has length 5 or more to prove that it is nonplanar. (Hint: Use Exercise 8.7(a).) bans Kenyi vision of Ks. 8.14) Prove that the Petergen graph is nengl using Kyratowshi Theorem. (Hint: 0 eloteuXe two k6rizont 6.8 The Four Colour Problem In this section, we discuss a problem which at one time was the most famous unsolved problem, not only in graph theory, but, perhaps even in the whole of mathematics. ‘The Four Colour Problem, Can any map on the plane (or sphere) be coloured with four or fewer colours so that adjacent, countries (those sharing a common boundary, not just a point) are coloured differently? ‘The Four Colour Problem dates back to 1852. In the July 17, 1879 issue of the journal Nature came the announcement that the Four Colour Problem had been solved by Al- fred Kempe, a London barrister and keen amateur mathematician. Kempe’s proof of the th SDfact that every map can be coloured with 4-colours was published in an 1879 issue of the American Journal of Mathematics (5) and an 1880 issue of Nature (6). For this remarkable accomplishment, Kempe was knighted and made a fellow of the Royal Society. However in 1890, Perey Heawood [4] discovered an error in Kempe’s proof - an error so serious that he was unable to repair it, The problem was finally solved on June 21, 1976 by Kenneth Appel and Wolfang Haken [1] who announced that they had solved the Four Colour Problem. Their proof required over 1200 hours of computer calculations to produce a proof running to several hundred pages and some 10 000 diagrams. However, to date there does not exist a purely mathematical proof showing that every map can be coloured with four or fewer colours. ‘The Four Colour Problem can be rephrased in graph theoretical terms. To do this, we define a colouring in a graph. Definitions. A colouring of a graph G is an assignment of colours (elements of some set) to the vertices of G, one colour to each vertex, so that adjacent vertices are assigned distinct colours. If n colours are use, then the colouring is referred to as an n-colouring . A graph G is k-colourable if there exists an n-colouring for some n < k. ‘We now return to the Four Colour Problem. With each map, we can associate a graph G whose vertices correspond to the countries, and where two vertices are adjacent if the corresponding countries are adjacent. Such a graph G' is a planar graph. The Four Colour Problem can thus be restated as follows: ‘Theorem 6.6 (The Four Colour Theorem) Every planar graph is 4-colourable. Although the Four Colour Theorem is so difficult to solve, Heawood [4] was able to prove the Five Colour Theorem with suprising ease. To prove this theorem, the following result is useful. ‘Theorem 6.7 Every planar graph contains a vertex of degree at most 5. Proof. Let G be a planar graph with p vertices and g edges, and V(G) = {01.0.5 vp}. If p <6, then the degree of every vertex is at most 5. So we may assume that p > 7. By Theorem 8.2, ¢ < 3p— 6. Therefore, » Veg vj = 2g < 6p — 12. a If all the vertices of G have degree 6 or more, then 2q= Yo degv; > 6p, ai which produced a contradiction. Hence G must contain a vertex of degree 5 or less. 458Theorem 6.8 (The Five Colour Theorem) Every planar graph is 5-colourable. Proof. We proceed by induction on the order p of a planar graph. ‘The base cases when 1 < p< 5 are trivial. Assume that all planar graphs of order less than p, where p > 6, are 5-colourable, and let G be a planar graph of order p. By Theorem 8.7, G contains a vertex v of degree 5 or less, Consider an embedding of G in the plane. Then G~v is a plane graph of order less than p. Applying the inductive hypothesis, G — v is -colourable. Consider a 5-colouring of G using the colours 1, 2,3,4 and 5. If one of these colours is not used in colouring the vertices adjacent with v, then this colour may be assigned to v to produce a 5-colouring of G. Thus, we may assume that deg» = 5 and that v is surrounded by five vertices each coloured with a different colour. Suppose that v1, v2, 0s, 04,05 are the five vertices adjacent with v, arranged cyclically about v. We may assume that vs is coloured with colour i, 1 < i < 5. We show that it is possible to recolour some vertices of G~v so that a colour becomes available for v. Consider the eet of vertices of G — v that are coloured with colours 1 or 3. 13 3 1 oP Us. o af \4 % ) Figures. Suppose there is no v;-v3 path in G—v all of whose vertices are coloured 1 or 3 (see Figure 8.5(a)). Let H be the subgraph consisting of all paths that etart at v all of whose vertices are coloured 1 or 3. Then vg does not belong to H. Moreover, no vertex adjacent with v9 is in H1, We now interchange the colours of the vertices of HT. ‘This produces a new colouring of G—v in which both vy and vs are coloured with colour 3. Thus, we may assign colour 1 to v to produce a 5-colouring of G. On the other hand, suppose there is a vi-us path P in G— » all of whose vertices are coloured 1 or 3 (see Figure 8.5(6)). The path P together with the path va, v,v produces a cycle in G which either encloses v2, or encloses v4 and vs. Hence there does not exist a v2-v4 path in G@ ~ v all of whose vertices are coloured 2 or 4. Let F' be the subgraph consisting of all paths that start at vz all of whose vertices are coloured 2 or 4. This subgraph does not contain vg or any vertex adjacent with v4. Interchanging the colours of the vertices of P produces a new 5-colouring of G~v in which both vy and vy are coloured with colour 4. ‘Thus, we may assign colour 2 to v to produce a 5-colouring of G. 0 59Exercises 6.10 What is the smallest order of a graph that is 4-colourable? €.1b Show that there exists a planar graph that contains no vertex of degree 4 or less. 6.1%-Show that every planar graph of order at least 2 contains at least two vertices of degree 5 or less. Suggestions for further reading A. more extensive discussion of planar graphs is given in Chartrand and Lesniak [2] and West [10]. Ringel [8] has written a book devoted entirely to the Heawood Map Colouring Problem. A thorough discussion of the Heawood Map Colouring Problem can also be found in White [9] References [1] Appel K., Haken W., and Koch J., Every planar map is four-colorable. Illinois J. Math. 21 (1977), 429-567. {2} Chartrand G. and L. Lesniak, Graphs 6 Digraphs: Third Edition, Chapman & Hall, London (1996). (3] Buler L., Demonstratio nunnullarum insignium proprietatum quibus solida hedris planis inclusa sunt praedita. Novi Comm. Acad. Sei. Imp. Petropol. bf 4 (1758), 140-160, [4] Heawood P.J., Map-colour Theorem. Quart. J, Math. 24 (1890), 382-339. [5] Kempe A.B., On the geographical problem of the four colours. Amer. J. Math. 2 (1879), 193-200. [6] Kempe A.B., How to colour a map with four colours. Nature 21 (1880), 399-400. Kuratowski K., Sur le probléme des courbes gauches en topologie. Fund. Math. 15, gi (1930), 271-283. [8] Ringel G., Map Colour Theorem. Springer-Verlag, Berlin (1974). [9] White A.T., The proof of the Heawood Conjecture, in Selected Topics in Graph Theory. Academic Press, New York (1978), 51-81. [10] West D.B., Introduction to Graph Theory, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ (1996). 60CHAPTER SIX “$ HAMILTONIAN GRAPHS “$1 Introduction In this chapter, we turn our attention to hamiltonian graphs - graphs in which there is a cycle passing through every vertex. The name ‘hamiltonian’ is derived from a game invented by the famous Irish mathematician Sir William Rowan Hamilton. In 1857, Hamil- ton introduced a game consisting of a solid regular dodecahedron (see Figure 5.1) made of wood, twenty pegs (one inserted at each vertex), and a supply of string, Every vertax was given the name of an important city of the time - Brussels, Canton, Delhi, ..., Zanzibar. The aim of the game, called "A Voyage Round the World”, was to find a route along the edges of the dodecahedron that visits each city exactly once and that ended at the city where it began. In order for the player to keep track of the cities visited, the player used the string to join the pegs in the order in which the route was traversed. Hamilton sold the idea of his game to a wholesale dealer of games and puzzles for £25. However the game did not prove to be very popular, possibly because a desired route is easy to find. Figure'B.1. The graph of the dodecahedron. ‘The above game suggests the graphical concept which we term *hamiltonian’. Definitions. A cycle of a graph G containing every vertex of G is called a hamiltonian cycle . A hamiltonian graph is 2 graph possessing a hamiltonian cycle. A path of G containing every vertex of G is called a hamiltonian path . 586/‘Thus, Hamilton’s A Voyage Round the World game asks the player to find a hamiltonian cycle in the graph of the dodecahedron. An earlier example of a problem which can be expressed in terms of hamiltonian cycles is the knight’s tour problem. Knight's Tour Problem. Can a knight visit each square of a standard 8 x 8 chess- board exactly once by a sequence of knight's moves, and finish on the same square as it began? In order to see the connection between this problem and that of finding hamiltonian cycles in graphs, note that the knight’s tour problem can be represented by graph in which each Vertex corresponds to a square of the chessboard, and edges correspond to those pairs of squares connected by a knight’s move, The resulting graph, which has order 64 and size 168, actually contains several hamiltonian cycles. Figure 6.2 illustrates one such knight's tour on a standard 8 x 8 chessboard. Figure.2. A knight's tour on an 8 x 8 chessboard. ‘$2 Which graphs are hamiltonian? The problem of deciding whether or not a given graph is hamiltonian seems similar to the problem of deciding whether or not a graph is eulerian. Since there is a simple charac. terization for eulerian graphs, one might expect there to be a simple characterization for hamiltonian graphs. Unfortunately, no such characterization is known. To date, there is no known condition that is both necessary and sufficient for a graph to be hamiltonian. Indeed, the problem of finding an applicable characterization of hamiltonian graphs is considered one of the major unsolved problems in graph theory. If G is a hamiltonian graph, then G contains a hamiltonian cycle. Hence a necessary condition for G to be hamiltonian is that Gis certainly connected, has no cut-vertices and, of course, has order at least 3, Bee‘There have been several sufficient conditions established for a graph to be hamiltonian, For agraph G of order at least 3, it seoms logical that the more edges G has, the more likely itis to be hamiltonian. The simplest such condition is due to Dirac [9]. The proof technique employed is typical of the type of proof one uses to prove that a graph is hamiltonian, (Reeall that the minimum degree in a graph G is denoted by 6(G).) Theorem’$-1 (Dirac’s Theorem). Let G be a graph of order p > 3. If 5(G) > p/2, then G is hamiltonian. Proof. If p= 3, then 6(@) > 2. This implies that G ¥ Ky and, hence, G is hamiltonian. So we may assurne that p > 4, for otherwise there is nothing left to prove. Let P:v1,02s.-..tm be a longest path in G. Then every vertex adjacent to v; lies on P and every vertex adjacent to v, lies on P; otherwise, there would be a longer path than P. Hence, n=|V(P)| > degn, +1 > 6(G)+1> p/241. We show that there must exist some vertex uj, where 2 < i 6(G) > p/2. Hence, as claimed, there must exist some vertex vs (2 p/2. Since P contains n > p/2-+1 vertices, there are fewer than p vertices not on C. So w must be adjacent to some vertex v that lies on C, However, the edge uv together with the cycle C' contain a path whose length exceeds that of P, which contradicts our choice of P. Hence C contains all the vertices of G. Thus, G is hamiltonian. 0 ‘The sufficient condition in Theorem 6.1 is not a necessary condition for a graph to be hamiltonian. For example, the cycles Cn (n > 6) are hamiltonian but have minimum degree 2, which is less than n/2. Many other hamiltonian graphs cannot be shown to be hamiltonian using Theorem 6.1. A corresponding degree condition to that presented in Theorem 6.1 also exists to prove that a graph has a hamiltonian path. BosCorollary $2 Let G be a graph of order p. If §(G) > (p—1)/2, then G contains a hamiltonian path. Proof. If p= 1, then G & Kj, and G contains a (trivial) hamiltonian path. So we may assume that p > 2, for otherwise there is nothing left to prove. Let H be the graph obtained from G by adding a new vertex v and joining v with an edge to every vertex of G. Then I has order p+1, so v has degree p in H. Moreover, for every vertex u of G, p+i_ (VEDI 2 20° Hence HT is a graph of order p+ 1 with 5(H) > (p+ 1)/2. By Theorem 6.1, we know therefore that H contains a hamiltonian cycle C. By removing the vertex v from C., we obtain a hamiltonian path in G. 0 degn w= degou+12 24 41= If G is a bipartite hamiltonian graph with partite sets Vj and Vp, then it follows that IVil = [Val (see problem 6.5). Theorem 6.2 extends Dirac’s Theorem 6.1 to this clase of graphs. ‘Theorem 6.3 LetG be a bipartite graph with partite sets Vi and Vz such that |V4| = |Val n>2. If 5(G) > n/2, then G is hamiltonian, W Proof. Assume, to the contrary, that the the theorem is false. Then there exists a non- hamiltonian bipartite graph H satisfying the hypothesis of the theorem. Let G be maximal such graph; that is, G is a nonhamiltonian bipartite graph but the addition of any edge between the two partite sets would make it hamiltonian. Since Ky is hamiltonian, the Graph G must contain a pair u, v of nonadjacent vertices with u € Vj and v € Vp. The maximality of G implies that G+ uv is hamiltonian. ‘Thus, G-+uv has a hamiltonian cycle, which must contain the edge wv. Hence, G contains a hamiltonian u-v path P 215 020004 02m = Oy Where v; ¢ Vi if tis odd and oj € Vs if jis even (since G is bipartite). If wo; € E(G), where 2 2 and 6(G) > n/2. F7 A mouse cats his way through a 3 x 3% 3 cube of cheese, tunneling through all 27 of the Lx 1x1 cubes. If the mouse starts at a corner, can he finish in the center? B.3 The closure function We begin this section by presenting the following result, which was first observed by Bondy and Chvétal [2]. This can be proved using the same technique employed in the proofs of Theorems 6.1 4and 6.3. Theorem $4 Let u and v be distinct nonadjacent vertices of a graph G of onder p > 3 such that degu+ degu > p. Then G is hamiltonian if and only if G + wv is hamiltontan. Proof. If G is hamiltonian, then certainly so too is G+ wv. Conversely, suppose that G+ wis hamiltonian, Let C be a hamiltonian cycle of G+ uv. If C does not contain the edge wv, then C is a hamiltonian cycle of G and G is hamiltonian. So we may assume that C contains the edge wv, for otherwise there is nothing left to prove. Now P= C— wv is a hamiltonian w-v path of G, ie P:u = v4,02,...5 tp =v (say) contains every vertex of G. We show that there must exist some vertex ti, where 2 3 by recursively joining pairs of nonadjacent vertices whose degree sum is at least p, then @sG. Proof, Let e1,€2,-.-1€m and fis fay-++1 fn be the sequence of edges added to G to obtain G1 and Go, respectively. Wo show that each e; (1 p. Therefore, dega, w+ degc, v > degy w+ degu v > p. This is a contradiction, however, since u and v are nonadjacent vertices of Go, Hence each edge ¢; belongs to Gp. Similarly, each edge f; belongs to Gy. Hence Gi = GO BEGOur next theorem is a simple consequence of the definition of closure and Theorem 6.4. ‘Theorent $.6 A graph is hamiltonian if and only if its closure is hamiltonian. Proof. If we apply Theorem 6.4 every time an edge is added in the formation of the closure, then we see that a graph G is hamiltonian if and only if ¢(G) is hamiltonian. O Since each complete graph with at least three vertices is hamiltonian, we obtain the following sufficient condition, due to Bondy and Chvétal [2], for a graph to be hamiltonian. Corollary 9.7 Let G be graph of order p > 3. If (G) % K,, then G is hamiltonian. Another consequence of Theorem 6.6 is due to Ore [8]. Corollary%.8 If degu+degu > p for all pairs u,v of nonadjacent vertices of a graph G of order p > 8, then G is hamiltonian, Proof. Since the closure of G is complete, the result follows from Corollary 6.7. 0 We remarked earlier that if a graph G of order at least 3 has sufficiently many edges, then it is hamiltonian. The next consequence of Theorem 6.6 is a result of this type. Corollary’8.9 Let G be a graph of order p > 3 and size qf tats 2(Ps)) aa Proof. If G is complete, then G is hamiltonian. So we may assume that G is not complete and that G satisfies the hypothesis of the corollary. Let u and v be two distinct nonadjacent. vertices of G, and define H = G ~ {u,v}. Then, 9(G) = q(H) + deg u + deg v. So, since then G is hamiltonian. 9H) < a(Kp-2) = ? 7 ). it follows that degut deg (G6) ~ aH) > (i)42- (3°) Hence, by Corollary 6.8, G is hamiltonian. 0 BORExercises ‘BS Let u and v be distinct nonadjacent vertices of a graph G of order P23 such that deg u + degv 2 p~ 1. Prove ot disprove: The graph G has a hamiltonian path if and only if G+ ww has a hamiltonian path, B9 Prove that if Gis a hamiltonian graph, then for every proper nonempty subset $ of vertices of G, &(G- $) < |S}. "V.10 Decide whether each of the following graphs has a hamiltonian cycle, a hamiltonian Path, or neither. (@) () © “P-11 Show that if a graph of order at least 3 has an isolated vertex or an end-vertex, then its closure is not complete. $12 Show that the bound presented in Corollary 6.7 is sharp by finding a class of nom- hamiltonian graphs of order p > 3 such that degu-+ deg v > p- 1 forall pairs u,v of nonadjacent vertices of @. "¥.13 Show that the bound presented in Corollary 6.8 is sharp by finding a nonhamiltonian graph of order p > 3 with (?31) +1 edges. ‘F-4 Let G be a bipartite graph with partite sets Vi and V3 such that [Vj] = [aj =n > 2, Let u and v be nonadjacent vertices of G with u € Vi and v € Vo such tha degut degv > n. Show that G is hamiltonian if and only if G+ uv is hamiltonian. ‘B.15 Define the bipartite closure of a bipartite graph with partite sets V; and Vs such that |Vil = |Vol = n > 2. Show that the bipartite closure is unique, Suggestions for further reading A more extensive treatment of hamiltonian graphs is given in Chartrand and Lesniak [4] and West [9]. Readers interested in information on the Travelling Salesman Problem shouia consult Section 8.3 in Chartrand and Oellermann (SJ. A histoty of the origin of the hamilto- 2ian graphs is given in Biggs, Lloyd, end Wilson {1}. Survey articles on hamiltonian graphe ‘can be found in Gould {6] and Lesniak (7]. CeReferences [1] Biggs N.L., E-K. Lloyd, and R.J. Wilson, Graph Theory 1736-1996. Clarendon Press, Oxford, England (1976). [2] Bondy J.A. and V. Chvdtal, A method in graph theory. Discrete Math. 15 (1976), 111-136. [3] Dirac G.A., Some theorems on abstract graphs. Proc. London Math, Soe. 2 (1952), 69-81. 4] Chartrand G. and L. Lesniak, Graphs & Digraphs: Third Edition, Chapman & Hall, London (1996). {5] Chartrand G. and O.R. Oellermann, Applied and Algorithmic Graph Theory, McGraw- Hill, New York (1993). {6] Gould R.J., Updating the hamiltonian problems—a survey. J. Graph Theory 18 (1991), 121-158. {7 Lesniak L., Some recent results in hamiltonian graphs. J. Graph Theory 1 (1977), 27-36. [8] Ore O., Note on Hamilton cirsuits. Amer. math. Monthly 67 (1960), 55. [9] West D.B., Introduction to Graph Theory, Prentice-Hall, Upper Saddle River, NJ (1996). 67