REVIEW OF RELATED LETERATURE

Sericulture

Sericulture is one of the most import agro based industries, which play a critical

function in relieving rural unemployment and bettering the social-economic position of

rural common people. Sericulture or the raising of silkworms to produced silk involves

the incubation of the tinny eggs of the silkworm moth until the hatch and become worms.

Laying of eggs by the moths is done on special kind of cards, which specifically act as a

surface for hatching of the eggs. The process of transferring the newly hatched silkworms

to rearing trays is called “brushing”. In order to obtain uniform hatching, eggs are kept in

black boxes on the day prior to hatching. In this way, the early maturing embryos are

prevented from maturing and the late maturing embryos are given time to develop and

catch up with early maturing ones. The next day they are exposed suddenly to diffused

light so that the larvae hatch uniformly in response to phototropic stimulus (Rao, 1998).

Silkworm History

The silk industry has a distinctive position in India, and plays a significant role in

textile industry and export. India is the second largest producer of silk in the world with

23060 MT in 2012 and contributes 20% of the total world raw silk production (CSB

report, 2012).

Historical evidence show that silk was discovered in China and from there it spread to

other parts of the world. The earliest evidence is in the chronicles of Chou King 2200
 7

B.C.), Where silk featured prominently in public ceremonies as a symbol of homage for

the emperor. First, it was keep as secret within China due to jealousy but when

commercial relations was established between China and Persia and later to the other

countries, export of raw silk extended up to southern Europe. First to learn the secret was

Korea and then Japan. War was instrumental in the spread of silk industry especially to

Japan when Semiramus, a general in the army of empress Singu kongo invaded the

conquered Korea. The other factor for the spread of the industry was imagination. During

the latter part of 19th century, Japan gave a serious attention to the silk industry,

introducing the use of processing machinery and improved techniques and carrying out

intensive research in sericulture. In India, silkworms were first domesticated in the

foothills of Himalayas. When the British came to India, they establish flourishing silk

trade through the British East India Company. Sericulture spread over century from

China to other parts of the country and silk became a precious commodity highly sought

after (Tuigong, et al., 2015).

Silkworm manure

Insects are a large, unexplored and unexploited source of potentially useful

compounds for modern medicine. Approximately 80%of animal species on earth are

insect, 99% are invertebrates. A large proportion of our genetic material are shared with

all life on earth down to the simplest worms. Silkworm (Bombyxmori) is one of the well-

known beneficial lepidopteron insects for the production of sleek and sensuous silk fiber,

often considered as “Queen of textiles” (Suomya et al., 2017).

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Silkworm litter is a waste from rearing trays. The sericulture waste, which

includes larval excreta, leaf litter, dead larvae, moth and cocoons, contain organic matter.

Seri waste compost contains approximately 2.00-2.24%N, 0.93-1.00%P and 1.5-1.8%K

besides Zn, Fe, Mn and Cu as micronutrients. The silkworm litter is presently used as

fodder and as compost, and the pupal waste is utilized in oil extraction, biogas

production, and mushroom cultivation. Silkworm litter could be used as a nitrogen source

in replacing chemical fertilizers for vegetable crop production and as a substrate for

mushroom cultivation. Since the pupae contains high amount of nitrogen and protein,

there is potential for the bio conversion of pupal waste to enrich compost and utilization

as a nutrient source (Nageswari et el., 2017).

Silkworm manure compost contains high amount of nitrogen and protein, thereby

effective utilization of sericulture waste minimize the environmental pollution, reduce the

cost of inorganic fertilizers uses and a good alternative to restrict the use of inorganic

fertilizers (Venkatappa et al., 2017).

Fermented Silkworm Manure

Silkworm manure was harmless-treated via controlled fermentation to prepare

silkworm manure tea (SMT). The nutrient properties of the SMT were determined, and a

pot experiment was conducted to examine the application effect of the fertilizer. After

fermentation, the total N, P and K contents in the SMT has a significance increase, being

58.0%, 84.4% and 29.7% higher than those in the raw material, respectively. The

addition of microbial inoculants shortened the fermentation period, and decreased the
 9

carbon and nitrogen losses during fermentation. With the application of SMT, the seed

germination index of cabbage yield and its nutrient and Vitamin C contents, decrease the

plant nitrate content, but also improve the soil pH value, and increase the soil available

nutrients and organic matter contents and soil enzymes activities, with better effect than

applying composted goat feces (Chen et al., 2011).

Silkworm Litter as Fertilizer

Application of silkworm litter as manure, resulted in a better yields of radish (4.00

kg/plot) compared to biogas slurry (3.4 kg/plot) but lower than the chemical fertilizers

(5.2 kg/plot) indicating its potential utility as a manure for other crops. The lower yields

from biogas slurry is due to slow release of nutrients. Thus silkworm litter can have a

significant effect on the production of vegetables, and it can almost replace chemical

fertilizers (Madhan et al., 1989).

Application of organic manure improves the physical, chemical, and biological properties

of the soil with direct impact on moisture retention, root growth, nutrient conservation,

etc. The cost of inorganic fertilizers can be reduced by using traditional application of

organic manures. Effective utilization of sericulture waste minimizes the environment

pollution and good alternative to restrict the use of inorganic fertilizers (Rajendran et al.,

2012).

In sericulture industry the waste from rearing trays, i.e. the silkworm litter, is

available in large quantities. The present study has shown that silkworm litter could be
 10

used as a nitrogen source in replacing chemical fertilizers for vegetable crop production

and as a substrate for mushroom cultivation (Madan, 1989).

Romaine Lettuce

Lettuce (Lactuva sativa L.) is a popular vegetable that is widely grown and

consumed throughout the world. China is the largest producer of lettuce, contributing

55% to the world’s total production by weight. By contrast, the United States contributes

only about 16% to the total production worldwide. The primary type of lettuce produced

and consumed in China is a stem lettuce (L. sativa L. var. capitata), romaine (L. sativa L.

var. longfolia), and leaf (L. sativa L. var. crispaa). These three types of lettuce account

for 54.1%, 30.1%, and 15.8% of United States production, respectively.

Lettuce comes in a variety of colors, sizes and shapes. Romaine lettuce is

exceptionally crisp, slightly bitter, and characterized by long, narrow leaves with thick

ribs. In addition, the leaves are typically upright to form an elongated head (top of the

head may or may not close over the inner leaves) with commercial heads typically

weighing approximately 0.75kg. Romaine lettuce is now included in a variety of

sandwich wraps as well as entrée and Greek salads. It is also included in a supermarket

sections as pre-packaged romaine hearts and in a wide variety of pre-packaged salads.

Although not as popular as iceberg lettuce, from 1990 to 2009, the per capita

consumption of romaine lettuce increased from 1.2 to 7.7 pounds per person

(https://fsi.colostate.edu).
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Romaine (Lactuva sativa), also known as “Cos”, is a lettuce that produces

elongated heads. Romaine is considered more nutritious and has more volume than

iceberg (Kaiser, 2017).

Lettuce is an important crop in Canada, mainly grown in Southwest Quebec muck

soils. Lettuce is sensitive to water stress during periods of high crop water requirements,

which result in important yields decrease mainly due to tip burn. This physiological

disorder can be controlled by adequate irrigation, which is affected by spatial variability

of soil properties and water drainage, and from evapotranspirative processes affecting

local crop water needs at a given time.

According to Pi-ay, J. (2018), a farmer of Benguet, first application of fertilizer to

romaine lettuce is one week after transplanting for sure that the roots of the plants are

already recovered. Four days interval application of fertilizer can be done until one week

before harvesting. Romaine lettuce can be harvested in 40-45 days from transplanting but

for organic plants can range until two months.

Philippine Agriculture

Philippines as a developing and agricultural country, mostly relies on agricultural

based products for exportation as well as food consumption of local farmers. As 2010, the

major agricultural land utilization by area harvested is devoted to rice, corn, coconut,

fruits and vegetables (Amongo, 2011). Among the provinces in CAR, Benguet

contributed the biggest numbers of farms with 27.5 thousand, covering 30 thousand

hectares of agricultural land. As a matter fact, 22.9% contributes to the total farms in the
 12

region. Areas under agricultural land comprised 10.8% of the total land area of the

province (National Statistics Office, 2004).

Inorganic Fertilizer

Application of nitrogenous fertilizers for a longer period of time also lead to the

increase of salts in the soil, change pH of the soil solution as well as soil biogeny of those

microbes that are important for soil fertility. It disturbs the natural equilibrium and altered

the floristic composition (Tilman et al. 1998). The intensive use of chemicals in the

conventional agricultural production is one of the factors that affect the reduction in

biodiversity, nitrogen leaching, soils and water contaminations (Kennedy et al. 2004). As

such, fertilization is present day crop production though imminent but identified as

dangerous from the aspect of pollution of the environment (Kennedy et al. 2004).

As such, though the world has the technology – either available or well advanced

in the research pipeline – to feed on a sustainable basis a population of 10 billion people,

but massive acceleration in use of artificial fertilizers worldwide has led to a host of

environmental problems, ranging from cutrophication of terrestrial and aquatic systems to

global acidification, effect on biodiversity, production of greenhouse gasses, global

warming (Tilman et al. 1998).

Agricultural intensification through the use of chemical fertilizers had

environmental consequences such as leaching of nitrate and runoff which have been well

documented by several studies (Diaz et al. 2008). Ottman and Pope (2000) reported that
 13

leaching is inevitable; however, the severity of leaching can be controlled, in part based

on type of fertilizers, rate, and also timing fertilizer application.

Fertilized is the single most important anthropogenic source of N2O, accounting

for over 70% of the anthropogenic sources of this accumulating greenhouse gas (Matson

et al. 1998). It is also reported that, increases in emissions of CO2, CH4 and nitric oxide

(N2O), the three most important greenhouse gases, have been linked to fertilizer

application (Kloepper et al. 2009). This increase could occur through gas fluxes from soil

surface or volatilization from plants (Mulvaey et al. 1997). Increasing atmospheric N2O

is considered an important factor in ozone layer depletion (Ma et al. 2007). Gases such as

N2O ammonia emissionss from livestock and mineral fertilizers lead to soil acidification

and contaminate the neighboring water bodies (Norse, 2003).

Fertilizers consists of substances and chemicals like methane, carbon dioxide,

ammonia, and nitrogen, the emission of which has contributed to a great extent in the

quantity of greenhouse gases present in the environment (Enviro, 2015).

Organic Farming

Organic farming is a technique, which involves cultivation of plants and rearing

of animals in natural ways. This process involves the use of biological materials,

avoiding synthetic substances to maintain soil fertility and ecological balance thereby

minimizing pollution and wastage. In other words, organic farming is a farming method

that involves growing and nurturing crops without the use of synthetic based fertilizers

and pesticides. In addition, no genetically modified organisms are permitted.

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It relies on ecologically balanced agricultural principles like crop rotation, green

manure, organic waste, biological pest control, mineral and rock additives. Organic

farming make use of pesticides and fertilizers if they are considered natural and avoids

the use of various petrochemical fertilizers and pesticides.

Organic agriculture is a production system that sustains the health of soils,

ecosystems and people. It relies on the ecological processes, biodiversity and cycles adapt

to local conditions, rather than the use of inputs with adverse effects. Organic agriculture

combines tradition, innovation and science to benefit the shared environment and

promote fair relationships and a good quality of life for all involved

(https://www.conserve-energy-future.com).

Beside chemical fertilizers, amendments of other fertilizers, such as organic

manure, compost, compost extract, and compost tea are also used in many parts of the

world to enhance crop production and/or control plant pathogens (Adesmoye et al. 2009).

Martin et al. (2013) stated that Akanbi et el. 2017) showed that foliar spray of compost

extracts from cassava (Manihot esculenta) peel and Mexican sunflower (Tithonia

rotundifolia) help produce fluted pumpkin (Telfairia occidentalis) plants with comparable

growth to those that received able growth to those that received NPK fertilizer. In

different study with strawberry, Hargreaves et al. (2009) reported that compost tea

enhanced the uptake of most macronutrients and micronutrients in strawberry plants in

amounts that compared with inorganic mineral fertilizers.

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Molasses

Information on Feeding Plants with Molasses Soil, Fixes & Fertilizers according

to Susan Patterson.

Molasses is the by-product of beating sugarcane, grapes or sugar beets into sugar.

The dark, rich, and somewhat sweet liquid is commonly used as a sweetener in baked

goods, as a natural remedy for many ailments, and added to animal feed. Even though it

is a by-product, molasses is full of vitamins and minerals.

Using molasses in organic gardening practices is nothing new. The sugar

refinement process goes through three stages, each yielding a type of molasses product.

Blackstrap molasses is created from the third boiling of sugar in the refinement process.

Blackstrap molasses is high in calcium, magnesium, iron and potassium. It also contains

sulfur and a host of micronutrients. Using molasses as fertilizer provides plants with a

quick source of energy and encourages the growth of beneficial microorganisms.

Unsulphered blackstrap molasses is commonly added to organic fertilizers to give

plants the necessary carbohydrates and trace minerals that they need to be healthy.

Molasses can be added to organic liquid fertilizers, compost tea, alfalfa meal tea and

kelp, to name a few. When molasses is added to organic fertilizers, it provides food for

the healthy microbes in the soil. The greater amount of microbial activity in the soil, the

healthier plants will be. Add molasses at a rate of 1 to 3 tablespoons to 1 gallon of

organic liquid fertilizer to give the fertilizer a tremendous boost for best results. The

addition of molasses to these fertilizers helps to balance out the carbon nitrogen ratio and

provide a good balance of vital nutrients to plants and the soil. Molasses can also be

added to water and sprayed on plant leaves or poured on the soil. When the molasses is
 16

sprayed directly on plant leaves, the nutrients and sugar are absorbed quickly, and

nutrients are immediately available.

Liquid Fertilizer

Fortunately, for DIY folk, liquid fertilizer can be made from many different

materials. The basic method is pretty straight-forward: you take something high in

nitrogen and other nutrients, you add water then let it sit for a spell. The “sitting time”

ranges from overnight to several weeks. Some techniques employ a blender. But

generally speaking, if you have a kitchen, a pail, and hose, you can made liquid fertilizer.

Compost Tea

Compost tea is a liquid made by both cold-brewing and aerating compost (or

worm castings) in water, in order to extract beneficial organisms like bacteria, fungi,

protozoa and nematodes. During the brewing process, these organisms are “fed” nutrients

to rapidly increase their numbers and activity levels. A little bit of compost makes a lot of

liquid compost tea, an all-natural fertilizer. It is then applied much like a fertilizer to soil,

or to the roots or leaves of a plant. The process can take several days, and brewing itself

has to occur over 24 hours.

Teas have such a short shelf life because during the 24 hours brewing, feeding

and oxygenating process, it have essentially bred more microbes per cc of liquid than

would ever occur in nature. So, if the aerator stopped, the enormous number of microbes
 17

will consume all the available oxygen and the liquid will go anaerobic. One of the easiest

ways to tell if it is anaerobic is by smell. If it smells bad, it probably is bad.

Some believe that, because a tea has more time to brew, it make a better

amendment for a garden. In truth, there is increasing research demonstrating that extracts

are as good as teas in terms of their ability to improve plant growth, health and soil

fertility.

To make 5-gallon extract, fill the bucket 4 inches from the top and bubble air into

the water for a few minutes to offgas any chemicals. Then, add 250-500 grams of

compost or worm castings into the bucket and let it bubble for a certain time. (Avis,

2012).

Folds, E. (2018) noted that you should see bubbles coming from the air diffuser,

like in an aquarium. Mix in the ingredients to your favourite recipe and brew for at least

12 hours and no longer than 48 hours. A brewing time of 24 hours is most typical.

Worm Castings Tea Ingredients (Darwish, 2013):

 2 cups of well composted worm castings (no large scraps, preferably sifted)

 2 tablespoons of corn syrup or unsulphured molasses

 Water which has been left to stand overnight or rain water

There are two kinds of compost tea: there is brew and there is steep.

•Steep method is the simplest and commonly used by local farmers. It does not

use aerator to extract the microorganisms in the worm castings, instead it is only done

through stirring/mixing the worm castings into the water.

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•Brew method is by the used of aerator. According to the Toolbox for Sustainable

Living, actively aerated compost tea is a “water-based oxygen rich culture containing

large populations of beneficial aerobic bacteria, nematodes, fungi, and protozoa, which

can be used to bioremediate toxins”. Good compost tea should contain thousands of

beneficial microorganisms; this increases the chances that some of them will be able to

bind and break down the range of contaminants on a site. Compost tea allows farmer to

amplify a small amount of compost into a dispersible liquid form, helping a little compost

go a lot farther (Darwish, 2013).

Inoculant for Compost Tea

Worm castings and aerobic compost are the best inoculant choices. Worm

castings are a great inoculant because worms use bacteria instead of digestive acids in

their stomachs to break down food. The castings are rich in beneficial microorganisms,

some of which have been found to be effective in breaking down certain contaminants.

Worm castings are also a source of humic acid, which is good food source for tea.

Similarly, good aerobic compost (especially thermophilic compost) is a great inoculant; if

made properly, it should be full of beneficial microorganisms (Darwish, 2013).

Pest Control

Mokusaku, also known as 'wood vinegar', is a liquid produced from a composting

mixture of wood, coconut shell, bamboo, grass, and other plants. It can be used as

pesticide, insecticide, or soil conditioner.

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According to MASAKI YOKOMORI (2011), you can further reduce cost of

pesticides using Mokusaku. Mokusaku has capability to break water into smaller clusters.

It means that pesticides diluted in water and added with Mokusaku will penetrate faster

and better into plant leaves. Plants sprayed with Mokusaku-mixed liquid dry faster too.

However, Mokusaku is not a chemical pesticide. You must understand it has effect not

same as chemical since it is natural material. You must observe your plants and adjust

dosage of Mokusaku and pesticides.

Mokusaku was first developed in Japan and is now being used in Benguet to

combat the use of synthetic fertilizers and chemicals. This technology helps prevent the

soil from drying, and also prevents the unnecessary loss of fertilizer nutrients, while also

serving as repellent, herbicide, and fungicide.

Jessa Polonio stated that Mokusako was first introduced in the municipality of

Tublay in 2011 after the Philippines passed its Organic Agriculture Act of 2010. Tublay

made history by being the first municipal government in the country to pass an ordinance

institutionalizing organic agriculture which was later recognized by the provincial board

of Benguet.

Drip Irrigation

Enhancing Vegetable Production Systems

  Various management practices have the potential to raise the yield of vegetables

grown under hot and wet conditions of the lowland tropics. AVRDC – The World

Vegetable Center has developed technologies to alleviate production challenges such as

limited irrigation water and flooding, to mitigate the effects of salinity, and also to ensure
 20

appropriate availability of nutrients to the plants. Strategies include modifying fertilizer

application to enhance nutrient availability to plants, direct delivery of water to roots

(drip irrigation), grafting to increase flood anddisease tolerance, and use of soil

amendments to improve soil fertility and enhance nutrient uptake by plants (Bhardwaj, et

al. 2012).

Water-saving irrigation management

The quality and efficiency of water management determine the yield and qualityof

vegetable products. The optimum frequency and amount of applied water is a function of

climate and weather conditions, crop species, variety, stage of growth and rooting

characteristics, soil water retention capacity and texture, irrigation system and

management factor. Too much or too little water causes abnormal plant growth,

predisposes plants to infection by pathogens, and causes nutritional disorders. If water is

scarce and supplies are erratic or variable, then timely irrigation and conservation of soil

moisture reserves are the most important agronomic interventions to maintain yields

during drought stress. There are several methods of applying irrigation water and the

choice depends on the crop, water supply, soil characteristics and topography.

Application of irrigation water could be through overhead, surface, drip, or sub-irrigation

systems. Surface irrigation methods are utilized in more than 80% of the world's irrigated

lands yet its field level application efficiency is often 40-50%. To generate income and

alleviate poverty of the small-holder farmers in developing countries, AVRDC – The

World Vegetable Center and other institutions promote affordable, small-scale drip

irrigation technologies developed by the International Development Enterprises (IDE).

Drip irrigation delivers water directly to plants through small plastic tubes. IDE states
 21

that water losses due to run-off and deep percolation are minimized and water savings of

50-80% are achieved when compared to most traditional surface irrigation methods. Crop

production per unit of water consumed by plant evapo-transpiration is typically increased

by 10-50%. Thus, more plants can be irrigated per unit of water by drip irrigation, and

with less labor. In Nepal, cauliflower yields using low-cost drip irrigation were not

significantly different from those achieved by hand watering; however, the long-term

economic and labor benefits were greater using the low-cost drip irrigation. The water-

use efficiency by chili pepper was significantly higher in drip irrigation compared to

furrow irrigation, with higher efficiencies observed with high delivery rate drip irrigation

regimes (AVRDC 2005). For drought tolerant crop like watermelon, yield differences

between furrow and drip irrigated crops were not significantly different; however, the

incidence of Fusarium wilt was reduced when a lower drip irrigation rate was used. In

general, the use of low-cost drip irrigation is cost effective, labor-saving, and allows more

plants to be grown per unit of water, thereby both saving water and increasing farmers'

incomes at the same time. (Bhardwaj, et al. 2012).

Fertilizer Application through Drip Systems

According to Sela, G., drip irrigation allows for flexibility in the application of

fertilizers, since fertilizers can be easily applied through the irrigation water (fertigation).

This way nutrients are delivered with the irrigation water, directly to the active root zone

of the plants.

Nutrients are supplied frequently at low concentrations, to meet the plants' needs.

It was found that roots in the wetted area increase their efficiency of water and nutrient

uptake.
 22

Therefore, selective wetting of the soil, as achieved by drip irrigation, allows for

savings both in water and fertilizers. Drip irrigation can also reduce nitrate losses due to

leaching.

This kind of system uses low pressure and low flow rates and water is applied

only to specific zones in the field, where plants are grown. Typical drip emitter flow rates

are 0.6 - 16 L/hr (0.16-4.0 gal/hr), and the most commonly used emitters are of 1-4 L/hr.

Fertigation

Fertigation, as the names implies, is a process that combines fertilization and

irrigation by injecting soil amendments, fertilizers, and other water-soluble products into

an irrigation system. This method is especially common in horticulture and extensive

agriculture. It is also used for landscaping due to the increasing reliability and simplicity

of the dispenser unit. Fertigation systems add the correct amount of fertilizer according to

the plants’ nutrient deficiencies (Sivanappan, 2002).

Two Main Types of Fertigtion Approaches:

1. The proportional approach is used in soil-less mediums where a precise quantity

fertilizer stock solution is injected into each unit of water flowing through the

irrigation system.

2. The quantitative approach is used in open fields where the horticulturalist first

decides how much fertilizer should be applied per unit area.

(https://www.maximumyield.com).
 23

Specific Advantages of Fertigation Over Broadcast and Band Fertilization.

1. A frequent supply of nutrients reduces fluctuation of nutrient concentration in

soil.

2. There is efficient utilization and precise application of nutrients according to the

nutritional requirements of the crop.

3. Fertilizers are applied throughout the irrigated soil volume and are readily

available to plants.

4. Nutrients can be applied to the soil when soil or crop conditions would otherwise

prohibit entry into the field with conventional equipment.

Other Advantages:

 Minimizes the risk of roots contracting soil-borne diseases

 Reduces water consumption

 Reduces the amount of fertilizer used

 Increases the nutrients absorbed by the plants

 Controls the precise time and rate of fertilizers being released