Industrial Hygiene

Recap on W3 Toxicology
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 Instructional Learning Objectives

After completing this chapter, students should

be able to :
1. Define Industrial Hygiene (IH) and explain
the scope of IH
2. Evaluate the magnitude of exposures and
responses
3. Develop and evaluate control techniques to
prevent exposures

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 Industrial Hygiene

Industrial hygiene is the science of anticipating,

recognizing, evaluating, controlling workplace
conditions and preventing workplace
environmental stressors that can cause sickness
or serious discomfort to workers.
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 Scope of Industrial Hygiene (IH)

Concerns conditions related to workplace injury

and sickness e.g: exposures to toxic vapors, dust,
noise, heat, cold, radiation, physical factors, etc.

ANTICIPATION Expectation of hazard existence

IDENTIFICATION Presence of workplace exposure
EVALUATION Magnitude of exposure
CONTROL Reduction to acceptable levels

Chemical plants & labs: requires co-operation from industrial

hygiene, safety & plant operations people

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 Identification
Requires study of
CHEMICAL PROCESS • Process design
• Operating instructions
OPERATING CONDITIONS • Safety reviews
• Equipment description
OPERATING PROCEDURES
• Chemical properties SDS’s
OTHER ………. • Other ……
POTENTIAL HAZARDS HAZARD DATA
• liquids • physical state / vapor pressure
• vapors • TLV’s
• dusts • temperature sensitivity
• noise • rate and heat of reaction
• radiation • by-products
• temperature • reactivity with other chemicals
• mechanical • explosion limits
• other….. • other…..
RISK ASSESSMENT: potential for hazard to result in an accident 5
 Evaluation : Measurement of Exposure

v Acute Exposure: Usually Minutes, Hours or

Several Days
qcharacterized by sudden and severe exposure
and rapid absorption of the substance.
Normally, a single large exposure is involved.
Acute health effects are often reversible
v Chronic Exposure: Regular Exposure Over
Months, Years, or a Lifetime
q characterized by prolonged or repeated
exposures over many days, months or years.
Symptoms may not be immediately apparent.
Chronic health effects are often irreversible.

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 Evaluating Volatiles
Monitoring air concentrations Variation in time and place

Time Weighted Average

tw
1
TWA = ò C ( t )dt
Continuous:
ppm or mg/m3
80

Conc.

0 Timeà tw
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 Evaluating Volatiles
1 i
Intermittent: TWA = å Ci Ti
8 1
Time (hr) Conc. (ppm)
0 100
1 100 C

1.9 95
à
2.5 90
3.1 80
3.8 70 0 1 1.9 2.5 3.1 3.8 4

Time (hrs)à
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 Evaluating Exposures to Toxicant:
Time Weighted Average

q Determination of exposures can be done by

monitoring the concentrations of toxicant in air
continuously

q For continuous concentration C(t), the TWA (time-

weighted average) concentration is computed:

1w
t
C1T1 + C2T2 + ...... + CnTn
TWA = ò C (t )dt TWA =
80 8 hrs
C(t) is the concentration of a toxicant in the air in ppm or mg/m3
tw is the worker shift time in hours

TWA typically for 8 hrs exposure

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 Example of TWA Calculation

§ Partial period samples

v4 hours @ 11ppm
v2 hours @ 14ppm
v2 hours @ 20ppm
TWA
4 hr ´ 11 ppm + 2 hr ´ 14 ppm + 2 hr ´ 20 ppm
=
4 hr + 2 hr + 2 hr
112 ppm × hr
=
8 hr
= 14 ppm
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 Evaluating Exposures to Toxicant:
TWA for Mixture

q Exposure limits (TLVs) are meant for single

substances, but multiple simultaneous
exposures always happened in industry
q If more than one chemical is present, the effects
of toxicants can be assumed to be additive.
q Combined exposure limit can be calculated if:
• Components have similar toxicological
effects
• Combined effect is assumed to be additive

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 Evaluating Exposures to Toxicant:
TWA for Mixture

q The mixture TLV-TWA can be computed from:

n

åC i
(TLV - TWA) mix = n
i =1
Ci
å
i =1 (TLV - TWA)i

q If the sum of the concentration of the toxicants in

the mixture exceeds 1, the workers are
overexposed.
q For mixtures of toxicants with different effect
(acid vapour mixed with lead fume), the TLV-TWA
cannot be assumed to be additive.

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 Evaluating Exposures to Toxicant:
TWA for Mixture

Mixture:
§ Methyl isopropyl ketone @ 100 ppm
(TLV = 200ppm)
§ Methylcyclohexane @ 300ppm (TLV = 400ppm)
§ Both TLVs set for protection against anesthetic
(CNS) effects

100 ppm 300 ppm

Exposure Limit = + = 1.25
200 ppm 400 ppm

This mixture is NOT in compliance

(workers are OVEREXPOSED)
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 Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic
Vapours: Vapour Concentration
q The best way to determine exposures to toxic vapour
is measuring the vapour concentrations directly.
q Commonly, estimates of vapour concentrations are
required in enclosed spaces, above open containers,
where drums are filled and in the area of spills.
Concentration of volatile, C in enclosed volume, V
(mass/volume)

Ventilation rate, Qv
(volume/time) Volatile rate Out
kQvC (mass/time)

Evolution rate of volatile, Qm

(mass/time)

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 Estimating Volatiles
Ventilation rate Volatile rate out
Qv (m3/s) VC kQvC (kg/s)

Qm (kg/s)
Evolution rate

Total mass of volatile in volume = VC

d ( VC ) dC
Accumulation of volatile = =V
dt dt
Mass rate of volatile from evolution = Qm

Mass rate of volatile out = kQvC

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 Estimating Volatiles
Ventilation rate Volatile rate out
Qv (m3/s) VC kQvC (kg/s)

Qm (kg/s)
Evolution rate
Mass Balance:
dC
The dynamic mass balance on the volatile species V = Qm - kQv C
dt
Steady State:

æ dC ö Q
At steady state, the accumulati on term ç = 0 ÷ hence C = m
è dt ø kQv

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 Estimating Volatiles
Average conc. at steady state C = Qm/kQv
More convenient in terms of ppm:

Vv æ mv / rv ö æ mv ö æ Rg T ö
C ppm = ´10 = ç
6
÷ ´ 10 = ç ÷ ç
6
÷ ´ 10 6

Vb è Vb ø è Vb ø è PM ø (3-8)
Qm RT
Cppm = ´106 Equation (3-9)
kQv PM
Ideal mixing k =
Non-ideal k = Leads to higher concentrations

If evolution rate increases or ventilation decrease, concentration

will increase. 17
Example
During a degreasing operation involving trichloroethylene, 10 gallon
of TCE evaporates per 8-hour shift.
Data: MW = 131.4, T = 537oR, P = 1 atm
Specific gravity of liquid = 1.46

Ventilation Rate, Qv = 1000 ft3 /min

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Step 1: Determine evaporation rate in
lb/min

æ 10 gal ö æ 1 ft 3
ö æ 62.4 lbm ö æ 1 hour ö
Qm = ç ÷ç ÷ç 3 ÷ (1.46 ) ç ÷
è 8 hour ø è 7.48 gal ø è ft ø è 60 min ø

Qm = 0.254 lbm/min

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Step 2: Apply Equation (3-9)
Qm RT
Cppm = ´ 106
kQv PM

æ lb m ö æ ft 3 atm ö
ç
è
0.254 ֍
min ø è
0.7302
lb-mole o R ø
÷ ( 537 o
R ) x 10 6

C ppm =
æ ft 3 ö æ lb m ö
k ç1000 ÷(1 atm )ç 131 ÷
è min ø è lb-mole ø
760
C ppm = 0.1 £ k £ 0.5
k
@ k = 0.1 C ppm = 7, 600 ppm
@ k = 0.5 C ppm = 1,520 ppm
TLV is 10 ppm, STEL is 25 ppm 20
What ventilation rate required to reduce
below TLV?

Assume k = 0.1 (worst case)

Use Equation 3-9, calculate Qv

æ lb m ö æ ft 3 atm ö
ç
è
0.254
min
֍
øè
0.7302
lb-mole o
R
÷ ( 537 o
R ) x 10 6

10 ppm = ø
æ lb m ö
( 0.1)( Qv )(1 atm ) ç131 ÷
è lb-mole ø
Qv = 760,000
Other control methods?

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 Estimating the Vaporization Rate
of a Liquid
Liquids with high saturation vapour pressures evaporate faster.
For a vaporization into stagnant air, the vaporization rate is generally
expressed via this source term:

Qm =
(
MKA P sat - p )
Rg TL
where
Qm = evaporation rate (mass/time)
M = molecular weight of the volatile substance
K = mass transfer coefficient (length/time) for an area A (area for mass transfer)
Rg = ideal gas constant, and
TL = absolute temperature of the liquid
Psat = saturation vapour pressure of pure liquid at temperature of the liquid
p = partial pressure of the vapour in the bulk stagnant gas above the liquid

For many situation, P sat ≥p MKAP sat

Qm =
RgTL
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 Estimating the Vaporization Rate
of a Liquid

The vaporization rate of a volatile in an enclosure resulting from

evaporation of a liquid

KAP sat
C ppm = ´ 10 6
kQv P

The gas mass transfer coefficient is estimated using water as

reference point: 1
æ Mo ö 3
K = Ko ç ÷
è M ø

Ko = 8.3 x 10-3 m/s

Mo = 18

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 Filling Vessels
Total Volatiles = Evaporation + Displacement

Qm = Qm1 + Qm2 (kg/s)

Qm
Qm2
MP Sat
Qm1 Qm = (f rf Vc + KA ) Eq. 3-23
RTL
if TL = T:

P Sat
Cppm = (f rf Vc + KA) ´106 Eq. 3-24
kQv P
Splash filling: f=
Subsurface filling: f=
KA often small compared to displacement
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Measuring Volatile Concentrations

Colorimetric Tubes
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Measuring Volatile Concentrations

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Measuring Volatile Concentrations
ß Filter unit, usually contains activated
charcoal.

This unit goes with the worker and is

better at measuring the actual exposure
to that person.

ß Battery powered air pump.

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 Ventilation
DILUTION Dilution below target concentration
Mixing factor k see Table 3-15
Problems: Requires high air flow and energy
costs. Workers always exposed

LOCAL Remove contaminant before exposure workers minimal air flow

DP » 0.01 atm
• eliminates exposure
• containment device
• shield
• limited workspace

Target Velocity:
100-124
ft/min of
airflow
Negative Positive
Bypass laboratory hood 28
pressure ventilation
Velometer for Measuring Flow

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30
Hood Operation

ß Red liquid level indicates proper

hood function.

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 Thermal Radiation
Thermal
Radiation Time for Time for 2nd
Intensity Severe Pain Degree Burns
kW/m2 s s
1 115 663
2 45 187
3 27 92
4 18 57
5 13 40
6 11 30
8 7 20
10 5 14
12 4 11
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 Thermal Radiation
1st degree burns are the least severe. For these burns the skin is red and
painful and swells slightly.
2nd degree burns have blisters and are painful.
3rd degree burns damage all the layers of the skin and the skin looks white
or charred – these burns may cause little or no pain if the nerves are
damaged.

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 Thermal Radiation
Thermal
Radiation Effects
Intensity
kW/m2
4 Glass ruined.
12 Plastic melting.
15 Wood firing, when there is an
ignition source.
18-20 Destruction of thermal insulation.
25 Automatic firing of wood.
37.5 Damage to process equipment.
100 Damage and breaking of steel.
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 Example
Flares are used to burn off vapors from a plant. The flare burns the vapors using
a flame at the top of a stack. One design criteria for a flare is that the thermal
radiation intensity in the vicinity of the flare on the ground should not exceed
1,500 BTU/hr ft2. What thermal effect will this have on the workers?

Solution
First convert to metric units:

2
2 æ 2.930 ´ 10 kW hr ö æ
-4
1 ft ö
(1,500 BTU/hr ft )ç 1 BTU
֍
è 0.3048 m
÷
ø
= 4.73 kW/m 2

è ø

From Table this will cause 2nd degree burns in about 40 s and 13 s to severe
pain. Access to the ground area around the flare must be controlled to prevent
burns.

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 Evaluating Noise
NOISE PROBLEMS ARE COMMON IN CHEMICAL PLANTS
For anything above 90 db OSHA requires a hearing conservation program.
I
Relative Noise Intensity = -10 log (dB) I 0 = hearing threshold
I0
(dBA)
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Permissible exposure (h)

speech

factory

painful
8
traffic

office
7

5 Table 3-11
4

2
Similar calculations
1 as volatiles
0
60 70 80 90 100 110 120
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dBA
 Evaluating Exposures to Noise:
Noise Intensity (decibel)

An absolute sound scale (in dBA), the

hearing threshold is set at 0 dBA.

Source of noise Sound intensity Maximum exposure

level (dBA) (hr)

Factory 90 8
Passing truck 100 2
Punch press 110 0.5

Refer to Table 3-11 (Crowl & Louvar – pg. 90) for the
Permissible Noise Exposure from OSHA CFR1910.05

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 Example
Determine whether the following noise level is permissible with no additional
controls:

Noise level (dBA) Duration (hr) Maximum allowed

(hr)
85 3.6 16
95 3.0 4
110 0.5 0.5
Solution
From Equation 3-3:
3
Ci 3.6 3 0.5
å
i =1 (TLV - TWA)i
=
16
+ +
4 0.5
= 1.97
Because the sum exceeds 1.0, employees in this environment are
immediately required to wear hearing protection. On a longer-term basis,
noise reduction control methods should be developed for the specific
pieces of equipment producing excessive noise levels.
Exposure to Noise (Table 3-10)

Source Intensity (dB)

Riveting (painful) 120

Passing Truck 100

Noisy Office 80

Whisper 20

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Additional Equations for Sound
An equation for the max. exposure time due to a sound is given by
(same as Figure):

8 hour
T = ( dB - 90) /5
2
Equation 3-5 in the textbook can be modified in terms of pressure by
replacing the sound intensities by the square of the absolute pressure:

2
æ I ö æPö æPö
dBA = 10 log10 ç ÷ = 10 log10 ç ÷ = 20 log10 ç ÷
è I0 ø è P0 ø è P0 ø

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 Noise Reduction Ratio (NRR)

Used for Personal Protective Equipment:

A particular hearing protector has an NRR of 18. If the ambient noise
level is 95 dba, what is the worker exposure?

Sound Measuring Deviceà

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Hearing Protection

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Safety Showers / Eyewashes

Useful for fires and chemical spills.

For chemical spills, clothing must be

removed.

Must be used, with assistance, for 15

min.
Minimum flows: Eyewash: 4 gpm
Shower: 30 gpm

Both must be tested regularly.

Area around unit must be unobstructed.
Required within the lab if chemicals are used.
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Safety Showers / Eyewashes
Water must continue to flow once
handle is released.
Current OSHA standard requires
water temperature control.
Problems with:
Dirty water
Rust from pipes
Water temperature

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Flammable Storage Cabinets
Offers protection from external
fire.

Must be electrically grounded to

prevent static accumulation.

Vent hole is left closed, unless stored materials have an odor, in which
case the vent is connected to the ventilation system.
Do not store anything on the top.
Store only flammables, nothing else.

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 Control
CHEMICAL PLANT INDUSTRIAL HYGIENE METHODS

• Inherently Safer Design – Eliminate or reduce

hazard.
• Enclosures – Enclose room or equipment.
• Local Ventilation – Contain and exhaust
• Dilution Ventilation – Ventilation in work area
• Wet Methods – Liquid to reduce dusts.
• Good Housekeeping – Keep materials contained
• Personal Protection – As last line of defense.
Refer to Table 3-12 (3rd Ed)

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 Legacy of the Past!

Late 1800s
47
Legacy of the Past!

1950s 48
 Promise of the Present!

Toxicity Laboratory, Fire and Explosion

2A05 Laboratory, 2A07

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 Example problem on TWA for Mixture

Air contains 5 ppm of diethyl amine (TLV-TWA of 5 ppm), 20 ppm of

cyclohexanol (TLV-TWA of 50 ppm), and 10 ppm of propylene oxide
(TLV-TWA of 2 ppm). What is the mixture TLV-TWA and has this level
been exceeded?
Solution?
 Example problem on TWA for Mixture

Air contains 5 ppm of diethyl amine (TLV-TWA of 5 ppm), 20 ppm of

cyclohexanol (TLV-TWA of 50 ppm), and 10 ppm of propylene oxide
(TLV-TWA of 2 ppm). What is the mixture TLV-TWA and has this level been
exceeded?
Solution
The following equation applies:
n
åCi
i =1 5 + 20 + 10
( TLV-TWA )mix n
=
Ci
=
5 20 10
å
i =1 ( TLV-TWA )i
+
5 50 2
+

= 5.5 ppm
The total mixture concentration is 5 + 20 + 10= 35 ppm. The workers
are overexposed under these circumstances.
An alternative approach is to use Equation 3-3:
3
Ci 5 20 10
å
i =1 (TLV - TWA)i
= +
5 50
+
2
= 6.4
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Because this quantity is greater than 1, the TLV-TWA has been exceeded.
 Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic Vapors

An open toluene container in an enclosure is weighed as a function of time, and its is

determined that the average evaporation rate is 0.1 g/min. The ventilation rate is
100ft3/min. The temperature is 80°F and the pressure is 1 atm. Estimate the
concentration of toluene vapor in the enclosure. Compare your answer with TLV for
toluene of 50 ppm.
Solution: The value of k is not known directly, use as a parameter
Qm = 0.1 g/min = 2.20 × 10-4 Ibm/min
Qm RgT Rg = 0.7302 ft3 atm/lb-mol°R,
kC ppm = ´10 6
Qv PM T = 80°F = 540°R,
M = 92 lbm/lb-mol,
P = 1 atm

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 Estimating Worker Exposures to Toxic Vapors

An open toluene container in an enclosure is weighed as a function of time, and its is

determined that the average evaporation rate is 0.1 g/min. The ventilation rate is
100ft3/min. The temperature is 80°F and the pressure is 1 atm. Estimate the
concentration of toluene vapor in the enclosure.

Solution: The value of k is not known directly, use as a parameter

Qm = 0.1 g/min = 2.20 × 10-4 Ibm/min
Qm RgT Rg = 0.7302 ft3 atm/lb-mol°R,
kC ppm = ´10 6
Qv PM T = 80°F = 540°R,
M = 92 lbm/lb-mol,
P = 1 atm

( 2.20 ´ 10 -4 lbm / min)( 0.7302 ft 3 atm / lb - mol o R )( 540 o R )

kC ppm = ´ 10 6
( 100 ft 3 / min)( 1atm )( 92lbm / lb - mol )
= 9.43 ppm
k varies from 0.1 to 0.5, the concentration is expected to vary from 18.9 to
94.3 ppm.
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 Tutorial 2

Chapter 3: Industrial Hygiene (Crowl & Louvar)

3-14, 3-15, 3-19, 3-20 & 3-28

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