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New France
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For the short-lived monarchy in South America, see Kingdom of Araucanía and
Patagonia. For the colony claimed by the Marquis de Rays to exist in New Ireland,
see De Rays Expedition.

New France

Nouvelle-France (French)

1534–1763

The Royal Banner of early modern France or "Bourbon Flag" was the
most commonly used flag in New France[1][2][3][4][5]

The lesser coat of arms of France

as used by the Government

Motto:

• "Montjoie Saint Denis!" (French)

• "Mountjoy Saint Denis!"

Anthem:

• Marche Henri IV (March of Henry IV)

 Location of New France (dark green)

Status Viceroyalty of
the Kingdom of
France

Capital Quebec

Common languages French

Religion Catholicism

Government Monarchy

King of France

• 1534–1547 Francis I (first)

• 1715–1763 Louis XV (last)
Viceroy of New France

• 1534–1541 Jacques
Cartier (first; as
Governor of New
France)
• 1755–1760 Pierre de Rigaud de
Vaudreuil (last)

Legislature Superior Council

Historical era Colonial/French

and Indian War

• Exploration of Canada begins with Jacques 24 July 1534

Cartier
• Foundation of Quebec by Samuel de 3 July 1608
Champlain
 • Cardinal Richelieu creates the Compagnie de 29 April 1627
la Nouvelle-France, responsible for
colonizing the country.
• Louis XIV integrated New France into the 18 September 1663
royal domain, endowed it with a new
administration and founded the French West
India Company.
• By the Treaty of Utrecht, France ceded most 11 April 1713
of Acadia to the Kingdom of Great
Britain as well as its claims
on Newfoundland and Hudson's Bay.
• Beginning of the Seven Years' 28 May 1754
War in America
• Defeat of the French led by Louis-Joseph de 13 September 1759
Montcalm at the "Plains of Abraham",
near Quebec
• By the Treaty of Paris, Louis XV cedes New 10 February 1763
France to Great Britain

Currency Livre tournois

Preceded by Succeeded by

Adai Province of
Algonquians Quebec
Atakapas Prince Edward
Island
Beothuks
Nova Scotia
Caddoan
Indian
Chitimachas Territory
Inuit Louisiana
Iroquois Saint Pierre
Muscogee and Miquelon
Natchez
Sioux
Tunica
Yuchis

Today part of Canada

United States
Saint Pierre
and Miquelon

New France (French: Nouvelle-France) was the area colonized by France in North
America, beginning with the exploration of the Gulf of Saint Lawrence by Jacques
Cartier in 1534 and ending with the cession of New France to Great Britain and Spain in
1763 under the Treaty of Paris (1763).
The vast territory of New France consisted of five colonies at its peak in 1712, each with
its own administration: Canada, the most developed colony, was divided into the
districts of Québec, Trois-Rivières, and Montréal; Hudson's Bay; Acadie in the
northeast; Plaisance on the island of Newfoundland; and Louisiane.[6][7] It extended from
Newfoundland to the Canadian Prairies and from Hudson Bay to the Gulf of Mexico,
including all the Great Lakes of North America.
In the 16th century, the lands were used primarily to draw from the wealth of natural
resources such as furs through trade with the various indigenous peoples. In the
seventeenth century, successful settlements began in Acadia and in Quebec. The 1713
Treaty of Utrecht resulted in France giving Great Britain its claims over mainland
Acadia, the Hudson Bay, and Newfoundland. France established the colony of Île
Royale, now called Cape Breton Island, where they built the Fortress of Louisbourg.[8][9]
Population had grown slowly but steadily. In 1754 New France's population consisted of
10,000 Acadians, 55,000 Canadiens, while the territories of upper and lower
Louisiana had about 4,000 permanent French settlers, summing to 69,000 people. [10]
The British expelled the Acadians in the Great Upheaval from 1755 to 1764, which has
been remembered on July 28 each year since 2003. Their descendants are dispersed in
the Maritime provinces of Canada and in Maine and Louisiana, with small populations
in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia and the Magdalen Islands. Some also went to France.
In 1763, France ceded the rest of New France to Great Britain and Spain, except the
islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon, at the Treaty of Paris which ended the Seven
Years' War, part of which included the French and Indian War in America. Britain
retained Canada, Acadia, and the parts of French Louisiana which lay east of
the Mississippi River, except for the Île d'Orléans, which was granted to Spain with the
territory to the west. In 1800, Spain returned its portion of Louisiana to France under the
secret Treaty of San Ildefonso, and Napoleon Bonaparte sold it to the United States in
the Louisiana Purchase of 1803, permanently ending French colonial efforts on the
American mainland.
New France eventually became absorbed within the United States and Canada, with the
only vestige of French rule being the tiny islands of Saint Pierre and Miquelon. In the
United States, the legacy of New France includes numerous place names as well
as small pockets of French-speaking communities.

Contents

• 1Early exploration (1523–1650s)

o 1.1Foundation of Quebec City (1608)
• 2Royal takeover and attempts to settle
o 2.1Settlers and their families
o 2.2Settlements in Louisiana
• 3Growth of the settlements
• 4Fur trade and economy
o 4.1Coureurs des bois and voyageurs
 o 4.2Indigenous peoples
o 4.3Formal entry of England in New France area fur
trade
o 4.4The economy of La Louisiane
• 5Religion
• 6Judiciary of New France
o 6.1Early history in New France (pre-1663)
o 6.2Legal Reforms 1663
o 6.3Criminal Justice
o 6.4Special courts
o 6.5Acadia
• 7Military conflicts
o 7.1Iroquois attacks against Montreal
o 7.2King William's War
o 7.3Queen Anne's War
o 7.4Father Rale's War
o 7.5King George's War
o 7.6Father Le Loutre's War
o 7.7French and Indian War
• 8Treaties of cession
• 9Aftermath
• 10Political divisions of New France
• 11Historiography
• 12See also
• 13Notes
• 14References
• 15Further reading
o 15.1Older classics
o 15.2Primary sources
o 15.3Historiography
o 15.4In French
• 16External links

Early exploration (1523–1650s)[edit]

Around 1523, the Florentine navigator Giovanni da Verrazzano convinced King Francis
I to commission an expedition to find a western route to Cathay (China).[11] Late that
year, Verrazzano set sail in Dieppe, crossing the Atlantic on a small caravel with 50
men.[12] After exploring the coast of the present-day Carolinas early the following year,
he headed north along the coast, eventually anchoring in the Narrows of New York
Bay.[12]
The first European to visit the site of present-day New York, Verrazzano named
it Nouvelle-Angoulême in honour of the king, the former count
of Angoulême.[13] Verrazzano's voyage convinced the king to seek to establish a colony
in the newly discovered land. Verrazzano gave the names Francesca and Nova
Gallia to that land between New Spain (Mexico) and English Newfoundland.[14]
A map of New France made by Samuel de Champlain in 1612

In 1534, Jacques Cartier planted a cross in the Gaspé Peninsula and claimed the land
in the name of King Francis I.[15] It was the first province of New France. The first
settlement of 400 people, Fort Charlesbourg-Royal (present-day Quebec City), was
attempted in 1541 but lasted only two years.[16]
French fishing fleets continued to sail to the Atlantic coast and into the St. Lawrence
River, making alliances with Canadian First Nations that became important once France
began to occupy the land. French merchants soon realized the St. Lawrence region was
full of valuable fur-bearing animals, especially the beaver, which were becoming rare
in Europe. Eventually, the French crown decided to colonize the territory to secure and
expand its influence in America.
Another early French attempt at settlement in North America took place in 1564 at Fort
Caroline, now Jacksonville, Florida. Intended as a haven for Huguenots, Caroline was
founded under the leadership of René Goulaine de Laudonnière and Jean Ribault. It
was sacked by the Spanish led by Pedro Menéndez de Avilés who then established the
settlement of St. Augustine on 20 September 1565.
Acadia and Canada (New France) were inhabited by indigenous nomadic Algonquian
peoples and sedentary Iroquoian peoples. These lands were full of unexploited and
valuable natural resources, which attracted all of Europe. By the 1580s, French trading
companies had been set up, and ships were contracted to bring back furs. Much of what
transpired between the indigenous population and their European visitors around that
time is not known, for lack of historical records.[15]
Other attempts at establishing permanent settlements were also failures. In 1598, a
French trading post was established on Sable Island, off the coast of Acadia, but was
unsuccessful. In 1600, a trading post was established at Tadoussac, but only five
settlers survived the winter.[15] In 1604, a settlement was founded at Île-Saint-Croix on
Baie François (Bay of Fundy), which was moved to Port-Royal in 1605.[15] It was
abandoned in 1607, re-established in 1610, and destroyed in 1613, after which settlers
moved to other nearby locations, creating settlements that were collectively known
as Acadia, and the settlers as Acadians.[15]
Foundation of Quebec City (1608)[edit]
Champlain's Habitation c. 1608

In 1608, King Henry IV sponsored Pierre Dugua, Sieur de Mons and Samuel de
Champlain as founders of the city of Quebec with 28 men. This was the second
permanent French settlement in the colony of Canada.[17][18][19] Colonization was slow and
difficult. Many settlers died early because of harsh weather and diseases. In 1630, there
were only 103 colonists living in the settlement, but by 1640, the population had
reached 355.[20]
Champlain allied himself as soon as possible with
the Algonquin and Montagnais peoples in the area, who were at war with the Iroquois.
In 1609, Champlain, with two French companions, accompanied his Algonquin,
Montagnais, and Huron allies south from the St. Lawrence valley to Lake Champlain.
There he participated decisively in a battle against the Iroquois, killing two Iroquois
chiefs with the first shot of his arquebus. This military engagement against the Iroquois
solidified Champlain's status with New France's Huron and Algonquin allies, enabling
him to maintain bonds that were essential to New France's interests in the fur trade. [21]

A map of western New France, including the Illinois Country, by Vincenzo Coronelli, 1688

Champlain also arranged to have young French men live with local indigenous people,
to learn their language and customs and help the French adapt to life in North America.
These coureurs des bois ("runners of the woods"), such as Étienne Brûlé, extended
French influence south and west to the Great Lakes and among the Huron tribes who
lived there. For the better part of a century the Iroquois and French clashed in a series
of attacks and reprisals.[21]
During the first decades of the colony's existence, the French population numbered only
a few hundred, while the English colonies to the south were much more populous and
wealthy. Cardinal Richelieu, adviser to Louis XIII, wished to make New France as
significant as the English colonies. In 1627, Richelieu founded the Company of One
Hundred Associates to invest in New France, promising land parcels to hundreds of
new settlers and to turn Canada into an important mercantile and farming
colony.[22] Champlain was named Governor of New France and Richelieu forbade non-
Roman Catholics from living there. Protestants were required to renounce their faith
prior to settling in New France; many therefore chose instead to move to the English
colonies.[22]
The Roman Catholic Church, and missionaries such as the Recollets and the Jesuits,
became firmly established in the territory. Richelieu also introduced the seigneurial
system, a semi-feudal system of farming that remained a characteristic feature of the St.
Lawrence valley until the 19th century. While Richelieu's efforts did little to increase the
French presence in New France, they did pave the way for the success of later efforts.[22]
At the same time the English colonies to the south began to raid the St. Lawrence valley
and, in 1629, Quebec itself was captured and held by the English until
1632.[23] Champlain returned to Canada that year, and requested that Sieur de Laviolette
found another trading post at Trois-Rivières, which he did in 1634. Champlain died in
1635.
On Sept 23, 1646 under the command of Pierre LeGardeur, Le Cardinal arrived to
Quebec with Jules (Gilles) Trottier II and his family. Le Cardinal, commissioned by
the Communauté des Habitants, had arrived from La Rochelle, France. Communauté
des Habitants at the time of Trottier primarily dealt in the fur trade. In La Rochelle on
July 4, 1646 Trottier had been granted land to build and develop New France by Pierre
Teuleron, sieur de Repentigny, acting under commission of Jacques Le Neuf de la
Poterie.

Royal takeover and attempts to settle[edit]

The Merchant Flag of France (1689 design), inspiration for the flag of Quebec

In 1650, New France had seven hundred colonists and Montreal had only a few dozen
settlers. Because the First Nations people did most of the work of beaver hunting, the
company needed few French employees. But the severely underpopulated New France
almost fell completely to hostile Iroquois forces. In 1660, settler Adam Dollard des
Ormeaux led a Canadian and Huron militia against a much larger Iroquois force; none
of the Canadians survived, but they succeeded in turning back the Iroquois invasion. In
1627, Quebec had only eighty-five French colonists and was easily overwhelmed two
years later when three English privateers plundered the settlement. In 1663, New
France finally became more secure when Louis XIV made it a royal province, taking
control away from the Company of One Hundred Associates. In the same year
the Société Notre-Dame de Montréal ceded its possessions to the Seminaire de Saint-
Sulpice.[24] The crown stimulated emigration to New France by paying for transatlantic
passages and offering other incentives to those willing to move, and the population of
New France grew to three thousand.[25]
In 1665, Louis XIV sent a French garrison, the Carignan-Salières Regiment, to Quebec.
The government of the colony was reformed along the lines of the government of
France, with the Governor General and Intendant subordinate to the Minister of the
Marine in France. In 1665, Jean Talon was sent by Minister of the Marine Jean-Baptiste
Colbert to New France as the first Intendant. These reforms limited the power of
the Bishop of Quebec, who had held the greatest amount of power after the death of
Champlain.
Talon tried to reform the seigneurial system, forcing the seigneurs to actually reside on
their land, and limiting the size of the seigneuries, in an attempt to make more land
available to new settlers. These schemes were ultimately unsuccessful. Very few
settlers arrived, and the various industries established by Talon did not surpass the
importance of the fur trade.
Settlers and their families[edit]

One group of King's Daughters arrives at Quebec, 1667

The first settler was brought to Quebec by Champlain – the apothecary Louis
Hébert and his family, of Paris. They came expressly to settle, stay in one place to
make the New France settlement function. Waves of recruits came in response to the
requests for men with specific skills, like farming, apothecaries, blacksmiths. As couples
married, cash incentives to have large families were put in place, and were effective.
To strengthen the colony and make it the centre of France's colonial empire, Louis
XIV decided to send single women, aged between 15 and 30 known as the King's
Daughters or in French, les filles du roi, to New France, paying for their passage and
granting goods or money as a dowry. Approximately 800 arrived during 1663–1673. The
King's Daughters found husbands among the male settlers within a year or two, as well
as a new life for themselves. They came on their own choice, many because they could
not make a favorable marriage in the social hierarchy in France. They were from
commoner families in the Paris area, Normandy and the central-western regions of
France. By 1672, the population of New France had risen to 6,700, from 3,200 in
1663.[26]
Political map of the northeastern part of North America in 1664

At the same time, marriages with the indigenous peoples were encouraged,
and indentured servants, known as engagés, were also sent to New France. The
women played a major role in establishing family life, civil society, and enabling rapid
demographic growth.[27] There was a high demand for children, for they contributed to
the prosperity of the farm from an early age, and there was plenty of food for them.
Women bore about 30% more children than comparable women who remained in
France. Landry says, "Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time. This was due to
the natural abundance of meat, fish, and pure water; the good food conservation
conditions during the winter; and an adequate wheat supply in most years."[27]
Besides household duties, some women participated in the fur trade, the major source
of cash in New France. They worked at home alongside their husbands or fathers as
merchants, clerks and provisioners. Some were widows who took over their husband's
roles. A handful were active entrepreneurs in their own right.[28]
Settlements in Louisiana[edit]
Main article: Louisiana (New France)

French comfort women transported to Louisiana as brides for the colonists

The French extended their territorial claim to the south and to the west of the American
colonies late in the 17th century, naming it for King Louis XIV, as La Louisiane. In
1682, René-Robert Cavelier, Sieur de La Salle explored the Ohio River Valley and
the Mississippi River Valley, and he claimed the entire territory for France as far south
as the Gulf of Mexico.[29] La Salle attempted to establish the first southern colony in the
new territory in 1685, but inaccurate maps and navigational issues led him to instead
establish his Fort Saint Louis in what is now Texas. The colony was devastated by
disease, and the surviving settlers were killed in 1688, in an attack by the
area's indigenous population.[30] Other parts of Louisiana were settled and developed
with success, such as New Orleans and southern Illinois, leaving a strong French
influence in these areas long after the Louisiana Purchase.
Many strategic forts were built there, under the orders of Governor Louis de Buade de
Frontenac. Forts were also built in the older portions of New France that had not yet
been settled.[31] Many of these forts were garrisoned by the Troupes de la Marine, the
only regular soldiers in New France between 1683 and 1755.[32]

Growth of the settlements[edit]

Jean Talon, count of Orsainville, first intendant of New France.

The European population grew slowly under French rule,[33] thus remained relatively low
as growth was largely achieved through natural births, rather than by
immigration.[34] Most of the French were farmers, and the rate of natural increase among
the settlers themselves was very high.[35] The women had about 30 per cent more
children than comparable women who remained in France.[27] Yves Landry says,
"Canadians had an exceptional diet for their time."[36] The 1666 census of New
France was the first census conducted in North America.[37] It was organized by Jean
Talon, the first Intendant of New France, between 1665 and 1666.[37] According to
Talon's census there were 3,215 people in New France, comprising 538 separate
families.[38] The census showed a great difference in the number of men at 2,034 versus
1,181 women.[38]
By the early 1700s the New France settlers were well established along the Saint
Lawrence River and Acadian Peninsula with a population around 15,000 to
16,000.[39] The first population figures for Acadia are from 1671, which enumerated only
450 people.[40]
After the Treaty of Utrecht in 1713, New France began to prosper. Industries such as
fishing and farming, which had failed under Talon, began to flourish. A "King's Highway"
(Chemin du Roy) was built between Montreal and Quebec to encourage faster trade.
The shipping industry also flourished as new ports were built and old ones were
upgraded. The number of colonists greatly increased. By 1720, Canada had become a
self-sufficient colony with a population of 24,594.[41] Mainly due to natural increase and
modest immigration from Northwest France (Brittany, Normandy, Île-de-France, Poitou-
Charentes and Pays de la Loire) the population of Canada increased to 55,000
according to the last French census of 1754.[42] This was an increase from 42,701 in
1730.[43] By 1765, the population approached 70,000.[41]
By 1714, the Acadian population had expanded to over 2,500 and to about 13,000
people by the end of the 1750s. [40] This was mostly from natural increase rather than
immigration that affected other French settlements.[40]
European population of Louisiana is estimated at around 5,000 by the 1720s. [44] This
would dramatically change in the mid 1730s with the loss of 2,000 French settlers and
the introduction of African slaves.[45] Enslaved men, women and children represented
approximately 65 percent of the 6,000 non-indigenous population of Louisiana by the
end of French rule.[45]

Fur trade and economy[edit]

Main article: Beaver Wars
See also: List of French forts in North America

Card money in New France had the same currency value in the colony as minted currency. c.1714

According to the staples thesis, the economic development of New France was marked
by the emergence of successive economies based on staple commodities, each of
which dictated the political and cultural settings of the time. During the 16th and early
17th centuries New France's economy was heavily centered on its Atlantic fisheries.
This would change in the later half of the 17th and 18th centuries as French settlement
penetrated further into the continental interior.[46] Here French economic interests would
shift and concentrate itself on the development of the North American fur trade. It would
soon become the new staple good that would strengthen and drive New France's
economy, in particular that of Montreal, for the next century.
The trading post of Ville-Marie, established on the current island of Montreal, quickly
became the economic hub for the French fur trade. It achieved this in great part due to
its particular location along the St. Lawrence River. From here a new economy
emerged, one of size and density that provided increased economic opportunities for
the inhabitants of New France. In December 1627 the Company of New France was
recognized and given commercial rights to the gathering and export of furs from French
territories.[47] By trading with various indigenous populations and securing the main
markets its power grew steadily for the next decade. As a result, it was able to set
specific price points for furs and other valuable goods, often doing so to protect its
economic hegemony over other trading partners and other areas of the economy.
The fur trade itself was based on a commodity of small bulk but yet high value. Because
of this it managed to attract increased attention and/or input capital that would otherwise
be intended for other areas of the economy. The Montreal area witnessed a stagnant
agricultural sector; it remained for the most part subsistence orientated with little or no
trade purposes outside of the French colony. This was a prime example of the
handicapping effect the fur trade had on its neighbouring areas of the economy.[48]

Company of New France building in present day Quebec City

Nonetheless, by the beginning of the 1700s the economic prosperity the fur trade
stimulated slowly transformed Montreal. Economically, it was no longer a town of small
traders or of fur fairs but rather a city of merchants and of bright lights. The primary
sector of the fur trade, the act of acquiring and the selling of the furs, quickly promoted
the growth of complementary second and tertiary sectors of the economy. For instance
a small number of tanneries was established in Montreal as well as a larger number of
inns, taverns and markets that would support the growing number of inhabitants whose
livelihood depended on the fur trade. Already by 1683 there were well over 140 families
and there may have been as many as 900 people living in Montreal.
The founding of the Compagnie des Indes in 1718, once again highlighted the economic
importance of the fur trade.[49] This merchant association, like its predecessor the
Compagnie des Cent Associes, regulated the fur trade to the best of its abilities
imposing price points, supporting government sale taxes and combating black market
practices. However, by the middle half of the 18th century the fur trade was in a slow
decline.[50]
The natural abundance of furs had passed and it could no longer meet market demand.
This eventually resulted in the repeal of the 25 percent sales tax that had previously
aimed at curbing the administrative costs New France had accumulated. In addition,
dwindling supply increased black market trading. A greater number of indigenous
groups and fur traders began circumventing Montreal and New France altogether; many
began trading with either British or Dutch merchants to the south.[50]
By the end of French rule in New France in 1763, the fur trade had significantly lost its
importance as the key staple good that supported much of New France's economy for
more than the last century. Even so, it did serve as the fundamental force behind the
establishment and vast growth of Montreal and the French colony.
Coureurs des bois and voyageurs[edit]

The arrival of Radisson in an Amerindian camp in 1660

The coureurs des bois were responsible for starting the flow of trade from Montreal,
carrying French goods into upper territories while indigenous people were bringing
down their furs. The coureurs traveled with intermediate trading tribes, and found that
they were anxious to prevent French access to the more distant fur-hunting tribes. Still,
the coureurs kept thrusting outwards using the Ottawa River as their initial step upon
the journey and keeping Montreal as their starting point.[51] The Ottawa River was
significant because it offered a route that was practical for Europeans, by taking the
traders northward out of the territory dominated by the Iroquois. It was for this reason
that Montreal and the Ottawa River was a central location of indigenous warfare and
rivalry.
Montreal faced difficulties by having too many coureurs out in the woods. The furs
coming down were causing an oversupply on the markets of Europe. This challenged
the coureurs trade because they so easily evaded controls, monopolies, and taxation,
and additionally because the coureurs trade was held to debauch both French and
various indigenous groups. The coureur debauched Frenchmen by accustoming them
to fully live with indigenous, and indigenous by trading on their desire for alcohol.[51]
The issues caused a great rift in the colony, and in 1678, it was confirmed by a General
Assembly that the trade was to be made in public so as to better assure the safety of
the indigenous population. It was also forbidden to take spirits inland to trade with
indigenous groups. However these restrictions on the coureurs, for a variety of reasons,
never worked. The fur trade remained dependent on spirits, and increasingly in the
hands of the coureurs who journeyed north in search of furs.[51]
As time passed, the Coureurs des bois were partially replaced by licensed fur trading
endeavors, and the main canoe travel workers of those endeavors were
called voyageurs.
Indigenous peoples[edit]
Map showing the approximate location of major tribes and settlements[52]

The French were interested in exploiting the land through the fur trade as well as the
timber trade later on. Despite having tools and guns, the French settlers were
dependent on Indigenous people to survive in the difficult climate in this part of North
America. Many settlers did not know how to survive through the winter; the Indigenous
people showed them how to survive in the New World. They showed the settlers how to
hunt for food and to use the furs for clothing that would protect them during the winter
months.[53]
As the fur trade became the dominant economy in the New World, French voyageurs,
trappers and hunters often married or formed relationships with Indigenous women.
This allowed the French to develop relations with their wives' Indigenous nations, which
in turn provided protection and access to their hunting and trapping grounds.
The fur trade benefited Indigenous people as well. They traded furs for metal tools and
other European made items that made their lives easier. Tools such as knives, pots and
kettles, nets, firearms and hatchets improved the general welfare of indigenous peoples.
At the same time, while everyday life became easier, some traditional ways of doing
things were abandoned or altered, and while Indigenous people embraced many of
these implements and tools, they also were exposed to less vital trade goods, such as
alcohol and sugar, sometimes with deleterious effect.[54]
Formal entry of England in New France area fur trade[edit]
1681 French map of the New World above the equator: New France and the Great Lakes in the north, with a
dark line as the Mississippi River to the west in the Illinois Country and the mouth of the river (and future New
Orleans) then terra incognita

Since Henry Hudson had claimed Hudson Bay, and the surrounding lands for England
in 1611, English colonists had begun expanding their boundaries across what is now
the Canadian north beyond the French-held territory of New France. In 1670, King
Charles II of England issued a charter to Prince Rupert and "the Company of
Adventurers of England trading into Hudson Bay" for an English monopoly in harvesting
furs in Rupert's Land, a portion of the land draining into Hudson Bay. This is the start of
the Hudson's Bay Company, ironically aided by French coureurs des bois, Pierre-Esprit
Radisson and Médard des Groseilliers, frustrated with French license rules.[55][56][57] Now
both France and England were formally in the Canadian fur trade.[58]
The economy of La Louisiane[edit]
Map of Canada (New France) in 1703, showing full length of Mississippi River

The major commercial importance of the Louisiana Purchase territory was the
Mississippi River. New Orleans, the largest and most important city in the territory, was
the most commercial city in the United States until the Civil War, with most jobs there
being related to trade and shipping; there was little manufacturing. The first commercial
shipment to come down the Mississippi River was of deer and bear hides in 1705.[59] The
area, always loosely defined in those early times of European claims and settlements,
extended as far east as the city that is now Mobile, Alabama, begun by French settlers
in 1702.
The French (later Spanish) Louisiana Territory was owned by France for a number of
years before the money-losing territory was transferred to French banker Antoine
Crozat in 1713 for 15 years. After losing four times his investment, Crozat gave up his
charter in 1717. Control of Louisiana and its 700 inhabitants was given to the Company
of the Indies in 1719. The company conducted a major settlement program by recruiting
European settlers to locate in the territory. Unemployed persons, convicts and
prostitutes were also sent to the Louisiana Territory. After the bankruptcy of the
company in 1720, control was returned to the king.[59][60]
Louis XV saw little value in Louisiana, and to compensate Spain for its losses in
the Seven Years' War, he transferred Louisiana to his cousin Charles III in 1762.
Louisiana remained under the control of Spain until it was demanded to be turned over
to France by Napoleon. Although Louisiana was property of France by the Third Treaty
of San Ildefonso in 1800, Louisiana continued to be administered by Spain until
the Louisiana Purchase in 1803. Following the American acquisition of the territory, its
population tripled between 1803 and Louisiana statehood in 1812.

Religion[edit]
Main article: Jesuit missions in North America
Before the arrival of European colonists and explorers, First Nations followed a wide
array of mostly animistic religions.[61] During the colonial period, the French settled along
the shores of the Saint Lawrence River, specifically Latin Rite Roman Catholics,
including a number of Jesuits dedicated to converting the indigenous population; an
effort that eventually proved successful.[62]
The French Catholic Church, which after Champlain's death was the dominant force in
New France, wanted to establish a utopian Christian community in the colony.[63] In
1642, they sponsored a group of settlers, led by Paul Chomedey de Maisonneuve, who
founded Ville-Marie, precursor to present-day Montreal, farther up the St.
Lawrence.[64] Throughout the 1640s, Jesuit missionaries penetrated the Great Lakes
region and converted many of the Huron. The missionaries came into conflict with
the Iroquois, who frequently attacked Montreal.

Le Grand Voyage du Pays des Hurons, Gabriel Sagard, 1632

The presence of Jesuit missionaries in Huron society was nonnegotiable. The Huron
relied on French goods to facilitate life and warfare. Because the French would refuse
trade to all indigenous societies that denied relations with missionaries, the Huron had
more of a propensity towards Christian conversion.[65] The Huron heavily relied on
European goods to perform burial ceremonies known as The Huron Feast of the Dead.
Trading with the French allowed for larger amounts of decorative goods to be buried
during ceremonies as opposed to only a bare minimum.[65] With the growing epidemics
and high number of deaths, the Huron could not afford to lose relations with the French,
fearing to anger their ancestors.[65]
Jesuit missionaries explored the Mississippi River, in the territory of the Illinois.
Father Jacques Marquette and explorer Louis Jolliet traveled in a small party, starting
from Green Bay down the Wisconsin River to the Mississippi River, communicating with
the tribes they met en route. Although Spanish trade goods had reached most of the
indigenous peoples, these were the first Frenchmen to connect in the area named for
the Illinois, including the Kaskaskia. They kept detailed records of what they saw and
the people they met, sketching what they could, and mapped the Mississippi River in
1673.[66] Their travels were described as first contacts with the indigenous peoples,
though evidence of contact with Spanish from the south was clear.[66]
Subsequent to the arrival of French children in Quebec in 1634, measles was also
brought along with them, which quickly spread among the indigenous peoples. [67] Jesuit
priest Jean de Brébeuf described the symptoms as being severe. Brebeuf stated that
the fearlessness of the indigenous peoples towards death upon this disease made them
perfect candidates for conversion to Christianity.[67] The indigenous peoples believed that
if they did not convert to Christianity, they would be exposed to the evil magic of the
priests that caused the illness.[65]
Jesuit missionaries were troubled by the absence of patriarchy in indigenous
communities. Indigenous women were highly regarded within their societies and
participated in political and military decisions.[68] Jesuits attempted to eliminate the
matriarchy and shift the powers of men and women to accommodate those of European
societies. "In France, women are to be obedient to their masters, their
husbands."[69] Jesuits would attempt to justify this to the indigenous women in hopes to
enlighten them on proper European behavior. In response, Indigenous women grew
worrisome of the presence of these missionaries fearing they would lose power and
freedom within their communities.[69]
By 1649, both the Jesuit mission and the Huron society were almost destroyed
by Iroquois invasions (see Canadian Martyrs). In 1653, a peace invitation was extended
by the Onondaga Nation, one of the five nations of the Iroquois Confederacy. to New
France and an expedition of Jesuits, led by Simon Le Moyne, established Sainte Marie
de Ganentaa in 1656. The Jesuits were forced to abandon the mission by 1658, as
hostilities with the Iroquois resumed.[70]
The second article of the charter of the Compagnie des Cent-Associés stated that New
France could only be Roman Catholic.[71] This resulted in Huguenots facing legal
restrictions to enter the colony when Cardinal Richelieu transferred the control of the
colony to Compagnie des Cent-Associés in 1627. Protestantism was then outlawed
in France and all its overseas possessions by the Edict of Fontainebleau in 1685.[71] In
spite of that, approximately 15,000 Protestants settled in New France by using
socioeconomic pretexts while at the same time concealing their religious background. [72]

Judiciary of New France[edit]

Early history in New France (pre-1663)[edit]
Governor Frontenac performing a tribal dance with indigenous allies

In the early stage of French settlement, legal matters fell within the Governor of New
France's purview.[73] Under this arrangement, legal disputes were settled in an
incoherent fashion due to the Governor's arbitrariness in issuing verdicts.
Since 1640, a Seneschal (sénéchal), a Judge (juge d'épée, which literally means
'sword-bearing judge'), and a jurisdiction in Trois-Rivières were created.[73] However, the
Seneschal was under the oversight by the Governor, hence the Governor still had rather
extensive control over legal matters in New France.[73] In 1651, the Company of New
France made the Great Seneschal (Grand Sénéchal) the chief justice.[73] However,
the Island of Montreal had its special Governor at that time, who also administered
justice on the Island, and had not handed over justice to the Grand Seneschal until
1652.[74]
In practice, though, the Great Seneschal was awarded as an honorary title to the son
of Jean de Lauson, then Governor of New France; judicial functions were in fact carried
out by the Seneschal's deputies.[75] These deputies included such officials as the civil
and criminal lieutenant general (lieutenant général civil et criminel), the special
lieutenant (lieutenant particulier, acting as assistant royal judge), and the lieutenant
fiscal (lieutenant fiscal, acting as tax magistrate).[75]
The Civil and Criminal Lieutenant General sat as judge in trials at first instance,
whereas appeals would be adjudicated by the Governor, who held the sovereign right to
settle final appeals on behalf of the French king. The Great Seneschal also had a
magistrate in Trois-Rivières, as well as a bailiff formed by the Society of Priests of Saint
Sulpice on the Island of Montreal.[76]
Apart from judicial responsibilities, the Great Seneschal was also in charge of
convening local nobility in New France, as well as issuing declarations of war if
necessary.[74] However, such alternative role of the Great Seneschal was much
weakened soon after by having the rights to declare war and to administer finances
stripped off from the office because the French crown feared that colonial officers held
too much authority.[74]
Legal Reforms 1663[edit]
Royal judges and the Sovereign Council[edit]
On 13 October 1663, the royal court replaced the Seneschal Office (sénéchaussée).
Canada was divided into three districts: the district of Quebec City, the district of Trois-
Rivières, and the district of Montreal.[77] Each district had its own separate jurisdiction
with a judge appointed by the Crown, known as the civil and criminal lieutenants
general.[77] They were responsible for all legal matters, civil and criminal, in each of the
districts.[77]
In addition to the royal judges, there were other judicial officers in each district. The
clerk of court (registrar) was responsible for transcribing all court proceedings as well as
other documents relevant to each of the cases.[76] The king's attorney (procureur du roi)
was responsible for inquiring into the facts and preparing the case against the
accused.[78] In the districts of Quebec City and Montreal, the royal judges had special
lieutenants to substitute them whenever they were absent or sick. [78] Feudal courts heard
minor cases.[79][80]
The reform also brought the Sovereign Council of New France (Conseil souverain) into
existence, which was later renamed the Superior Council (Conseil supérieur). The
Sovereign Council effectively acted as the functional equivalent of a Council of State
(Conseil d'État) for New France, having the authority to hand down verdicts on final
appeal.[81] Initially, the Council convened once every week, and the quorum of the
Sovereign Council was seven for criminal matters, or five for civil cases.[81] The council's
practices evolved over time. At the Sovereign Council there was a king's attorney-
general (procureur général du roi) in charge of the similar tasks as the district king's
attorneys.[82] He was also responsible for supervising the king's attorneys' daily
operations as well as execution of royal edicts and regulations passed by the council in
their respective districts.[83]
The Custom of Paris[edit]
Main article: The Custom of Paris in New France
In 1664, the Custom of Paris (coutume de Paris) was formally set as the main source of
law for civil law in France's overseas empire. All royal judges and king's attorneys in
New France had to be thoroughly familiar with this compilation of rules.[81] The Custom
governed various civil aspects of the daily life in New France, including property,
marriage, inheritance, and so on.
Montreal Island: transition from feudal justice to royal justice[edit]
The Island of Montreal was a special case because its judiciary had been previously
held by the Society of St-Sulpice. In 1663, Governor-General of New France Augustin
de Saffray de Mésy originally considered appointing Paul de Chomedey, Sieur de
Maisonneuve the Governor of the Island of Montreal and consolidating a royal
jurisdiction on the island, but the plan garnered the St-Sulpicians' disapproval, who held
the Island as its own fiefdom and effectively acted as the island's governor.[84] In other
words, the Sovereign Council had not been able to seize effective control over the legal
matters of the Island; instead, the St-Sulpicians administered justice on the island.
It was not until 16 September 1666, that the St-Sulpicians finally handed over the justice
of the Island of Montreal to the Intendant of New France.[85] In 1693, the French king
commanded the replacement of the ecclesiastical courts in Montreal with a royal court
composed of one royal judge, with appeals going to the Sovereign Council. The
introduction of a royal court on the Montreal Island also resulted in the abolition of the
feudal court in the fief of Trois-Rivières (then held by the Jesuits).[86]
Quebec: founding of the Provostry of Quebec[edit]
In the Quebec City district, the lower court (tribunal antérieur) was established in 1664
and had jurisdiction to try cases at first instance, but then it was abolished in
1674.[87] The Sovereign Council appointed trial judges (juges inférieurs) to adjudicate
cases at first instance until the Provostry of Quebec (prévôté de Québec) was created in
May 1677.
The Provostry of Quebec was located in the Hall of Justice (palais de justice) in Quebec
City and had only one royal judge, also known as the civil and criminal lieutenant
general of Quebec City, who heard both civil and criminal cases, as well as district
police.[87] Additionally, a court clerk and a king's attorney were appointed to the court; if
either of these two officers could not attend the trials due to illness or other untenable
circumstances, the Intendant would appoint a temporary substitute.[87]
Criminal Justice[edit]
Main article: Criminal Justice in New France
In the early stages of French colonization, the execution of criminal justice in New
France were rather arbitrary. The Governor of New France served as the judge to the
colonists as well as soldiers. He would announce his verdict at the presence of the
chiefs of the Company of One Hundred Associates and that would be final.[88]
After the Sovereign Council was established in Quebec in 1663, the Council carried out
criminal justice according to the general ordinances of France.[88] In 1670, the Criminal
Ordinance was enacted in New France by order of the French king as a codification of
the previous criminal laws passed by the Sovereign Council.[89]
Special courts[edit]
Ecclesiastical court[edit]
"Officialité (New France)" redirects here. For the ecclesiastical court, see Ecclesiastical
court.
The ecclesiastical court (tribunal ecclésiastique, or Officialité) was a special court for
hearing first instance trials on both religious and secular affairs involving members of
the Church.[90] It first appeared in around 1660 but was not officially recognized by state
authorities for it was not administered by a bishop, until 1684.[90] Appeals from this court
lay with the Sovereign Council.[90]
Admiralty court[edit]
The court of admiralty was created on 12 January 1717 and was the last judicial body
set up in Canada during the French colonial period.[91] The court had a judge (also
known as the lieutenant-general of the court) appointed by the French admiralty, a
king's attorney, a clerk of court, and one or two bailiffs (huissiers).[92] The admiralty court
was located in Quebec City and had jurisdiction over all of New France
except Louisiana and Louisbourg.[90] The court heard first instance trials on maritime
affairs, including commerce and seamen's conduct.[90] During wartime, it also
commanded maritime police.[90] Before 1717, the Quebec Provostry performed the duties
of the admiralty court.[90]
Acadia[edit]
Unlike Canada, Acadia's judicial system was somewhat under-developed during the
New France period. Prior to 1670, Acadia was in a state of being torn between various
European colonists. None of the countries—France, England, the Netherlands—were
able to put in place a stable jurisdiction there.
In 1670, France regained control of Acadia and appointed Mathieu de Goutin as the
Civil and Criminal Lieutenant (lieutenant civil et criminel) of Acadia.[93] Simultaneously,
the Governor of Acadia was set up and his job was primarily the defense
of Acadia from English invasion.[94] The Civil and Criminal Lieutenant was essentially
supervised by the Governor, who held superior judicial authority over the Lieutenant, but
for most of the time would let the Lieutenant mediate and decide legal affairs.[95]
Due to the situation in Acadia as a small settlement of around 399 settlers in 1670–71,
vulnerable to foreign invasion, courts were minimal, consisting of only a Civil and
Criminal Lieutenant and a king's attorney.[94] There was not an official court in Acadia,
although the king's attorney of Acadia performed very similar duties as his counterpart
in New France.[96] Yet since Acadia never actually had a court, there was no clerk of
court; instead, trials were recorded by a local notary.[96] It is difficult to trace the judicial
history of French Acadia as the relevant archives were destroyed in a fire in 1708. [96]

Military conflicts[edit]
Main articles: French and Indian Wars, Father Rale's War, and Father Le Loutre's War
Further information: Military of New France
The presence of settlers, of businesses from several European countries harvesting
furs, along with the interests of the indigenous people in this new competition for North
American resources set the scene for significant military conflicts among all parties in
New France beginning in 1642, and ending with the Seven Years' War, 1756–1763.
Iroquois attacks against Montreal[edit]
Engraving depicting Adam Dollard with a keg of gunpowder above his head, during the Battle of Long Sault

Ville-Marie was a noteworthy site for it was the center of defense against the Iroquois,
the point of departure for all western and northern journeys, and the meeting point to
which the trading Indians brought their annual furs. This placed Ville-Marie, later known
as Montreal, at the forefront against the Iroquois, which resulted in its trade being easily
and frequently interrupted. The Iroquois were in alliance with the Dutch and
English,[97] which allowed them to interrupt the French fur trade and send the furs down
the Hudson River to the Dutch and English traders.[51]
This also put the Iroquois at warfare against the Hurons, the Algonquians, and any other
tribes that were in alliance with the French. If the Iroquois could destroy New France
and its Indian allies, they would be able to trade freely and profitably with the Dutch and
English on the Hudson River.[98] The Iroquois formally attacked the settlement at
today's Quebec City in its foundation year of 1642, and in almost every subsequent year
thereafter.[99] A militant theocracy maintained Montreal. In 1653 and 1654,
reinforcements arrived at Montreal, which allowed the Iroquois to be halted. [100][self-published
source]
In that year the Iroquois made peace with the French.[51]
Adam Dollard des Ormeaux, a colonist and soldier of New France, was a notable figure
regarding the Iroquois attacks against Montreal. The Iroquois soon resumed their
assaults against Montreal, and the few settlers of Montreal fell almost completely to
hostile Iroquois forces. In the spring of 1660, Adam Dollard des Ormeaux led a small
militia consisting of 16 men from Montreal against a much larger Iroquois force at
the Battle of Long Sault on the Ottawa River.[101] They succeeded in turning back the
Iroquois invasion and are responsible for saving Montreal from destruction.[102] The
encounter between Ormeaux and the Iroquois is of significance because it dissuaded
the Iroquois from further attacks against Montreal.[103]
King William's War[edit]
Main article: King William's War
Map of North America in 1702 showing forts, towns and (in solid colors) areas occupied by European
settlements

In 1688, King William's War began and the English and Iroquois launched a major
assault on New France, after many years of small skirmishes throughout the English
and French territories. New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy were able to thwart
New England expansion into Acadia, whose border New France defined as
the Kennebec River in southern Maine.[104][105][106] King William's War ended in 1697, but a
second war (Queen Anne's War) broke out in 1702. Quebec survived the English
invasions of both these wars, and during the wars France seized many of the
English Hudson's Bay Company fur trading centres on Hudson Bay including York
Factory, which the French renamed Fort Bourbon.
Queen Anne's War[edit]
Main article: Queen Anne's War
While Acadia survived the English invasion during King William's War, the colony fell
during Queen Anne's War. The final Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710. In 1713,
peace came to New France with the Treaty of Utrecht.[107] Although the treaty turned
Hudson Bay, Newfoundland and part of Acadia (peninsular Nova Scotia) over to Great
Britain, France remained in control of Île Royale (Cape Breton Island) (which also
administered Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island)). The northern part of Acadia, what
is today New Brunswick and Maine, remained contested territory. Construction
of Fortress Louisbourg on Île Royale, a French military stronghold intended to protect
the approaches to the St. Lawrence River settlements, began in 1719.[108]
Father Rale's War[edit]
Main article: Father Rale's War

An 1850s depiction of the death of the French Jesuit priest Sébastien Rale during Father Rale's War

In Acadia, however, war continued. Father Rale's War (1722–1725) was a series of
battles between New England and the Wabanaki Confederacy, who were allied with
New France. New France and the Wabanaki Confederacy defended against the
expansion of New England settlements into Acadia, whose border New France defined
as the Kennebec River in southern Maine.[104][105][106] After the New England Conquest of
Acadia in 1710, mainland Nova Scotia was under the control of New England, but both
present-day New Brunswick and virtually all of present-day Maine remained contested
territory between New England and New France. To secure New France's claim to the
region, it established Catholic missions among the three largest indigenous villages in
the region: one on the Kennebec River (Norridgewock); one further north on
the Penobscot River (Penobscot) and one on the Saint John River (Medoctec).[109][110]
The war began on two fronts: when New England pushed its way through Maine and
when New England established itself at Canso, Nova Scotia. As a result of the war,
Maine fell to the New Englanders with the defeat of Father Sébastien Rale at
Norridgewock and the subsequent retreat of the indigenous peoples from the Kennebec
and Penobscot rivers to St. Francis and Becancour, Quebec.[a]
King George's War[edit]
Main article: King George's War
Peace lasted in Canada until 1744, when news of the outbreak of the War of the
Austrian Succession (King George's War in North America) reached Fort Louisbourg.
The French forces went on the attack first in a failed attempt to capture Annapolis
Royal, the capital of the British Nova Scotia. In 1745, William Shirley, governor
of Massachusetts, led a counterattack on Louisbourg. Both France and New France
were unable to relieve the siege, and Louisbourg fell to the British. With the famed Duc
d'Anville Expedition, France attempted to retake Acadia and the fortress in 1746 but
failed. The fortress was returned to France under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle, but the
peace treaty, which restored all colonial borders to their pre-war status, did little to end
the lingering enmity between France, Britain, and their respective colonies, nor did it
resolve any territorial disputes.
Father Le Loutre's War[edit]
Main article: Father Le Loutre's War
Within Acadia and Nova Scotia, Father Le Loutre's War (1749–1755) began with the
British founding of Halifax. During Father Le Loutre's War, New France established
three forts along the border of present-day New Brunswick to protect it from a New
England attack from Nova Scotia. The war continued until British victory at Fort
Beausejour, which dislodged Father Le Loutre from the region, thereby ending his
alliance with the Maliseet, Acadians and Mi'kmaq.[110]
French and Indian War[edit]
Main articles: French and Indian War and Expulsion of the Acadians
Map of territorial claims in North America by 1750, before the French and Indian War, which was part of the
greater worldwide conflict known as the Seven Years' War (1756 to 1763). Possessions of Britain (pink),
France (blue), and Spain (orange, California, Pacific Northwest, and Great Basin not indicated)

Fort Duquesne, located at the confluence of the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers at
the site of present-day Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, guarded the most important strategic
location in the west at the time of the Seven Years' War. It was built to ensure that
the Ohio River valley remained under French control. A small colonial force from
Virginia began a fort here, but a French force under Claude-Pierre Pécaudy de
Contrecœur drove them off in April 1754. New France claimed this as part of their
colony, and the French were anxious to keep the British from encroaching on it. The
French built Fort Duquesne here to serve as a military stronghold and as a base for
developing trade and strengthening military alliances with the indigenous peoples of the
area.
In 1755, General Edward Braddock led an expedition against Fort Duquesne, and
although they were numerically superior to the French militia and their Indian allies,
Braddock's army was routed and Braddock was killed.[111] Later that same year at the
Battle of Lake George, the British General William Johnson with a force of 1700
American and Iroquois troops defeated a French force of 2800 French and Canadians
and 700 Native Americans led by Baron Dieskau (Military commander of New France).
The fight for control over Ohio Country led to the French and Indian War, which began
as the North American phase of the Seven Years' War (which did not technically begin
in Europe until 1756). The war began with the defeat of a Virginia militia contingent led
by Colonel George Washington by the French troupes de la marine in the Ohio valley.
As a result of that defeat, the British decided to prepare the conquest of Quebec City,
the capital of New France. The British defeated France in Acadia in the Battle of Fort
Beausejour (1755) and then Île Royale (Cape Breton Island) (which also administered
Île Saint-Jean (Prince Edward Island) with the Siege of Louisbourg (1758).
Throughout the war, the British forcibly removed the Acadians from their lands, which
the Mi'kmaq and Acadian militias resisted. The Great Upheaval continued from 1755 to
1764.
These British military successes were resisted, with successes by the French and
Native Americans. In 1756, a large force of French, Canadians, and their Native
American allies led by Marquis de Montcalm launched an attack against the key British
post at Fort Oswego on Lake Ontario from Fort Frontenac and forced the garrison to
surrender. The following year Montcalm with a huge force of 7200 French and
Canadians and 2400 Native Americans laid siege to Fort William Henry on the southern
shores of Lake George, and after three weeks of fighting the British commander Monroe
surrendered. Montcalm gave him honorable terms to return to England and not to fight
for 18 months. And yet, when the British force with civilians was three miles from the
fort, the Native American allies massacred about 1100 of the 1500 strong force.
The following year the French had one victory and one defeat. The defeat was at the
French fortress city of Louisbourg. The victory was at the strip of land between Lake
Champlain and Lake George at the French fortress of Fort Carillon. The British force
sent to capture Fort Carillon (held by just 3400 French regulars and marines with almost
no militia or indigenous support) was the largest ever seen in America at that time:
16,200 British, American, and Iroquois troops under the command of General James
Abercrombie. This battle cost the British 2200 troops, several artillery pieces against
French losses of around 200 killed or wounded.
While the British Conquest of Acadia happened in 1710, the French continued to remain
a significant force in the region with Fort Beausejour and Fortress Louisbourg. The
dominant population in the region remained Acadian, that is to say, not British. In 1755,
the British were successful in the Battle of Beausejour and immediately after began
the expulsion of the Acadians.
In the meantime the French continued to explore westwards and expand their trade
alliances with indigenous peoples. Fort de la Corne was built in 1753, by Louis de la
Corne, Chevalier de la Corne just east of the Saskatchewan River Forks in what is
today the Canadian province of Saskatchewan. This was the furthest westward outpost
of the French Empire in North America to be established before its fall.

Treaties of cession[edit]
Further information: Conquest of New France (1758-1760)
In 1758, British forces again captured Louisbourg, allowing them to blockade the
entrance to the St. Lawrence River. This proved decisive in the war. In 1759, the British
besieged Quebec by sea, and an army under General James Wolfe defeated the
French under General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm at the Battle of the Plains of
Abraham in September. The garrison in Quebec surrendered on 18 September, and by
the next year New France had been conquered by the British after the attack on
Montreal, which had refused to acknowledge the fall of Canada. The last French
governor-general of New France, Pierre François de Rigaud, Marquis de Vaudreuil-
Cavagnal, surrendered to British Major General Jeffery Amherst on 8 September 1760.
France formally ceded Canada to the British in the Treaty of Paris, signed 10 February
1763.[112]

Aftermath[edit]
Main articles: Canada under British Imperial control, Louisiana (New Spain),
and Colonial history of the United States
Map showing British territorial gains following the Treaty of Paris in pink, and Spanish territorial gains after
the Treaty of Fontainebleau in yellow

The expelled Acadians were initially dispersed across much of eastern North America
(including the Thirteen Colonies) and some were sent to France. Many eventually
settled in Quebec or Louisiana, while others returned to the regions of New
Brunswick and Nova Scotia. Chéticamp, Nova Scotia and the Magdalen Islands have
significant communities. In Louisiana their descendants became known as the Cajuns, a
corruption of the French Acadiens.
By the mid 1700s the French settlers were well established with a population around
70,000, mainly due to natural increase.[113][114] The European population had grown slowly
under French rule.[34][115][116] The British Thirteen Colonies to the south along the Atlantic
coast grew in population from natural increase and more new settlers from Europe. By
1760, almost 1.6 million people lived in the British colonies, a ratio of approximately
twenty-three to one compared to New France.[117] The population of the New England
colonies alone in 1760 was nearly 450,000.
French culture and religion remained dominant in most of the former territory of New
France until the arrival of British settlers led to the later creation of Upper
Canada (today Ontario) and New Brunswick. The Louisiana Territory,
under Spanish control since the end of the Seven Years' War, remained off-limits to
settlement from the thirteen American colonies.
Twelve years after the British defeated the French, the American Revolutionary
War broke out in the Thirteen Colonies. Many French Canadians would take part in the
war, including Major Clément Gosselin and Admiral Louis-Philippe de Vaudreuil. After
the British surrender at Yorktown in 1781, the Treaty of Versailles gave all former British
claims in New France below the Great Lakes into the possession of the nascent United
States. A Franco-Spanish alliance treaty returned Louisiana to France in 1801, but
French leader Napoleon Bonaparte sold it to the United States in the Louisiana
Purchase in 1803, ending French colonial efforts in North America.
The portions of the former New France that remained under British rule were
administered as Upper Canada and Lower Canada, 1791–1841, and then those regions
were merged as the Province of Canada during 1841–1867, when the passage of
the British North America Act of 1867 instituted home rule for most of British North
America and established French-speaking Quebec (the former Lower Canada) as one
of the original provinces of the Dominion of Canada. The former French colony of
Acadia was first designated the Colony of Nova Scotia but shortly thereafter the Colony
of New Brunswick, which then included Prince Edward Island, was split off from it.
In Canada, the legacy of New France can be seen in the enduring Francophone
identity of its descendants, which has led to institutional bilingualism in Canada as a
whole.
The only remnant of the former colonial territory of New France that remains under
French control to this day is the French overseas collectivity of Saint Pierre and
Miquelon (French: Collectivité territoriale de Saint-Pierre-et-Miquelon), consisting of a
group of small islands 25 kilometres (16 mi; 13 nmi) off the coast of Newfoundland,
Canada.

Political divisions of New France[edit]

Further information: List of towns and villages in New France

A chart showing the political organization of New France, c. 1759

Before the Treaty of Utrecht, the territory of New France was divided into four colonies:

• Province of Acadia
• Canada (New France)
o Illinois Country (before 1717)
• French Louisiana
o Louisiana (New France)
o Illinois Country (after 1717)
The Treaty of Utrecht resulted in the relinquishing of French claims to mainland Acadia,
the Hudson Bay and Newfoundland, and the establishment of the colony of Île Royale,
now called Cape Breton Island, where the French built the Fortress of
Louisbourg.[8][118] Acadia had a difficult history, with the Great Upheaval, remembered
on July 28 each year since 2003. The descendants are dispersed in the Maritime
Provinces of Canada, in Maine and Louisiana in the United States, with small
populations in Chéticamp, Nova Scotia and the Magdalen Islands.

Historiography[edit]
The Conquest (referring to the fall of New France to the British, and specifically the
events of 1759-60) has always been a central and contested theme of Canadian
memory. Some Anglophone historians portray the Conquest as a victory for "British
military, political and economic superiority" and argue that it ultimately brought benefits
to the French settlers.[119] However, Cornelius Jaenen notes that French-Canadian
historians remain strongly divided on the subject. One group sees it as a highly negative
economic, political and ideological disaster that threatened a way of life with materialism
and Protestantism. At the other pole are those historians who see the positive benefit of
enabling the preservation of language, and religion and traditional customs under British
rule.[119] French-Canadian debates have escalated since the 1960s, as the conquest is
seen as a pivotal moment in the history of Québec's nationalism. Francophone historian
Jocelyn Létourneau suggested in 2009, that today, "1759 does not belong primarily to a
past that we might wish to study and understand, but, rather, to a present and a future
that we might wish to shape and control."[120]
The enduring contestation of the legacy of the Conquest can be exemplified by an
episode in 2009, when an attempt to commemorate the 250th anniversary of the battle
of the Plains of Abraham was cancelled. The explanation for the cancellation was that it
was over security concerns, but activist Sylvain Rocheleau stated, "[I think] they had to
cancel the event because it was insulting a majority of Francophones. They had to
cancel it because it was a bad idea.".[121]

See also[edit]
Canada portal
France portal
Indigenous peoples of the Americas portal
United States portal

• Alcohol in New France

• French Colonial Historic District
• List of French possessions and colonies
• List of North American cities founded in
chronological order
• New France Intellectual Life
• Slavery in New France
• New France Sovereign Council
• Timeline of New France history

Notes[edit]
1. ^ While New Englanders safely settled the land, not until the
treaty of 1752 did Massachusetts officially lay claim to the
entire Penobscot watershed, and in 1759, the Pownall
Expedition, led by Governor Thomas Pownall,
 established Fort Pownall on Cape Jellison in what is
now Stockton Springs.

References[edit]
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Quarterly Journal: 2nd-21st Annual Meeting with a List of New
Members. The Association. It is most probable that the
Bourbon Flag was used during the greater part of the
occupancy of the French in the region extending southwest
from the St. Lawrence to the Mississippi , known as New
France... The French flag was probably blue at that time with
three golden fleur - de - lis ....
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Further reading[edit]
• "New France". Dictionary of Canadian Biography (online ed.).
University of Toronto Press. 1979–2016. scholarly biographies of
all major figures in New France
• Chartrand, René (2008). The Forts of New France in Northeast
America 1600–1763. Osprey Pub. ISBN 978-1-84603-255-4.
 • Chartrand, René (2008). The forts of New France : the Great
Lakes, the Plains and the Gulf Coast, 1600–1763. Osprey
Pub. ISBN 978-1-84603-504-3.
• Charbonneau, H.; et al. (1993). The First French Canadians:
Pioneers in the St. Lawrence Valley. University of Delaware
Press. ISBN 9780874134544.
• Choquette, Leslie (1997). Frenchmen into peasants : modernity
and tradition in the peopling of French Canada. Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-32315-5.
• Dale, Ronald J. (2004). The Fall of New France: How the French
Lost a North American Empire, 1754–1763. Toronto: James
Lorimer and Company, Ltd. ISBN 9781550288407.
• Dechêne, Louise (1992). Habitants and merchants in seventeenth-
century Montreal. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University
Press. ISBN 9780773509511.
• Eccles, W. J. (1968). Canadian Society during the French Regime.
Canadian Historical Association.
• Eccles, W. J. (1969). The Canadian Frontier, 1534–1760. Toronto:
Holt Rinehart Winston.
• Greer, Allan (1997). The people of New France. Toronto:
University of Toronto Press. ISBN 978-0-8020-7816-2.
• Harris, Richard Colebrook (1966). The Seigneurial System in Early
Canada. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University
Press. ISBN 9780773504349.
• Maura, Juan Francisco (4 June 2020). "La invención de la carta de
Giovanni da Verrazano y de la 'Nouvelle France' (Canadá)" [The
invention of the map by Giovanni da Verrazano of New France
(Canada)]. Cuadernos Hispanoamericanos (in Spanish).
• Munro, William Bennett (1906). "The Office of Intendant in New
France". American Historical Review. Oxford University
Press. 12 (1): 15–38. doi:10.2307/1832882. JSTOR 1832882.
• Moogk, Peter N. (2000). La Nouvelle-France: the making of
French Canada : a cultural history. East Lansing: Michigan State
University Press. ISBN 978-0-87013-528-6.
• Stiles, T. J., ed. (1998). "Chapter 21: The Fall of New France". The
Colonizers. In their own words (1st ed.). New York: Perigee
Books. pp. 394–418. ISBN 978-0-399-52390-8. LCCN 97041889.
• Trigger, Bruce (1976). The Children of Aataentsic. A history of the
Huron People to 1660. Montreal: McGill-Queens University
Press. ISBN 9780773506275.
Older classics[edit]

• Kingsford, William (1890). The History of Canada: Canada under

French rule. 4. Roswell & Hutchinson.
• Parkman, Francis (1983). Francis Parkman : France and England
in North America, Pioneers of France in the New World, The
Jesuits in North America in the Seventeenth Century, La Salle and
the Discovery of the Great West, The Old Regime in
Canada. Count Frontenac and New France under Louis XIV, A
Half-Century of Conflict, Montcalm and Wolfe. 2. Library of
America.
• Wrong, George M.; Langton, H.H., eds. (1914). The Chronicles of
Canada: Volume II – The Rise of New France (2009 reissue ed.).
Fireship Press. ISBN 978-1-934757-45-1.
 • Wrong, George M. (1918). The Conquest of New France: A
Chronicle of the Colonial Wars. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-
1-58057-276-7. Retrieved 4 March 2011.

Primary sources[edit]
• Lawn, Katherine; Salvucci, Claudio, eds.
(2005). Women in New France: Extracts from the
Jesuit Relations. Bristol, Penn.: Evolution
Publishing.
Historiography[edit]
• Desbarats, Catherine; Greer, Allan (2015). "North
America From the Top Down: Visions from New
France" (PDF). Journal of Early American
History. 5 (2): 109–136. doi:10.1163/18770703-
00502008.
• Gagnon, Serge (1978). "The Historiography of New
France, 1960–1974: Jean Hamelin to Louise
Dechêne". Journal of Canadian Studies. University
of Toronto Press. 13 (1):
80+. doi:10.3138/jcs.13.1.80. ISBN 9780887720260.
S2CID 152109936.
• Greer, Allan (2010). "National, Transnational, and
hypernational historiographies: New France meets
early American history". Canadian Historical
Review. 91 (4): 695–724. doi:10.3138/chr.91.4.695.
• Peterson, Mark (October 2002). "How (and Why) to
Read Francis Parkman". Common-Place: The
Journal of Early American Life. 3 (1).
In French[edit]
• Havard, Gilles; Vidal, Cécile (2003). Histoire de
l'Amérique française. Paris: Flammarion. ISBN 978-
2-08-210045-8.
• Lahaise, Robert; Vallerand, Noël (1999). La
Nouvelle-France 1524–1760. Outremont, Québec:
Lanctôt. ISBN 978-2-89485-060-2.

External links[edit]
Library resources about
New France
 • Resources in your library
• Resources in other libraries

show
New Franceat Wikipedia's sister projects

• Electronic New France Internet gateway to

everything New France (archives, heritage sites,
etc.)
• The Virtual Museum of New France, Canadian
Museum of Civilization
• France In America Bibliothèque nationale de France
/ Library of Congress site (click on Themes) – text
and maps
• Chronologie de l'histoire du Québec (French) (List of
Governors, Intendants, and Bishops)

show

New France (1534–1763)

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