Question 1: What is Research?

Research is defined as careful consideration of study regarding a particular concern or problem

using scientific methods. “research is a systematic inquiry to describe, explain, predict, and
control the observed phenomenon. It involves inductive and deductive methods.”
Research is conducted with a purpose to:
• Identify potential and new customers
• Understand existing customers
• Set pragmatic goals
• Develop productive market strategies
• Address business challenges
• Put together a business expansion plan
• Identify new business opportunities
Step – 1: Identifying the Problem
The first and foremost task in the entire process of scientific research is to identify a research
problem.
A well-identified problem will lead the researcher to accomplish all-important phases of the
research process, starting from setting objectives to the selection of the research methodology.
Researcher need to identify both;
1. Non-research Problem, and
2. Research Problem.
Non-Research Problem
A non-research problem is one that does not require any research to arrive at a solution.
Intuitively, a non-researchable problem consists of vague details and cannot be resolved
through research.
Research Problem
In contrast to a non-research problem, a research problem is of primary concern to a
researcher.
A problem will qualify as a potential research problem when the following three conditions
exist:
1. There should be a perceived discrepancy between “what it is” and “what it should have
been.” This implies that there should be a difference between “what exists” and the
“ideal or planned situation”;
 2. A question about “why” the discrepancy exists. This implies that the reason(s) for this
discrepancy is unclear to the researcher (so that it makes sense to develop a research
question); and
3. There should be at least two possible answers or solutions to the questions or problems.
Step – 2: Reviewing of Literature
A review of relevant literature is an integral part of the research process. It enables the
researcher to formulate his problem in terms of the specific aspects of the general area of his
interest that has not been so far researched.
In sum, we enumerate the following arguments in favour of reviewing the literature:
• It avoids duplication of the work that has been done in the recent past.
• It helps the researcher to find out what others have learned and reported on the problem.
• It allows the researcher to understand if there are any unanswered research questions.
Step – 3: Setting research questions, objectives, and hypotheses
After discovering and defining the research problem, researchers should make a formal
statement of the problem leading to research objectives.
An objective will precisely say what should be researched, to delineate the type of information
that should be collected, and provide a framework for the scope of the study. The best
expression of a research objective is a well-formulated, testable research hypothesis.
A hypothesis is an unproven statement or proposition that can be refuted or supported by
empirical data. Hypothetical statements assert a possible answer to a research question.
Step -4: Choosing the study design
The research design is the blueprint or framework for fulfilling objectives and answering
research questions.
It is a master plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting, processing, and
analysing the collected data. There are four basic research designs that a researcher can use to
conduct his or her study;
1. survey,
2. experiment,
3. secondary data study, and
4. observational study.
Step – 5: Deciding on the sample design
Sampling is an important and separate step in the research process. The basic idea of sampling
is that it involves any procedure that uses a relatively small number of items or portions (called
a sample) of a universe (called population) to conclude the whole population.
Such a complete enumeration is referred to as census.
A population is the total collection of elements about which we wish to make some inference
or generalization.
A sample is a part of the population, carefully selected to represent that population. If certain
statistical procedures are followed in selecting the sample, it should have the same
characteristics as the population as a whole. These procedures are embedded in the sample
design.
Sample design refers to the methods to be followed in selecting a sample from the population
and the estimating technique, vis-a-vis formula for computing the sample statistics.
Step – 6: Collecting data
The gathering of data may range from simple observation to a large-scale survey in any defined
population. There are many ways to collect data.
The approach selected depends on the objectives of the study, the research design, and the
availability of time, money, and personnel.
Step-7: Processing and Analysing Data
Data processing generally begins with the editing and coding of data. Data are edited to ensure
consistency across respondents and to locate omissions, if any.
In survey data, editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility, and clarifies unclear
and inappropriate responses. In addition to editing, the data also need coding.
Step-8: Writing the report – Developing Research Proposal, Writing Report,
Disseminating and Utilizing Results
The entire task of a research study is accumulated in a document called a proposal. A research
proposal is a work plan, prospectus, outline, an offer, a statement of intent or commitment from
an individual researcher or an organization to produce a product or render a service to a
potential client or sponsor.

Question 3. What is research design also mention the various type of research design?
A research design is a framework or blueprint for conducting the marketing research project.
It details the procedures necessary for obtaining the information needed to structure or solve
marketing research problems. A research design lays the foundation for conducting the project.
A good research design will ensure that the marketing research project is conducted effectively
and efficiently.
Type of research design:
1. Exploratory Research
As its name implies, the objective of exploratory research is to explore or search through a
problem or situation to provide insights and understanding. Exploratory research could be used
for any of the following purposes:
_ Formulate a problem or define a problem more precisely.
_ Identify alternative courses of action.
_ Develop hypotheses.
_ Isolate key variables and relationships for further examination.4
_ Gain insights for developing an approach to the problem.
_ Establish priorities for further research.
2. Descriptive Research
As the name implies, the major objective of descriptive research is to describe something—
usually, market characteristics or functions. Descriptive research is conducted for the following
reasons:
1. To estimate the percentage of units in a specified population exhibiting a certain behaviour.
For example, we might be interested in estimating the percentage of heavy users of
prestigious department stores who also patronize discount department stores.
2. To determine the degree to which marketing variables are associated. For example,
to what extent is shopping at department stores related to eating out?

3. Cross-Sectional Designs
The cross-sectional study is the most frequently used descriptive design in marketing research.
Cross-sectional designs involve the collection of information from any given sample of
population elements only once. They may be either single cross-sectional or multiple cross-
sectional. In single cross-sectional designs, only one sample of respondents is drawn from the
target population, and information is obtained from this sample only once.

4. Longitudinal Designs
In longitudinal designs, a fixed sample (or samples) of population elements is measured
repeatedly on the same variables. A longitudinal design differs from a cross-sectional design
in that the sample or samples remain the same over time. In other words, the same people are
studied over time and the same variables are measured.

Question 3: Questionnaire Design Process

The great weakness of questionnaire design is lack of theory. Because there are no scientific
principles that guarantee an optimal or ideal questionnaire, questionnaire design is a skill
acquired through experience. It is an art rather than a science.
1. Specify the information needed.
2. Specify the type of interviewing method.
3. Determine the content of individual questions.
 4. Design the questions to overcome the respondent s inability and unwillingness to
answer.
5. Decide on the question structure.
6. Determine the question wording.
7. Arrange the questions in proper order.
8. Identify the form and layout.
9. Reproduce the questionnaire.
10. Eliminate bugs by pretesting.

In practice, the steps are interrelated and the development of a questionnaire will involve some
iteration and looping. For example, the researcher may discover that respondents
misunderstand all the possible wordings of a question. This may require a loop back to the
earlier step of deciding on the question structure.

1. Specify the Information Needed

The first step in questionnaire design is to specify the information needed. This is also the first
step in the research design process. Note that as the research project progresses, the information
needed becomes more and more clearly defined. It is helpful to review components of the
problem and the approach, particularly the research questions, hypotheses, and the information
needed.
2. Type of Interviewing Method
An appreciation of how the type of interviewing method influences questionnaire design can
be obtained by considering how the questionnaire is administered under each method. In
personal interviews, respondents see the questionnaire and interact face to face with the
interviewer. Thus, lengthy, complex, and varied questions can be asked. In telephone
interviews, the respondents interact with the interviewer, but they do not see the questionnaire.
3. Individual Question Content
Once the information needed is specified and the type of interviewing method decided, the next
step is to determine individual question content: what to include in individual questions.
• Is the Question Necessary?
Every question in a questionnaire should contribute to the information needed or serve some
specific purpose. If there is no satisfactory use for the data resulting from a question, that
question should be eliminated. In certain situations, however, questions may be asked that are
not directly related to the information that is needed.
4. Overcoming Inability to Answer
Researchers should not assume that respondents can provide accurate or reasonable answers to
all questions.
The respondents may not be informed, may not remember, or may be unable to articulate
certain types of responses.
5. Choosing Question Structure
A question may be unstructured or structured. In the following sections, we define unstructured
questions and discuss their relative advantages and disadvantages and then consider the major
types of structured questions: multiple choice, dichotomous, and scales.
• Unstructured Questions
Unstructured questions are open-ended questions that respondents answer in their own
words.
They are also referred to as free-response or free-answer questions. The following are some
examples:
_ What is your occupation?
_ What do you think of people who patronize discount department stores?
_ Who is your favourite political figure?
• Structured Questions
Structured questions specify the set of response alternatives and the response format. A
structured question may be multiple choice, dichotomous, or a scale.
6. Choosing Question Wording
Question wording is the translation of the desired question content and structure into words
that respondents can clearly and easily understand. Deciding on question wording is perhaps
the most critical and difficult task in developing a questionnaire.
To avoid these problems, we offer the following guidelines: (1) define the issue, (2) use
ordinary words, (3) use unambiguous words, (4) avoid leading questions, (5) avoid implicit
alternatives, (6) avoid implicit assumptions, (7) avoid generalizations and estimates, and (8)
use positive and negative statements.
7. Logical Order
Questions should be asked in a logical order. All of the questions that deal with a particular
topic should be asked before beginning a new topic. When switching topics, brief transitional
phrases should be used to help respondents switch their train of thought.
8. Form and Layout
The format, spacing, and positioning of questions can have a significant effect on the results.
This is particularly important for self-administered questionnaires.
9. Reproduction of the Questionnaire
How a questionnaire is reproduced for administration can influence the results. For example,
if the questionnaire is reproduced on poor-quality paper or is otherwise shabby in appearance,
the respondents will think the project is unimportant and the quality of response will be
adversely affected.
10. Pretesting
Pretesting refers to the testing of the questionnaire on a small sample of respondents to identify
and eliminate potential problems. Even the best questionnaire can be improved by pretesting.
As a general rule, a questionnaire should not be used in the field survey without adequate
pretesting. A pretest should be extensive, as illustrated by the Census 2000 questionnaire in the
opening example.

Question 5. Short note

1. Types of research

• Experiments
People who take part in research involving experiments might be asked to complete various
tests to measure their cognitive abilities (e.g. word recall, attention, concentration, reasoning
ability etc.) usually verbally, on paper or by computer. The results of different groups are then
compared. Participants should not be anxious about performing well but simply do their best.
The study might include an intervention such as a training programme, some kind of social
activity, the introduction of a change in the person’s living environment (e.g. different lighting,
background noise, different care routine) or different forms of interaction (e.g. linked to
physical contact, conversation, eye contact, interaction time etc.).
• Surveys
Surveys involve collecting information, usually from fairly large groups of people, by means
of questionnaires but other techniques such as interviews or telephoning may also be used.
There are different types of survey. The most straightforward type (the “one shot survey”) is
administered to a sample of people at a set point in time. Another type is the “before and after
survey” which people complete before a major event or experience and then again afterwards.
• Questionnaires
Questionnaires are a good way to obtain information from a large number of people and/or
people who may not have the time to attend an interview or take part in experiments. They
enable people to take their time, think about it and come back to the questionnaire later.
Questionnaires typically contain multiple choice questions, attitude scales, closed questions
and open-ended questions. The drawback for researchers is that they usually have a fairly low
response rate and people do not always answer all the questions and/or do not answer them
correctly.
• Interviews
Interviews are usually carried out in person i.e. face-to-face but can also be administered by
telephone or using more advance computer technology such as Skype. Sometimes they are held
in the interviewee’s home, sometimes at a more neutral place.

2. DATA
• Data is a set of values of subjects with respect to qualitative or quantitative variables.
• Data is raw, unorganized facts that need to be processed. Data can be something simple
and seemingly random and useless until it is organized.
• When data is processed, organized, structured or presented in a given context so as to
make it useful, it is called information.
• Information, necessary for research activities are achieved in different forms.
• The main forms of the information available are:
1. Primary data
2. Secondary data
3. Cross-sectional data
4. Time series data
5. Ordered data
Primary Data
• Primary data is an original and unique data, which is directly collected by the researcher
from a source according to his requirements.
• It is the data collected by the investigator himself or herself for a specific purpose.
• Data gathered by finding out first-hand the attitudes of a community towards health
services, ascertaining the health needs of a community, evaluating a social program,
determining the job satisfaction of the employees of an organization, and ascertaining
the quality of service provided by a worker are the examples of primary data.
Secondary Data
• Secondary data refers to the data which has already been collected for a certain purpose
and documented somewhere else.
• Data collected by someone else for some other purpose (but being utilized by the
investigator for another purpose) is secondary data.
• Gathering information with the use of census data to obtain information on the age-sex
structure of a population, the use of hospital records to find out the morbidity and
mortality patterns of a community, the use of an organization’s records to ascertain its
activities, and the collection of data from sources such as articles, journals, magazines,
books and periodicals to obtain historical and other types of information, are examples
of secondary data.
Cross-Sectional Data
• Cross-sectional data is a type of data collected by observing many subjects (such as
individuals, firms, countries, or regions) at the same point of time, or without regard to
differences in time.
• This type of data is limited in that it cannot describe changes over time or cause and
effect relationships in which one variable affects the other.
Time-Series Data
• Time series data occurs wherever the same measurements are recorded on a regular
basis.
• Quantities that represent or trace the values taken by a variable over a period such as a
month, quarter, or year.
• The data according to time periods is called time-series data. e.g. population in a
different time period.
Ordered Data
• Data according to ordered categories is called as ordered data.
• Ordered data is similar to a categorical variable except that there is a clear ordering of
the variables.
• For example for category economic status ordered data may be, low, medium and high.

3. Chi Square Test

There are two types of chi-square tests. Both use the chi-square statistic and distribution for
different purposes:
• A chi-square goodness of fit test determines if sample data matches a population.
• A chi-square test for independence compares two variables in a contingency table to
see if they are related. In a more general sense, it tests to see whether distributions
of categorical variables differ from each another.
• A very small chi square test statistic means that your observed data fits your
expected data extremely well. In other words, there is a relationship.
• A very large chi square test statistic means that the data does not fit very well.
In other words, there isn’t a relationship.

Uses
The chi-squared distribution has many uses in statistics, including:
• Confidence interval estimation for a population standard deviation of a normal
distribution from a sample standard deviation.
• Independence of two criteria of classification of qualitative variables.
• Relationships between categorical variables (contingency tables).
• Sample variance study when the underlying distribution is normal.
• Tests of deviations of differences between expected and observed frequencies (one-way
tables).

4. Degrees of Freedom
• Degrees of Freedom refers to the maximum number of logically independent values,
which are values that have the freedom to vary, in the data sample.
• Degrees of Freedom are commonly discussed in relation to various forms of hypothesis
testing in statistics, such as a Chi-Square.
• Calculating Degrees of Freedom is key when trying to understand the importance of a
Chi-Square statistic and the validity of the null hypothesis.
The formula for Degrees of Freedom equals the size of the data sample minus one:
Df=N−1
where:
Df=degrees of freedom
N=sample size

5. Degrees of Freedom
Degrees of Freedom are commonly discussed in relation to various forms of hypothesis testing
in statistics, such as a Chi-Square. It is essential to calculate degrees of freedom when trying
to understand the importance of a Chi-Square statistic and the validity of the null hypothesis.
The significance level, also denoted as alpha or α, is a measure of the strength of the evidence
that must be present in your sample before you will reject the null hypothesis and conclude that
the effect is statistically significant. The researcher determines the significance level before
conducting the experiment.