Keith Sherwin, Michael Horsley (Auth.) - Thermofluids - Tutor's Manual-Springer US (1996)

Thermofluids
Tutor's Manual
Thermofluids
Tutor's Manual
Keith Sherwin
School of Engineering
University of Huddersfield
UK
and
Michael Horsley
Faculty of Technology
University of Portsmouth
UK
SPRlNGER-SClENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, BY 1~lll

First edition 1996
© 1996 Keith Sherwin and Michael Horsley

Originally published by Chapman & Hall in 1996
Typeset in lol/12pt Times by AFS Image Setters Ltd, Glasgow
ISBN 978-0-412-63750-6 ISBN 978-1-4899-6870-8 (eBook)

DOI 10.1007/978-1-4899-6870-8
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A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library
Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 95-71238
8 Printed on permanent acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSIfNISO

Z39.48-1992 and ANSIfNISO Z39.48-1984 (Permanence of Paper).
Contents
List of symbols Vll
1 Introduction 1
2 Modelling 3
3 Temperature and its measurement 7
4 Pressure in a static fluid 11
5 The conservation laws 17
6 The transport laws 19
7 Ideal gases and the ideal gas laws 21
8 The non-flow energy equation 25
9 Derivations from the non-flow energy equation 29
10 Properties of va pours 33
11 Flow energy equations 35
12 Ideal incompressible flow 39
13 Internal flow with friction 43
14 Internal flow systems 49
15 External flow 55
16 The second law of thermodynamics 59
17 Gas cycles and internal combustion engines 63
18 Vapour cycles 67
19 Gas mixtures and real gas behaviour 71
20 Psychrometry 75
21 Combustion 81
22 Basic heat transfer 85
01 Contents
23 Heat exchangers 91
24 Convective heat transfer 97
25 Compressible flow 103
26 Propulsion 109
27 Turbomachinery 115
28 Renewable energy systems 121
List of symbols
The following symbols have been used throughout the book:
A Area
AR Aspect ratio
b Breadth
Bi Biot number
C Specific heat
cp Specific heat at constant pressure
Cv Specific heat at constant volume
Cd Coefficient of discharge
Cf Skin friction coefficient
CD Drag coefficient
CL Lift coefficient
COP Coefficient of performance
d Diameter
dm Hydraulic mean diameter
D Drag
e Pipe roughness size
E Effectiveness
F Force
Fr Froude number
g Gravitational acceleration
Gr Grashof number
h Specific enthalpy
he Convective heat transfer coefficient
H Total enthalpy
jn Colburn factor
k Thermal conductivity
K Pressure drop coefficient
Ke Entry loss coefficient
KE Kinetic energy
L Lift
m Mass
m Mass flow rate
Iviii II List of symbols
M Molar mass
Ma Mach number
N Rotational speed
Nu Nusselt number
NTU Number of transfer units
P Pressure
Po Datum atmospheric pressure
Po Stagnation pressure
PI Total pressure
PE Potential energy
Pr Prandtl number
q Heat
Q Rate of heat transfer
r Radius
rc Cuf-off ratio
rd Degree of reaction
rv Compression ratio
rp Pressure ratio
R Gas constant
R Ratio of thermal capacities
Ru Universal gas constant
Re Reynolds number
s Specific entropy
St Stanton number
t Time
T Temperature
T Torque
u Specific internal energy
U Overall heat transfer coefficient
U Rotational velocity
v Velocity
V Volume
V Volume flow rate
w Work
W Power
x Dryness fraction
x,Y Distance
z Height
ex Angle of incidence
~ Coefficient of thermal expansion
y Ratio of specific heats, cp/c y
E Emissivity
11 Efficiency
Jl Viscosity
p Density
cr Stefan-Boltzmann constant
't Shear stress
<I> Relative humidity
0) Angular velocity
0) Specific humidity
Introduction 1
This manual should be used in conjunction with Chapters 2 to 28 of the
Thermofluids textbook. Because of its introductory nature, Chapter 1 has
not been included.
The purpose of the manual is to provide, within a concise volume, a
list of aims and key equations for each chapter together with additional
worked examples. These worked examples complement those provided
in the main text and are intended to ensure a greater insight into the
topics considered.
Modelling 2
AIMS
• To introduce the idea of using different types of model in problem solving.

• To define the types of model used in visualizing thermofluid situations.
• To introduce a thermofluid system as a conceptual model of a device
or situation.
• To identify the processes performed within a thermofluid device.
• To introduce dimensional analysis as a method of modelling a wide
range of thermofluid situations.
• To introduce the concept of scaling as a useful method of visualizing
the influence of a dimension on a situation.
EXAMPLES
2.1 Water flows over a 20m high waterfall. If the temperature of the
water at the top is 14·C find the temperature at the bottom. Take the
specific heat of water as 4.2kJkg- 1 K- 1 and 9 = 9.81ms- 2 .
Analysis: Considering the waterfall as an open system the change of

energy for a given droplet of water is
Potential energy -+ kinetic energy -+ thermal energy.
Therefore
20 x 9.81 = 4200(T2 - 14).

Rearranging
_ 14 20 x 9.81 _ 14047.C
T2 - + 4200 - . .
Note - it will be shown later in the book that thermal energy in this case
is really the change of 'internal energy' of the water.
0\ Modelling
2.2 A coin falls in a tube of oil at constant velocity. If the coin has a
diameter d, thickness t and density Pc' use dimensional analysis to derive
a relationship for the velocity of the coin. Take the density of oil as Po.
Analysis: Since the coin falls at constant velocity the drag is equal to the
weight mg. Therefore
v = !(mg, Po' d).
There are four variables, each of which can be expressed in terms of three
dimensions leading to just one dimensionless group:
v = !((mg)"p:d C
).
Dimensionally
L
T= (ML)"(M)b
T2 L3 (L)C
Evaluating the indices:

M: 0= a +b
L: 1 = a - 3b +c
T: -1 = -2a.
Therefore a = t, b = -t and c = -1, so the group is
vdv'Po
TC=--
;;;g.
Rearranging
v = constant x J mg2 ·
pod
But the mass of the coin is
so that
v = constant J
tgpc.
Po
2.3 A disc of diameter d is immersed in a fluid of density p and requires
a power input W to drive it at a constant rotational velocity N. Determine:
(a) the dimensionless relationship between these variables;
(b) the power required to drive a disc at 1800 rev min -1 if it absorbs
200 W at 1200 rev min -1.
Analysis: The relationship between the variables is

W = !(d, p, N).
Modelling I[U
(a) In mathematical terms this relationship can be expressed as
W = f(dapbNC).
Dimensionally
ML2 a(M)b(l)C
V=(L) L3 T·
Evaluating the indices:
M: 1 =b
L: 2 = a - 3b
T: -3 = -c.
Therefore a = 5, b = 1 and c = 3, so the group is
W
'It = d5 pN 3
which can be expressed as
W = constant x pN3 d 5.
(b) Now
W
-5 d3 = constant
pN
so that
and
1800)3
W1800 = 200 x ( 1200 = 675 W.
Temperature and its
measurement 3
AIMS
• To review the concept of temperature as a thermofluid property.

• To introduce some of the more common techniques for measuring
temperature.
• To indicate the range of principles and properties used in thermometers
and to illustrate some features.
• To emphasize the importance of calibration of thermometers.
• To look at some sources of errors in temperature measurement.
KEY EQUATIONS
• Heat transfer to a single-phase substance:

q = m x c x!1T. (3.1)
• Average fluid temperature based on flow areas:
T= A1T1 + A2T2 + ... (3.2)
A1 + A2 + ...
• Average fluid temperature based on flow volumes:
T = A 1v1T1 + A 2v2T2 + ... (3.3)
A 1 v1 + A 2 v2 + ... .
EXAMPLES
3.1 A copper bar, having a mass of 5 kg and a temperature of 150 ·C,

is immersed in a tank holding 20 litres of water at a temperature of 10 ·C.
Ignoring losses, find the final temperature of the water and copper
assuming
c (copper) 0.39 kJ kg- 1 K- 1
c(water) 4.18kJkg- 1 K- 1
[!] I Temperature and its measurement
Analysis: Assuming no losses
Heat gained by water = heat lost by copper.
From equation (3.1)
(mc)w(T - 10) = (mcM150 - T)
where T is the final equilibrium temperature
20 x 4.18(T- 10) = 5 x 0.39(150 - T)
83.6T - 836 = 292.5 - 1.95T
T= 292.5 + 836 = 13.2 C.

0
83.6 + 1.95
3.2 A piece of rock, having a mass of 10kg, is heated from 15°C to
80°C in 1 minute. If the specific heat of the rock is 0.92 kJ kg - I K - I, find
the required rate of heat transfer.
Analysis: From equation (3.1)

q = m x c x I1T
= 10 x 0.92 x (80 - 15)
= 598kJ.
This is the quantity of heat transferred so that the rate of heat transfer, Q, is
Q = q/t
= 598/60 = 9.967kJs-l, i.e.9.967kW.
3.3 Water flows through a pipe that is divided into four equal concentric
areas. The water temperature and velocity are measured in each of the
areas and the results are
Area T("C) v (ms-I)
1 75 2.0
2 74 1.9
3 70 1.8
4 65 1.6
Neglecting changes in water density and specific heat values, find the
mean temperature of the water.

T = Aiv i TI + A 2 v2 T2 + ...
Aiv i + A 2 v2 + ...
Temperature and its measurement I [!]
but Al = A2 = A3 = A4 and
T= v1T1 + v2 T2 + V3 T3 + V4 T4
V 1 + V 2 + V3 + V 4
2.0(75) + 1.9(74) + 1.8(70) + 1.6(65)

2.0 + 1.9 + 1.8 + 1.6
= 71.32°C.
Note - the pipe would need to divide into areas having radii of 0.500r,
0.707r and 0.866r, where r is the outside radius of the pipe, in order to
achieve four concentric equal areas.
Pressure in a static fluid 4
AIMS
• To define pressure and explain the difference between gauge and

absolute pressure.
• To define the hydrostatic pressure for an incompressible fluid.
• To discuss pressure measuring devices such as the barometer and
manometer.
• To evaluate forces on surfaces submerged in an incompressible fluid.
• To discuss the variation of pressure in a compressible fluid with
particular reference to the earth's atmosphere.
KEY EQUA nONS
• For hydrostatic pressure in an incompressible fluid:

P1 - P2 = pqz. (4.1)
• Height measured on an inclined manometer:
z = x sin O. (4.4)
• For a vertical submerged surface in an incompressible fluid:
F = pgzA (4.6)
I
z
P
=z+-.
Ai
(4.11)
• For pressure variation in an isothermal atmosphere:
InPz=_Pogz (4.15)
Po Po
EXAMPLES
4.1 The static pressure of a gas is measured by means of an inclined

manometer. If the manometer contains water and has a scale reading of
[!!] I Pressure in a static fluid
200 mm when inclined at 45° to the horizontal, find the static pressure
on a day when the barometer reads 756 mm height of mercury.
Take the density of water as 1000kgm- 3 , the density of mercury as
136ookgm- 3 and g = 9.81ms-2.

Patm = pgz
= 13 600 x 9.81 x 0.756
= 100 862.5 Pa.
For the manometer; from equation (4.4)

z = x sin ()
= 0.2 x sin 45° = 0.141 m.
Therefore
Ps = 100 862.5 + 1000 x 9.81 x 0.141
= 102245.7 Pa, i.e. 102.25 kPa.
4.2 A vertical wall across a water channel has a submerged surface that
forms a trapezium 3 m deep, 3 m wide at the top and 2 m wide at the
bottom. Find the resultant force on the wall and the position of the centre
of pressure.
Take the density of water as 1000kgm- 3 and g = 9.81 ms- 2.
Conceptual model:
2
T 1.5
= 3
+ 1 +
A 8
Analysis: Considering the trapezium as consisting of rectangle A and
triangle B:
Rectangle A ZA = 1.5 m.
Applying equation (4.6)
FA = pgzA
= 1000 x 9.81 x 1.5 x (2 x 3)
= 88290N.
Pressure in a static fluid I[!!]
Triangle B ZB = 1 m.
FB = 1000 x 9.81 x 1 x 1(1 x 3)
= 14715N.
The resultant force is
F=FA+FB
= 88290 + 14715
= 103OO5N, i.e.103kN.
In order to find the centre of pressure for the trapezium it is necessary
to find the centre of pressure for the rectangle A and triangle B:
Rectangle A From Table 4.1,
Ah2 (2 x 3) x 32
1=-U= 12
= 4.5m4.
From equation (4.11)
1
(z)
p A
=z+-
Az
4.5
= 1.5 + 2 x 3 x 1.5 = 2.0 m.
Triangle B From Table 4.1,
Ah2 1(1 x 3) X 32
1 =1"8= 18
= 0.75m4.
From equation (4.11),
0.75
(zplB = 1 + 1(1 x 3) x 1 = 1.5 m.
Taking moments about the top of the trapezium
zp x F = «Zp)A x FA) + «Zp)B x FB )
and
(2.0 x 88290) + (1.5 x 14715)
zp = 103005
= 1.93m.
4.3 The vertical wall of a water tank has aT-shaped gate with the
dimensions given below. If the height of the water is 2 m above the hinge
line, determine the value of y so that the moments due to the water are
balanced about the hinge.
[!!] I Pressure in a static fluid
Take the density of water as 1000kgm- 3 and y = 9.81ms- 2.
~1·------1m------~·1
1 0.5
+
Hinge
line
+
1
0.7
Analysis: Designating the area of the gate above the hinge line as 'A' and
the area below as 'B':
Rectangle A From equation (4.6)
FA = pg (Z)A (A)A
= 1000 x 9.81 x 1.75 x 0.5 = 8583.75 N.
and
I = Ah2 = 0.5 X (0.5)2 = 00104 3

12 12 . m .
Therefore
0.0104
(Zp)A = 1.75 + 0.5 x 1.75 = 1.762m.
Rectangle B From equation (4.6)

FB = 1000 x 9.81 x 2.35 x 0.7y = 16137.5yN.
For rectangle B
0.7 y(O. 7)2 4
IB = 12 = 00286ym
. .
Pressure in a static fluid I~
Therefore
0.0286y
(Zp)B = 2.35 + 0.7y x 2.35 = 2.367 m .
Taking moments about the hinge line
8583.75 x (2 - 1.762) = 16137.5y x (2.367 - 2)
8583.75 x 0.238
y = 16137.5 x 0.367 = 0.345 m.
The conservation laws 5
AIMS
• To introduce the general concept of conservation in respect of

thermofluid processes.
• To present the continuity equation as an important feature of
thermofluid conservation.
• To identify mass and energy as two prime factors which are substantially
unchanged during any operation or process, within the limits of
common measurements.
• To highlight the relationship between unaccounted losses and errors
in measurements.
• To introduce the relationship between force and rate of change of
momentum.
KEY EQUATIONS
• Continuity equation:
rh = pAv. (5.1)
• Conservation of energy for a system:

Energy input - energy output
= change of energy in the system. (5.2)
• Conservation of momentum:
Force = rate of change of momentum. (5.3)
EXAMPLES
5.1 Air flows through a duct. At one cross-section of the duct the velocity
is 20 m s - 2. At another cross-section further along the duct the flow area
is twice the original value and the velocity is reduced to 12 m s - 1. Find
the ratio of the original to final air density.
[!!] I The conservation laws
Analysis: Assuming steady flow, from equation (5.1)
P1 A 1V 1 = P2 A 2 V 2
and
5.2 Oil flows at a mass flow rate of 4 kg s -1 through a heater. The oil
enters at 1.5ms- 1 and 10·e and leaves at 1.8ms- 1 and 15·C. Find the
energy input to the heater if the specific heat of oil is 3.25 kJ kg - 1 K - 1.

Energy input - energy output = change of energy in the heater.
Assuming the heater to be insulated, there is no energy loss:
Energy input = change of energy in the heater
= mc(T2 - T1) + ~(V~ - V~)

= 4 x 3250(15 - 10) + 1(1.8 2 - 1.5 2 )
= 65000 + 2.
Ignoring the change of kinetic energy, which is negligible, the energy
input is 65 kW.
5.3 If the heater defined in Example 5.2 is controlled so that the outlet
oil temperature does not vary by more than ± 0.1 K, find the upper and
lower limits of the heater input.
Analysis: With an outlet temperature of 15·e the heat input is 65 kW.

With an outlet temperature of 15.1 ·e, the heat input is
4 x 3250(15.1 - 10) = 66300 W.
Similarly with an outlet temperature of 14.9 ·e, the heat input is
4 x 3250(14.9 - 10) = 63700 W.
So the upper and lower limits are
65kW ± 1.3kW.
The transport laws 6
AIMS
• To explain what is meant by a transport law.

• To show qualitatively that the flow of anything depends upon a driving
force and that the rate of flow depends also upon a resistance.
• To look at some examples of transport processes.
• To show that all the transport laws are essentially similar, thus
underlining the relationships between thermodynamics and fluid
mechanics in the subject of thermofluids.
EXAMPLES
6.1 Define some features of a house that will influence the rate of heat loss.
Analysis: Assuming the house to be a closed system the heat loss will be
influenced by transport law factors:
1. A driving force - in this case the temperature difference between the

internal temperature and external temperatures of the house.
2. A resistance governed by the thermal properties and thicknesses of
the structural components of the house; that is, walls, windows, doors,
roof and floors.
6.2 Central heating systems are controlled by a 'time clock' so that the
system is switched off during the night to save on running costs. However,
it can be argued that it does not reduce running costs because the fabric
of the house has a thermal content which is reduced when the heating is
off. This thermal content must be restored when the heating is switched
on again.
Is this argument valid?
Analysis: The cost of running the heating system is determined by the

energy required to maintain a given internal temperature:
Energy required = heat loss x time.

~ I The transport laws
From the transport laws, the heat loss is proportional to the temperature
difference between the inside of the house and the surroundings, .1 T:
Energy required oc .1T.
Assuming a constant outside temperature, .1 Tremains constant with the
heating system on and falls with the heating system off.
Therefore, switching the heating system off must reduce running costs.
6.3 Water flows through a pipeline shown in the figure below. Sketch
an equivalent electrical circuit using electrical resistances to model flow
resistances.
Constriction
L.========= -
Analysis: The pipeline can be modelled in several ways. Assuming
resistance to flow in the pipe, valve, constriction and bends, an equivalent
electrical circuit is
Valve Bend Constriction Bend Friction

Ideal gases and the
ideal gas laws 7
AIMS
• To introduce the concept of ideal gases.

• To use ideal gases as a basis for studying real gases.
• To develop the basic laws which govern ideal gas behaviour.
• To use the laws to generate the equation of state for an ideal gas.
• To use the equation of state to analyse the pressure variation in the
atmosphere.
KEY EQUATIONS
• Boyle's law:
PV = constant. (7.1)
• Charles' law:
VjT= constant. (7.2)
• General ideal gas law:

PVjT = constant. (7.6)
• Equation of state for an ideal gas:

PV= mRT. (7.7)
• Pressure variation in the atmosphere:
(7.8)
• Universal gas constant:

Ru=MR (7.10)
where Ru = 8.314kJkmol- 1 K- 1 .
[EJ I Ideal gases and the ideal gas laws
EXAMPLES
7.1 A rigid container holds 0.3 m 3 of nitrogen (M = 28) at 15 MPa and

25°C. Find the mass of nitrogen in the container.
R = ~ = 8.~;4 = 0.297kJkg-1K-1.
Substituting in equation (7.7)
PV=mRT
1.5 x 106 x 0.3 = m x 297 x (25 + 273)
m = 5.08 kg.
7.2 A mixture of 60% nitrogen and 40% methane by mass is held in a

0.2 m 3 container at 500 kPa and 20°C. Find the density of the contained gas.
Analysis: Considering the nitrogen and methane separately:

N 2: R = 8.314/28 = 0.297kJkg- 1 K- 1
PV1 = m1RT
500 x 10 3 X V1 = m 1 x 297 x (20 + 273)
V1 =0.174m 1 •
CH 4 : R = 8.314/16 = 0.520kJkg- 1 K- 1.
500 X 103 X V2 = m2 x 520 x (20 + 273)
V2 = 0.305m 2 •
Mixture: 0.2 = V1 + V2
= 0.174m 1 + 0.305m 2
but
mdm2 = 60/40 = 1.5
and
0.2 = 0.174 x 1.5m 2 + OJ05m 2 •
Therefore
m2 = 0.354 kg and m1 = 0.531 kg
p = ~ = 0.354 + 0.531 = 4.42kgm- 3 .

V 0.2
Ideal gases and the ideal gas laws I ~
7.3 An aircraft flies at 10 000 m (224 K) with an internal cabin pressure

equivalent to that at 5000 m (256 K). Find the load on each unit area of
the cabin if the sea-level conditions are 100 kPa and 288 K. Take R for
air as 0.287kJkg- 1 K- 1 and g = 9.81ms- 2 .
Analysis: Between sea level and 5000 m,
T = 256 + 288 = 272 K

m 2 .
From equation (7.8)

In P 5000 = _ 9.81 x 5000
100 287 x 272
P 5000 = 53.3 kPa.
Between sea level and 10 000 m,
T
m
= 224 +2 288 = 256 K .
From equation (7.8)

In P lOOOO = _ 9.81 x 10000
100 287 x 256
P 1 0000 = 26.3 kPa.
Load on cabin wall = (53.3 - 26.3) x 1 = 27 kN.
The non-flow energy
•
equation 8
AIMS
• To look at the energy transfers which accompany ideal gas processes.

• To introduce a fundamental law of thermofluids.
• To develop a relevant equation for calculation purposes.
• To investigate the meaning of the specific heat of gases when
undergoing various processes.
KEY EQUA nONS
• Non-flow energy equation:

q = w + mt1u. (8.1)
• Work done:
w=Pxt1v. (8.2)
EXAMPLES
8.1 A closed system contains 1 kg of an ideal gas. Complete the following

table for processes inside the system
Process q w u2 t1u
a 18 12 33
b -8 15 20
c -20 6 -10
assuming all values to be in kJ kg - 1.
Analysis: For 1 kg of gas, from equation (8.1)

q = w + t1u.
~ I The non-flow energy equation
Process a:
18 = 12 + l1u, l1u = 6kJkg- 1
and since l1u = U2 - U1
U2 = l1u + U 1 = 6 + 33 = 39kJkg- 1 •
Process b:
q=w+l1u
= - 8 + 20 = 12kJkg- 1
U2 = l1u + U 1
= 20 + 15 = 35kJkg- 1.
Process c:
q=w+l1u
- 20 =w- 10, w = -10kJkg- 1
U1 = U2 -l1u
= 6 - (-10) = 16kJkg- 1 •
8.2 A piston, with a face area of 0.001 m 2 , moves through 80mm in a

cylinder. If the working fluid is maintained at a constant pressure of
1.2 MPa throughout the process, find the external work done.

w = Pl1V
= 1.2 x 106 x (0.001 x 0.08)
= 96J.
8.3 In a constant pressure process at 1 MPa, 10 kg of gas expands from

a volume of 1.3 m 3 and temperature of 25"C. During the process the
work done is 3 MJ. Find the final volume and temperature.

w = Pl1V
3 x 106 = 1 X 106 X ~V
and
Therefore
The non-flow energy equation I[EJ
From Charles' law
and
T = V2T,1 = 4.3 x (25 + 273)

2 V1 1.3
= 985.7K.
Derivations from the
non-flow energy equation 9
AIMS
• To provide a definition of internal energy for an ideal gas.

• To do the same for a new property called enthalpy.
• To derive some equations which help with the evaluation of work transfer.
• To take a first look at reversible adiabatic processes.
KEY EQUATIONS
• For an ideal gas undergoing a constant volume process:

q = mcv~T. (9.1)
• For an ideal gas undergoing a constant pressure process:
q= mcp~T. (9.3)
• Ideal gas constant:
R = cp - Cv • (9.4)
• Work transfer during a process:
P 1 V1 - P 2 V2
W= (9.7)
n-1
except for the case n = l.
• For an ideal gas undergoing an adiabatic process:
PP = constant (9.9)
T
P<y -1)/y = constant (9.10)
where y = cp/cv.
• Work transfer during an isothermal process:
W = pVln(~). (9.11)
~ I Derivations from the non-flow energy equation
• Defining specific enthalpy:

P
h = - + u. (9.13)
p
EXAMPLES
9.1 A well-insulated cylinder and piston assembly contains 0.2 kg of gas,

which does 1 kJ of external work during a constant pressure process. If
the specific heat values are cp = 1.05 kJ kg -1 K -1 and Cv = 0.75 kJ kg -1 K - 1,
find the temperature change during the process.
Analysis: From the non-flow energy equation

q = w + mAu
where
Therefore
mCpAT = w + mCvAT
0.2 x 1.05 x AT = 1 + (0.2 x 0.75 x AT)
0.2 x (1.05 - 0.75)AT = 1
and
1
AT= 2 03 = 16.67K.
O. x .
9.2 An ideal gas is compressed from initial conditions of 200kPa, 2m 3

and 20·C to a final volume of 0.5 m 3 according to the relationship
PV1.3 = constant. Find the final pressure and temperature.
Analysis: The process is governed by

P 1 V1.3
1
_ P 2 V1.3
- 2
2
= 200 ( 0.5
)1.3 = 1212.6 kPa.
For an ideal gas
P 1 V1 =P 2 V2
T1 T2
Derivations from the non-flow energy equation I [i!]
and
T2 = P 2 V2 = 1212.6 x 0.5 x 293

P1Vl 200 2
= 444.1 K, i.e. 171.1·C.
Note - T2 can also be evaluated using equation (9.10) when substituting
the index n for y.
9.3 If oxygen with initial conditions of 100 kPa, 2 m 3 and 20·C is

compressed to 0.4 m 3 and 220 ·C, determine the index n for the process.
Calculate the external work done during the process.
Analysis: For an ideal gas

P1Vl P 2 V2
--=--
and
= 100 x (0~4)G:~) = 841.3kPa.

Substituting in:
P 1 Vl"=P 2 V;
100 x 2" = 841.3 X 0.4"
(2.)"
0.4
= 841.3
100
5" = 8.413
n x In5 = In 8.413
n = In 8.413 = 1.323.
In 5
The external work can be found using equation (9.7):
P 1 Vl -P 2 V2
w= --=---=----=-~
n-1
= 100 x 2 - 841.3 x 0.4 = -422.67kJ.
1.323 - 1
Note - the negative sign for the external work implies a work input to
the system.
Properties of va pours 10
AIMS
• To introduce the term 'water substance' and then to define the term
'vapour' as a fluid state.
• To study the mechanism of liquid boiling and the vapour condition.
• To introduce the terms 'saturated', 'dryness' and 'superheat' in respect
of the water.
• To understand that the principles derived for water apply to all vapours.
• To explain how to use data tables, notably steam tables.
• To consider some special property points of water substance.
KEY EQUA nONS
• For a wet vapour:

mass of saturated vapour
x = ----------==----- (10.1)
mass of wet vapour
P = Pg (10.2)
x
U= Ur + xU rg (10.3)
h = hr + xh rg . (10.4)
EXAMPLES
10.1 At 500 kPa 2 kg of water vapour has a total enthalpy of 3.28 MJ.
Find the total enthalpy increase required for the vapour to become saturated.
Analysis: For 2 kg with a total enthalpy of 3.28 MJ, the specific enthalpy is
h = 3280/2 = 1640kJkg- 1 .
At 500kPa,
~ I Properties of vapours
The increase in total enthalpy is

!lH = 2 x (2748 - 1640) = 2216 MJ.
10.2 The dryness fraction of water vapour at a pressure of 1 MPa is
increased from 0.28 to 0.85. Find the change in specific enthalpy.

h = hr + xh rg
h2 - hl = (h r + X 2 hrg ) - (hr + Xl hrg )
= (X2 - xl}h rg
= (0.85 - 0.28) x 2013 = 1147.4kJkg- l .
10.3 Find the specific internal energy of steam at a pressure of 750 kPa
and a dryness fraction of 0.7.
Analysis: At 600 kPa:

Ur = 670kJkg-1, ug = 2566kJkg- l •
At 800kPa:
At 750kPa:
Ur = 670 + G~ =:~}720 - 670} = 707.5kJkg- l
ug = 2566 + (~~ =:~)(2575 - 2566) = 2572.8kJkg- l .
At X = 0.7, using equation (10.3)

U = 707.5 + 0.7(2572.8 - 707.5}
= 2013.2kJkg- l .
Flow energy equations 11
AIMS
• To introduce the steady flow energy equation (SFEE) for an open system.
• To apply the SFEE to analyse steady flow in axial flow devices.
• To introduce the SFEE as a rate equation.
• To introduce the non-steady flow energy equation for an open system.
• To analyse the non-steady flow for adiabatic filling and emptying
processes.
KEY EQUATIONS
• Flow work:
Flow work = P/ p. (11.1)
• General steady flow energy equation:
PI
2
VI
P2 v2
q + U l + - + -2 + Zlg = U 2 + - + -22 + Z2g + w. (11.3)
Pl P2
• SFEE for axial flow:
v2 v2
q + h 1 + --.!
2 = h 2 + --1
2 + W.
(11.4)
• Steady flow through a windmill, fan or propeller:
(11.5)
• Steady flow through a boiler, condenser or combustion chamber:
q = h2 - hl' (11.6)
• Velocity change in a diffuser or nozzle:

v~ - v; = 2(h2 - hl)' (11. 7)
~ I Flow energy equations
• Steady flow through a throttling valve:

hi = h2· (11.8)
• Steady flow through a compressor or turbine:
w=h 1 -h 2 • (11.9)
• SFEE as a rate equation:
. v1 = m·h 2 + m2"
. v2 + W..
2 2
Q + m·h 1 + m2" (11.10)
• Rate equation for a windmill, fan or propeller:
W= me} -1)- (11.11)
• Rate equation for a compressor or turbine:

W = m(hl - h2)· (11.12)
• Rate equation for a boiler, condenser or combustion chamber:
Q = m(h2 - hi)· (11.13)
• Non-steady flow equation for time, t:
Qt - Wt + I,bm 1 h 1 - I,bm 2h 2 = meUe - mju j. (11.16)
• Adiabatic filling process:
(me - mJh j - Wt = meUe - mju j. (11.17)
• Adiabatic emptying process:
(m j - me)h2 + Wt = mjU j - meUe. (11.18)
EXAMPLES
11.1 Air enters the diffuser of an aircraft gas turbine engine with a
velocity of260 m s -1. From the diffuser the air flows through a compressor
with a pressure ratio of 12. If the atmospheric conditions are a pressure
of 54 kPa and a temperature of -17 ·C, and the air leaves the compressor
with negligible velocity, calculate the pressure and temperature at the
outlet of the compressor. Assume the flow to be adiabatic.
Take y = 1.4 and cp = 1.005 kJ kg- 1 K -1 for air.
Conceptual model: See Figures 11.7 and 11.9.
Analysis: Since the air leaves the compressor with negligible velocity it
can be assumed that the velocity at the outlet of the diffuser is zero.
Diffuser (0-+ 1) Applying equation (11.7)
v~ - vi = 2(hl - ho)
Flow energy equations I [E]
but since the fluid is an ideal gas

v~ - vi = 2c p (TI - To).
Substituting
260 2 - 0 2 = 2 X 1005(TI - 256)
TI = 289.6K.
The pressure at the outlet of the diffuser is given by
PI = (T1)Y/(Y-I)
Po To
so that
T1)Y/(Y-I)
PI = Po ( -
To
289.6)1.4/0.4
=54 ( - -
256
= 83.1 kPa.
Compressor (1---+ 2) For adiabatic compression
T2 = (P 2)(Y-I)/Y
TI PI
so that
T2 = 289.6(12)°·4/1.4
= 589 K, i.e. 316·C.
The pressure at the outlet of the compressor is
P 2 = 83.1 x 12 = 997.2 kPa.
11.2 Steam enters a turbine at 1 MPa and 250·C and expands to an

outlet pressure of 20 kPa. If the steam leaves with a dryness fraction of
0.8 calculate the specific work output of the turbine.
Conceptual model: See Figure 11.9.
Analysis: The specific work done is given by equation (11.9):

w = hI - h 2 •
The steam enters in a superheated state; from Appendix B.2
hI = 2943kJkg- l .
The steam leaves as wet steam; from Appendix B.1
he = 252 kJ kg- 1, hCg = 2358 kJ kg-I.
~ I Flow energy equations
Therefore
h2 = hr+ X 2(hrl )
= 252 + 0.8(2358)
= 2138.4kJkg- 1
and
w = 2943 - 2138.4 = 804.6kJkg- 1 •
11.3 A rigid insulated cylinder is connected through a valve to a supply

of steam at 400kPa and 150°C. If the cylinder is originally empty and
is then filled until the pressure reaches 200 kPa, find the condition of the
steam in the cylinder at the end of the process.
Conceptual model: See Figure 11.11(a).
Analysis: The process can be analysed using equation (11.17):

(me - mj)hj - Wt = meUe - mjuj.
Assuming no work done, W = 0, initial mass, mj = 0, the energy equation
becomes
and
From Appendix B.2,

hl = 2752kJkg- 1.
Using data from Appendix B.2,
at 200 kPa and 250°C, U = 2731 kJ kg - 1
at 200 kPa and 300 °C, U = 2809 kJ kg - 1.
Interpolating between these values,
(2752 - 2731)
T: = 250 + (2809 _ 2731) (300 - 250)
= 263.46°C.
Ideal incompressible flow 12
AIMS
• To describe ideal incompressible fluid flow for an open system.

• To discuss the equations of:
continuity
energy
momentum
for ideal incompressible fluid flow.
• To introduce Bernoulli's equation for total pressure.
• To describe velocity measuring devices for situations involving
incompressible fluid flow.
• To analyse the loss of total pressure associated with a sudden
enlargement or sudden contraction of the flow.
KEY EQUA nONS
• Bernoulli's equation for frictionless flow:
Pi
-+-+z
vi 2
g=-+-+z
P
9
v~
(12.2)
p 2 1 P 2 2
or as a total pressure equation:
• The force due to the rate of change of momentum:
(12.3)
• Velocity measured using a pitot tube:
(12.5)
~ I Ideal incompressible flow
• Velocity measured using a venturi meter or orifice plate:
V-C
- d
J 2(Pl - P 2 )
P[(Al/A2f - 1]"
(12.7)
• Loss of total pressure for a sudden flow enlargement:
~P = p vi
2
(1 _ Al)2.
A2
(12.11)
• Loss of total pressure for a sudden flow contraction, i.e. entry loss:
v2
~P = KeP ;. (12.13)
EXAMPLES
12.1 Water flows over a waterfall with a velocity of 1 m s -1 at the top

of the fall. Assuming the flow to remain rectangular throughout the fall,
find the reduction in flow area at a distance of 10m from the top. Take
g=9.81ms- 2 •
Analysis: Considering the waterfall as an open system the velocity at a

flow section 10 m below the top can be found from Bernoulli's equation (12.2):
PI vi P2
P + 2" + ZIg = P + 2" + Z2g·
v;
Assuming that PI = P 2 = atmospheric pressure
12 v2
-2 + 0 = ~
2 - 10 x 981
.
v2 = 14.04ms- 1 •
From the continuity equation (12.1)
pA 1 v l = pA 2 v2
so that
A2 V l 1
-=-=--=0.07.
Al v2 14.04
Therefore the reduction in flow area is 93%.
Note - in practice, drag on the water droplets would restrict the increase
in flow velocity.
12.2 A sharp-edged orifice is installed in a pipe to measure the flow of

water. The diameters of the pipe and orifice are 100mm and 50mm
respectively and the coefficient of discharge is 0.61. If the mass flow rate
Ideal incompressible flow I~
of water through the pipe is 8 kg S -1, find the difference in height of a

mercury manometer used to measure the pressure difference across the
orifice plate.
Take the density of water as l000kgm-3, the density of mercury as
13600kgm- 3 and 9 = 9.81ms- 2 •
Analysis: The flow velocity can be found from the continuity equation:
m= pA 1 v1
n
8 = 1000 x 4 X 0.1 2 X v1
and
V1 = 1.02ms- 1.
This can be related to the pressure drop across the orifice plate using
equation (12.7):
Therefore
1.02)Z 1000 2 )
= ( 0.61 x -2-(4 - 1
= 20970.2 Pa.
The difference in height in the manometer can be found using the
hydrostatic equation (4.1):
P1 - P z = pgz
20970.2 = 13 600 x 9.81 x z
and
z = 0.157m.
12.3 Air flows through a pipe at 20 m s - 1 when it enters an enlargement

in which the pipe suddenly increases from 60mm to 150mm. Calculate
the loss of total pressure across the enlargement and the change in static
pressure.
~ I Ideal incompressible flow
Take the density of air as 1.5 kg m - 3.
Analysis: Since
it follows that
-Al = (0.4) 2 = 0.16.

A2
Substituting this value in equation (12.11)
~p = Pvi(1 _ Al)2
2 A2
20
= 1.5 x 2 (0.84) = 10.6 Pa.
2
The change in static pressure can be found from the momentum equation
(12.10):
but
Therefore
P 1 - P 2 = 1.5 X (3.2)2 - 1.5(0.16)(20)2
= -80.6Pa.
Note - the static pressure at section 2 is 80.6 Pa greater than at section 1.
Internal flow with friction 13
AIMS
• To define viscosity as a property of a Newtonian fluid.

• To analyse the torque required to overcome friction in a journal bearing.
• To describe the behaviour of flow with friction and the use of Reynolds
number as a criterion for judging the nature of the flow.
• To define the skin friction coefficient for flow with friction.
• To analyse the pressure drop associated with friction in pipes and ducts.
KEY EQUATIONS
• Relationship between viscosity and velocity gradient:
(13.2)
• Torque to overcome friction in a journal bearing:

J1.1t 2d3 IN
T= 2y . (13.3)
• Reynolds number for flow in a pipe:

piJd
Re=-. (13.5)
J1.
• Pressure drop in a pipe:
I -2
~p = 2cc"dPV . (13.8)
• Definition of skin friction coefficient:

.w = cc-Zpv .
1 -2
(13.9)
• For laminar flow in a pipe:
16
Cc = Re· (13.12)
~ I Internal flow with friction
• For turbulent flow in smooth pipes:
Cr = 0.079(Re)-1/4. (13.13)
• For turbulent flow in rough pipes:
} , = 410g G) + 3.48. (13.14)
• For non-circular ducts, the hydraulic mean diameter:
4 x flow area
d
m
= wetted perimeter
. (13.16)
• For laminar flow between parallel plates:
24
cr=-R . (13.17)
em
EXAMPLES
13.1 A shaft 12 mm in diameter is supported in an 'air' bearing 20 mm

long. The bearing is supplied with 2 g s - 1 of compressed air at a pressure
of 400 kPa and the radial clearance of the bearing is 0.01 mm. If the shaft
rotates at 15 000 rev min - 1, calculate the total power required for the bearing.
Assume the air to be compressed adiabatically from atmospheric
pressure and temperature of 100 kPa and 15°C respectively.
Take the properties of air to be y = 1.4, Cp = 1.005 kJ kg - 1 K - 1 and
J1 = 2.4 x 10 - 5 kg m - 1 S - 1.
Analysis: The power lost due to friction in the bearing can be found using
equation (13.3):
J1n 2 d3 1N
T=:........---
2y
2.4 X 10- 5 x n 2 x 0.0123 x 0.02 x 15000
=----------------~---------
2xO.01x1O- 3 x60
= O.OOlNm.
Therefore the power loss is
W = Tw = 0.001 x ----ro-
15000
x 2n
= 16.1 w.
Internal flow with friction I~
Assuming adiabatic compression of the air
p 2)(1-1)/1
7; = Tl ( p-
i
= 288 G:Y·4/1.4 = 428 K.
The power absorbed in compressing the air is found using equation (11.12):
W = m(hl - h2 )
= mCp(Ti - T2)
= 0.002 x 1005(288 - 428)
= -281.4W
that is, a power input.
The total power required for the bearing is
W;otal = 281.4 + 16.1 = 297.5 W.
13.2 A liquid of viscosity 0.8 x 10- 3 kg m - 1 S - 1 and density of 1500 kg m - 3

flows through a pipe of 25 mm diameter at a mass flow rate of 0.5 kg s - 1.
If the pressure drop is 30 mm height of the liquid for each length of 1 m
of pipe, determine the value of skin friction coefficient for the flow.
Does the value of skin friction coefficient indicate whether the pipe is·
rough or smooth? Take g = 9.81ms-2.
Analysis: The pressure drop through the pipe can be found using the
hydrostatic equation (4.3):
AP = pgAz
= 1500 x 9.81 x 0.03 = 441.5 Pa.
gives
APd
Cf = 21piP'
From continuity
m=pAv
so that
m 0.5 x 4
v = - = ------::-
pA 1500 x n(0.025)2
= 0.68ms- 1 .
I
~ Internal flow with friction
Therefore
441.5 x 0.025
Cf = 2 x 1 x 1500 X (0.68)2 = 0.008.
For flow in a smooth pipe
Cf = 0.079 (Re) -1/4
PdV)-1/4
=0.079 ( -
J.l
_ (1500 x 0.025 x 0.68) -1/4
- 0.079 0.0008
= 0.0059.
This indicates that the pipe surface is rough since
(cr )actual > (cr)smooth •
13.3 Water flows through an annular duct of 25 mm inside diameter
and 50 mm outside diameter, at a mean velocity of 1 m s - 1. If the duct
is 5 m long, find the pressure drop assuming the inside surfaces to be smooth.
Take the properties of water to be P = 1000 kg m - 3 and
J.l = 10- 3 kgm- 1 S-1.
Conceptual model:
P+6.P ~1ms·l ~ t g
-----=~~~--------.!J:.
Analysis: It can be shown that the pressure drop in an annulus can be
found using equation (13.8) in which the hydraulic mean diameter is
substituted for d.
Considering the annulus shown above, the forces on the element are
AP (~d; - ~dj2) = 1t(do + d;) x I x tw

AP(do - dj)(d o + d;) = 4(do + dj) x I x tcrpv2
and
I -2
AP = 2cr(do _ dj)pv .
Now the hydraulic mean diameter is found using equation (13.16):
d = 4 x flow area = 4 x (1t/4)(d; - dj2)
m wetted perimeter 1t(do + dj)
= do - dj.
Internal flow with friction I[£J
Using the hydraulic mean diameter
pd m v 1000 x (0.05 - 0.025) x 1
Re = -j.l.- = 10- 3
= 25000 (turbulent).
Cf = 0.079(Re) -1/4
= 0.079(25000) - 1/4 = 0.00628.
I
dP = 2cf -pV2
dm
= 2 x 0.00628 x 5 x 1000 X 12 = 2513Pa.
(0.05 - 0.025)
Internal flow systems 14
AIMS
• To define the flow power for a pipeline system.

• To analyse the losses in a pipeline system.
• To discuss the performance characteristics of a centrifugal pump and
to show how they are matched to a pipeline system.
• To discuss the performance characteristics of axial flow fans.
• To analyse the performance of a Pelton wheel water turbine.
KEY EQUA nONS
• Flow power:
(14.3)
where the change in total pressure is
• Pump, or fan, characteristics:
t1P
pN2d2 = f (pN
rh )
2d 3 • (14.6)
• Pressure drop characteristics for a horizontal pipeline:
t1: = Ktotal(~) + 2Cf~V2. (14.7)
• Power output from a Pelton wheel:

W = rhU(v j - U)(l + cos 8). (14.10)
• Efficiency of a Pelton wheel:
'1 = 2 U(1 _ U) (1 + cos 8).

Vj Vj
(14.11)
~ I Internal flow systems
EXAMPLES
14.1 Water from a reservoir is used to drive a turbine for hydroelectric

power. The water is carried in a straight pipe through a distance of 1.5 km
at a slope of 200 m per kilometre.
The pipe has a constant diameter of 0.5 m and the mean water velocity
is 2 m s - 1. Calculate the power generated if the turbine has an efficiency
of 80%.
Assume the flow to be turbulent in the pipe with Cf = 0.08Re- 1j4 •
Take the density of water as 1000 kg m - 3 and the viscosity as
10 - 3 kg m - 1 S - 1.
Take q = 9.81ms- z.
Analysis: The pressure drop in the pipe can be found from equation (13.8):
I
f).p = 2c f d
- piP .
Now
pdv 1000 x 0.5 x 2 6
Re=-= = 10
Jl 10 3
and
Therefore
1500
f).P = 2 x 0.0025 x - x 1000 X (2)Z
0.5
= 60715.73 Pa.
The change in total pressure is given by equation (14.4):
f).P t = (P 1 + pZ1g) - (P z + pZzg) - f).P
where
Therefore
f).P t = pZ1g - pzzg - f).p
= 1000 x 9.81 (1500 x 12: ) - 60715.73
= 2 882 284.3 Pa.

The mass flow rate is given by
m=pAv
= 1000 x (n/4)(O.5)Z x 2
= 392.7kgs- 1 •
Internal flow systems I~
Substituting into equation (14.3)
W = m~Pt = 392.7 x 2882284.2
p 1000
= 1131870.4 W.
The actual power output is
0.8 x 1131 870.4 = 905496.3 W, i.e. 905.5 k W.
14.2 A pump has a performance defined by the relationship:

~P .
- = 200 - 10000(V)2
P
where ~P is given in Pa and V in m 3 s -1. It is connected to a horizontal
pipeline of 75 mm diameter. The pipeline has a length of 100 m and
incorporates a globe valve and discharges through a nozzle which
produces a fountain 18 m high. Assuming Cf for the pipe to be 0.006 and
ignoring entry and exit losses, find the mass flow rate through the pipe.
Take the density of water to be l000kgm- 3 and g = 9.81ms- 2 .
Analysis: The pressure drop due to friction can be found from equation (13.8):
1
~P = 2cf -piP
d
so that
( ~P)
P friction
= (2 x 0.006 x ~) iP
0.075
= 16v2 •
The pressure drop due to the valve is given by equation (14.5):
v2
~P = KP2
and from Table 14.1

K(valve) = 10
so that
( ~P)
P valve
= 5v 2
The pressure drop for the fountain can be found from the hydrostatic
equation (4.1)
I:lP = pgz
I
~ Internal flow systems
so that
( AP) = gz = 9.81 x 18
P fountain
= 176.58m2 s- 2.
The pressure difference provided by the pump is
( AP) = 200 _ 10 OOO(V)2

P pump
where
• 1t 2
V= Av= -d v
4
1t
= 4"(0.025)2 V = 0.0044v.
Equating the pressure drop with the pump performance
16v2 + 5v2 + 176.58 = 200 - 10000(0.0044V)2
200 - 176.58 = (16 + 5 + 0.195)v2
and
The mass flow rate is

rh = pAv
= 1000 x 0.0044 x 1.05 = 4.62 kg s - 1.
14.3 A Pelton wheel has a mean diameter of 1.45 m and rotates at

375revmin- 1• If the reservoir is situated 200m above the turbine and
the Pelton wheel produces a power output of 1 MW, determine the mass
flow rate of water.
Assume the bucket angle to be 20· and g = 9.81 ms- 2.
Analysis: The jet velocity of the water can be found from the change of
potential energy to kinetic energy:
rh 2
-v. = mgAz
2 J
and
Vj = )2 x 9.81 x 200 = 62.6ms- 1 •

Internal flow systems I~
The rotational velocity of the bucket is
375 1.45
U = wr = 60 x 211: X T = 28.5ms- 1•
'1 = 2 U(l_ U)(l + cosO)

Vj Vj
28.5
=2 - (28.5)
1 - - (1+cos20) 0
62.6 62.6
= 0.962.
Therefore the power from the jet is the rate of change of kinetic energy
106
Wi = 0.962 = 1.039 x 106 W
and
Therefore
m= 530.5kgs- 1.
Note - this value can be checked using equation (14.10).
External flow 15
AIMS
• To analyse the forces on an object submerged in a fluid.

• To define the coefficients of lift and drag for a submerged object.
• To discuss the generation of lift for a wing aerofoil section.
• To describe the various components of drag, namely:
viscous drag
form drag
induced drag.
• To discuss the drag on a ship, or boat, moving at a free surface.
KEY EQUATIONS
• Lift generated by a submerged object:

L= tCLPAv 2 • (15.2)
• Drag of a submerged object:
D =tCD PAv 2 • (15.3)
• Induced drag coefficient for a wing:
CL2
CD. = A • (15.7)
I 'It R
• Drag of a craft at a free surface:

D
~ = Il(Re)
pv x
+ 12(Fr) (15.8)
where
EXAMPLES
15.1 An airliner has a total mass of 250tonnes and a wing area of

500m 3 . It has a take-oft" velocity of 80ms- 1 when the atmospheric
~ I External flow
pressure and temperature are 100 kPa and 27°C respectively. If the air
velocity over the lower surface ofthe wing is equal to the aircraft velocity,
determine the velocity over the upper surface of the wing to provide the
lift for take-off. Take R for air as 0.287kJkg- 1 K- 1 and g = 9.81 ms- 2 •
Analysis: The density of the air can be found from the equation of state
P=pRT
and
_ ~_ 100 X 103 = 116k m- 3

p - RT - 0.287 x 103 x 300 . g .
Now the lift generated equals the weight of the aircraft:

L = mg = 250 x 103 x 9.81
= 2.45 x 106 N.
The pressure difference over the wing is
llP =!::. = 2.45 X 106 = 4900Pa

A 500 .
From Bernoulli's equation (12.2) the pressure difference can be related
to the velocities over the wing:
llP = ~(V~ - v~)

where subscripts 'u' and 'I' refer to the upper and lower surfaces respectively,
4900 = 1~6 (v~ _ 802 )
and
Vu = 121.9ms- 1
that is, 52% greater than VI'
Note - the lift coefficient under these conditions is
C =~ = 2.45 X 106 = 1 32
L !pAv 2 ! x 1.16 x 500 x 6400 .
achieved by the use of high lift devices, slots and flaps, during the take-off run.
15.2 A light aircraft has a total mass of 3OOkg, a wing area of 15m2
and an aspect ratio of 10. It operates with an aerofoil section having
performance characteristics of CL = 0.8, Co = 0.02.
Assuming that the total drag of wing represents the whole drag of the
aircraft, estimate the velocity with a power input of 30 kW. Take the air
density as 1.2kgm- 3 and g = 9.81 ms- 2 •
I
External flow ~
Analysis: The power required to propel the aircraft is

W=Dxv
where the drag is found from equation (15.3):
D = ~CopAV2
and Co for the aircraft can be assumed to be
CD = CD·
wtng + CD 1
where CD. is given by equation (15.7):

I
ci
0.8 2
CD· = -A = -10 = 0.0204.
I 1tR 1tX
Therefore
CD = 0.02 + 0.0204 = 0.0404
and
D = ~ x 0.0404 x 1.2 x 15 x v2
= 0.364v 2
which, when related to the power, gives

W
v = 0.364v 2
and
30 X103)1/3
v = ( 0.364 = 43.5 m S-1.
15.3 The design of a sailing cruiser is to be evaluated by testing a

quarter-scale model of the hull. If the cruiser is designed for a speed of
9 knots, find the test velocity in order to estimate the wave-making drag.
Assuming the viscous drag to be negligible estimate the drag of the cruiser
hull in sea water if the drag of the model under test in fresh water is 20 N.
Take 1 knot = 0.514ms- 1 , density of sea water as llOOkgm- 3 and
density of fresh water as 1000 kgm -3.

D
= f(Fr).
----"22
pv x
To maintain similarity during testing
~ I External flow
where subscripts 'm' and 'c' refer to the model and cruiser respectively,
v2 v2
---..!!!....=_c
Now
Vc =9 x0.514 = 4.63ms- 1
xc/xm = 4
and
V
m
= Rf2
I =
_c_
Xc xm
j(463)2
_._ =
4'
231 ms -1
.
Equating the force coefficient for model and cruiser
CV~X2)C = CV~X2)m
Dc = Dm(::) (::Y (::Y
= 20C:)(~:~~Y (4)2
= 1414N.
The second law of
thermodynamics 16
AIMS
• To explain the second law of thermodynamics and its uses.

• To introduce the property 'entropy'.
• To explain the term 'energy quality'.
• To study entropy changes in gases, liquids and vapours.
• To discuss the usefulness of the second law in analysing thermofluid
processes.
KEY EQUATIONS
• Efficiency of an ideal engine:
(16.1)
• Work output from an ideal engine:
(16.2)
• Definition of a change in entropy:

dq
ds=- (16.3)
T·
• Entropy changes for an ideal gas:

at constant volume:
(16.4)
at constant pressure:
(16.5)
~ I The second law of thermodynamics
at constant temperature:
S2 - S1 = Rln(~). (16.6)
• Entropy for a wet vapour:

S = Sf + XSfg . (16.7)
• Coefficient of performance for an ideal refrigerator:
COP = TL (16.8)
TH - TL
EXAMPLES
16.1 For an ideal engine operating between temperature limits of 700

and 300 DC, determine the necessary reduction in reject temperature as
would yield the same improvement in efficiency as an increase of 150 K
in the supply temperature.
where
T1 = 700 + 273 = 973 K
T2 = 300 + 273 = 573K
and
'1 = 400/973 = 0.4110.
With T1 increased by 150 K
550
'1 = 973 + 150 = 0.4898.
0.4898 = 97~; T2
T2 = 973(1 - 0.4898) = 496.5 K

that is
496.5 - 573 = - 76.5 K decrease.
16.2 Steam at 500 kPa and with a dryness fraction of 0.6 is raised to a
temperature of 250 DC at constant pressure. Find the change of specific
entropy.
The second law of thermodynamics I~
Analysis: At condition 1
Sl = Sf + X 1 Sfg
= 1.86 + 0.6 x 4.959 = 4.835 kJkg- 1 K -1.
At condition 2, from superheat tables,
S2 = 7.272kJkg- 1 K- 1
and
Ils = S2 - Sl = 7.272 - 4.835
= 2.437kJkg- 1 K- 1 .
16.3 An insulated tank holds 20 kg of water at 10·C. If 10 kg of water

at 40·e is added to the tank, determine the change of entropy for the
system. Take the specific heat of water as 4.18 kJ kg- 1 K -1.
Analysis: Taking the final water temperature as T and relating to a datum

ofO·e
(20 x 4.18 x 10) + (10 x 4.18 x 40) = (20 + 10) x 4.18 x T
and
(200 + 400) x 4.18 •
T = 30 x 4.18 = 20 C.
For the cold water
mils = mcln(i)
20 + 273)
= 20 x 4.18 In ( 10 + 273
= 2.903kJK- 1 .·
For the hot water
mils = 10 x 4.18 In ( 2040 ++ 273)

273
= -2.760kJK- 1 •
The net change is
2.903 - 2.760 = 0.143kJK- 1 •
Gas cycles and internal
combustion engines
17
AIMS
• To introduce the air standard cycle as a basis for analysing internal

combustion engines.
• To discuss the air standard versions of the
Carnot cycle
Otto cycle
Diesel cycle.
• To outline the limitations of the Otto cycle for analysing real petrol engines.
• To discuss the ideal open gas turbine cycle.
• To discuss the gas turbine cycle with friction.
KEY EQUATIONS
• For any cycle:

(17.4)
• For the air standard Otto cycle:
(17.6)
where r v is the compression ratio.

• For the air standard Diesel cycle:
(17.9)
where r c is the cut-off ratio.

• For the air standard constant pressure cycle:
(17.12)
where r p is the pressure ratio.

I
~ Gas cycles and internal combustion engines
• For the gas turbine cycle with friction:

isentropic efficiency of the compressor:
T2 - T1
fie = (17.13)
T2a - T1
isentropic efficiency of the turbine:
T3 - T4a
fiT = T 'T'
(17.14)
3 -.14
power output:
(17.16)
efficiency:
(17.18)
EXAMPLES
17.1 An engine operates on an Otto cycle. If the maximum and minimum

temperatures in the cycle are 1350·C and 4OO·C respectively, and the air
standard efficiency is 85% of the Carnot efficiency, find the compression
ratio of the engine. Take y = 1.4.
Analysis: The Carnot efficiency is
T1 - T2 1350 - 400
'1 = T1 = 1350 + 273 = 0.585.
The air standard efficiency = 0.85 x 0.585 = 0.498. Substituting in equation

(17.6)
1
0.498 = 1 - r O.4
v
1 )1/0.4
rv = ( 1 _ 0.498 = 5.60.
17.2 An air standard Diesel cycle operates with a compression ratio of

20 and cut-off ratio of 1.8. If the working fluid is at 30·C and 1l0kPa
at the start of the compression stroke, determine the maximum temperature
and pressure in the cycle.
Gas cycles and internal combustion engines I~
Analysis: During compression, 1-2,
and
V)Y-1
T2=T1 ( ~
= 303(20)°·4 = 1004.3 K.
During heat addition, 2-3,
and
T3 = T2 (~) = 1004.3 x 1.8

= 1807.7K.
Therefore
P3 = 7.29MPa and T3 = 1807.7K.
17.3 A gas turbine engine operates with the following conditions:
inlet air temperature 20°C

maximum temperature 1350K
pressure ratio 20
compressor efficiency 80%
turbine efficiency 88%
Calculate the efficiency of the engine.
Analysis:
Tl = 20 + 273 = 293K.
Compressor 1-2,
P Z)(Y-1l}Y
Tz = T1 ( -
P1
= 293(20)0.4}1.4 = 689.6 K.
~ I Gas cycles and internal combustion engines
Applying the compressor efficiency, from equation (17.13)

T2 - Tl
I1c =
T 2a - Tl
0.8 = 689.6 - 293

T2a - 293
T2a = 788.8 K.
Turbine 3-4,
T4 = 1350 (20
1)°.4/1.4 = 573.6 K.
Applying the turbine efficiency, from equation (17.14)
T3 - T 4a
I1T = T3 - T4
0.88 = 1350 - T4a

1350 - 573.6
T4a = 666.8 K.
The efficiency is given by equation (17.18):
T3 - T 4a - T 2a + Tl
11=
T3 - T 2a
1350 - 666.8 - 788.8 + 293

1350 - 788.8
= 0.334, i.e. 33.4%.
Vapour cycles 18
AIMS
• To discuss the Carnot steam power cycle.

• To analyse the Rankine steam power cycle.
• To discuss the use of superheating and two-stage expansion as means
of improving the operation of a Rankine cycle.
• To introduce the reversed Carnot cycle as a basis for refrigeration.
• To discuss the vapour compression cycle used within refrigeration systems.
KEY EQUA nONS
• For the Rankine cycle:

Wnet = h3 - h4 (18.2)
h3 - h4
'1=h 3 - h· (18.3)
1
• For the Rankine cycle with two-stage expansion:

W net = (h3 - h4) + (h s - h6) (18.4)
(h3 - h4) + (h s - h6)
11- (18.6)
- (h3 - h 1 ) + (h s - h4)"
• For the vapour compression cycle as applied to a refrigerator:
COP = hl - h4 (18.7)
h2 - hl
where the flow across the throttle valve is defined by
h4 = h3·
EXAMPLES
18.1 Steam expands isentropically from a pressure of 1 MPa and

temperature of 250 ·C, down to a pressure of 400 kPa. Determine the
change of specific enthalpy during the process.
~ I Vapour cycles
Analysis: During an isentropic expansion
At 400 kPa, S2 > Sg, so the final condition is superheated:
hg = 2738kJkg- l , Sg = 6.894kJkg- l K- l .
At 4ookPa, 150·C
Interpolating
h2 = 2738 + (~::~: =~::::) (2752 - 2738)
= 2750.8 kJ kg- l
and
= 2943 - 2750.8 = 192.2kJkg- l .
18.2 In a steam plant, the expansion of the steam is carried out in two
stages. Steam enters the high-pressure turbine at 4 MPa, 400 ·C, and
leaves as saturated steam at 600 kPa. The steam is then reheated at
constant pressure to 4OO·C before expanding isentropically in the
low-pressure turbine to a condenser pressure of 20 kPa. Determine the
efficiency of the plant.
Analysis: The enthalpy values at the different points around the cycle
can be evaluated from data in steam tables. The following are taken from
Appendix B.
At 1, P l = 20kPa, Xl = 0, hl = 252kJkg- l
At 3, P 3 = 4 MPa, T3 = 4oo·C, h3 = 3612kJkg- l
At 4, P 4 = 6ookPa, x 4 = 1, h4 = 2756kJkg- l
At 5, P 5 = 600 kPa, T5 = 400 ·C, h5 = 3271 kJ kg - land
S5 = 7.709kJkg- l K- l
At6, S6 =s5=7.709kJkg- l K- l .
Therefore
= 0.832 + x6(7.077)
Vapour cycles I ~
and
X6 = 0.972.
The specific enthalpy is
h6 = he + X6 heg
= 252 + 0.972(2358) = 2543.4 kJ kg - 1.
(h3 - h4 ) + (h s - h6)
'1=
(h3 - hI) + (h s - h4 )
(3612 - 2756) + (3271 - 2543.4)
(3612 - 252) + (3271 - 2756)
= 0.409, i.e. 40.9%.
18.3 A freezer operates on a vapour compression cycle with refrigerant-

134a as the working fluid. The minimum temperature in the freezer is
- 5·C at an outside temperature of 20 ·C. Determine the coefficient of
performance assuming:
(a) a 10 K temperature difference for the heat transfer processes,
(b) the refrigerant enters the compressor as a saturated vapour,
(c) the refrigerant leaves the condenser as a saturated liquid,
(d) the superheated vapour to have a specific heat of 1.05 kJ kg- 1 K -1.
Analysis: At point 1
Tl =- 5 - 10 = -15·C
hI = 237.0kJkg- 1
81 = 0.9241 kJ kg- 1 K -1.
At point 2
Tzg = 20 + 10 = 30·C
8z = 0.9241 kJ kg- 1 K -1.
0.9241 - 0.9057 = 1.05In(3~z3)

Tz = 308.4K
[2QJ I Vapour cycles
and
hz - hzg = cp(Tz - Tzg )
h z = 262.9 + 1.05(308.4 - 303)
= 268.5kJkg- 1 •
At point 3
h3 = h4 = 92.0kJkg- 1 •
h -h
COP = 1 4
h z - hl
237 - 92 = 4.6.
268.5 - 237
Gas mixtures and real gas
behaviour
19
AIMS
• To show that the gas laws apply to gas mixtures exactly as they apply
to individual gases.
• To introduce the concepts of partial pressures and partial volumes.
• To evaluate the properties of gas mixtures.
• To introduce semiperfect gases as an intermediate form between ideal
and real gases.
• To use this as an introduction to improved equations of state.
KEY EQUATIONS
• For mixtures of gases:

(19.1)
m=ma+mb + .. · (19.2)
P=Pa+Pb + .. · (19.3)
mR = maRa + mbRb + .. . (19.4)
mcp = macpa + mbc pb + .. . (19.5)
mcv = maCva + mbc vb + ... . (19.6)
• The van der Waals equation of state:
(p + ;2) (V - b) = mRT. (19.7)
EXAMPLES
19.1 Gas analysis equipment is often calibrated by using mixtures of

gases of known proportions. For one such calibration a cylinder contains
0.5 kg of a gas mixture at 20·C and 1 MPa. If the mixture consists of
20% hydrogen (H 2 ), 30% methane (CH 4 ) and 50% carbon monoxide
(CO) by mass, find the volume of the cylinder.
[2!J I Gas mixtures and real gas behaviour
8.314 8.314 8.314

= 0.2 x -2- + 0.3 x 1"6 + 0.5 x 2s
Substituting in the equation of state
PV=mRT
106 X V = 0.5 x 1136 x (20 + 273)

V= 0.166m 3 •
19.2 Using the van der Waals equation determine the pressure at which
1 kmol of oxygen will occupy 22.4 m 3 at a temperature of 0 ·C. Take the
constants as:
Analysis: Substituting these values in equation (19.7)
(p + ;2)(V- b) = mRT
1.37 x 105 ) 8314

(P + (22.4)2 (22.4 - 0.0318) = 32 x 32 x 273
8314 x 273 1.37 X 10 5

P=----
22.368 (22.4)2
= 101198.8 Pa, i.e. 101.2 kPa.
Note-using the equation of state, PV = mRT, the pressure is 101.3kPa.
19.3 A gas turbine engine operates with the following conditions:
inlet air temperature 20·C

maximum temperature 1350K
pressure ratio 20
turbine efficiency 88%
Gas mixtures and real gas behaviour I~
Find the efficiency of the engine assuming the properties of air to be:
compressor cp = 1.005 kJ kg- 1 K -1, ')I = 1.4
turbine and combustion chamber cp = 1.120kJkg- 1 K-1, ')I = 1.34.
Analysis:
T1 = 20 + 273 = 293K.
Compressor 1- 2,
p 2)(1-1)/1
T2 = Tl ( -
P1
= 293(20)°·4/1.4 = 689.6 K.
Applying the compressor efficiency, from equation (17.13)
T2 - T1
"Ie =
T2a - T1
0.8 = 689.6 - 293
T2a - 293
T2a = 788.8 K.
Turbine 3 -4,
T4 = 1350(2~r·34/1.34 = 631.3 K.
Applying the turbine efficiency, from equation (17.14)

T3 - T4a
"IT = T - T
3 4
0.88 = 1350 - T4a

1350 - 631.3
T4a = 717.5K.
The efficiency can be formed by combining equations (17.l5) and (17.l7):
(c p h(T3 - T4a ) - (c p )e(T2a - T1)
"1=
(c p ) ee(T3 - T2J
1.12(1350 - 717.5) - 1.005(788.8 - 293)
1.12(1350 - 788.8)
= 0.334, i.e. 33.4%.
Note-this can be compared with the result of Example 17.3 which was
based on ideal gas analysis, constant cp ' rather than that of a semiperfect gas.
Psychrometry 20
AIMS
• To define the amount of water vapour present in moist air through:

specific humidity
relative humidity.
• To introduce the psychrometric chart as a process diagram.
• To discuss the use of dry-bulb and wet-bulb temperatures for the
evaluation of relative humidity.
• To describe the basic psychrometric processes of heating, dehumidification
and humidification.
• To discuss the psychrometric operation of air-conditioners, tumble
driers and cooling towers.
KEY EQUATIONS
• Specific humidity:
Pv
w = 0.622-. (20.2)
Pa
• Relative humidity:
¢=~. (20.5)
P sat
• Rate of moisture absorption:

(20.6)
• Rate of heat transfer:

(20.9)
where
h = T + w(2501 + 1.82 T). (20.12)
~ I Psychrometry
EXAMPLES
20.1 Air enters a cooling tower at the rate of 12 kg s - 1 with a temperature

of 20 DC and relative humidity of 60%. If the air leaves at 35 DC in a
saturated condition, find the rate of heat transfer during the process.
Assume the atmospheric pressure to be 101 kPa.
Analysis: Atthe inletto the tower, T1 = 20 DC and 4> 1 = 0.6. From Table 20.1,
P Satl = 2.337 kPa.
0.6 = Py J2.337
and
PYI = 0.6 x 2.337 = 1.402 kPa.
Now
Pal = P - PYI = 101 - 1.4022 = 99.598 kPa.
Therefore
1.402 .
0)1 = 0.62299.598 = 0.00876 kg per kg of aIr.
At the outlet, T2 = 35 DC and 4>2 = 1.0. From Table 20.1,

P Sat2 = 5.622 kPa.
Now
P a2 = 101 - 5.622 = 95.378 kPa
and
5.622 .
0)2 = 0.622 95.378 = 0.0367 kg per kg of aIr.

h1 = T1 + 0)1 (2501 + 1.82T1)
= 20 + 0.00876(2501 + 1.82 x 20)
= 42.23 kJ per kg of air
Psychrometry I ~
and
h2 = 35 + 0.0367(2501 + 1.82 x 35)
= 129.12 kJ per kg of air.
The rate of heat transfer can be found using equation (20.9):
Q = ma(h2 - h 1 )
= 12(129.12 - 42.23)
= 1042.7kW.
20.2 A tumble drier is to be designed for use in a tropical climate. The

air enters the drier with a temperature of 30·C and relative humidity of
80%. The air leaves the drier at a temperature of 45 ·C in a fully saturated
condition.
Determine the time taken to evaporate 1 kg of moisture if the heat
input to the drier is 2.5 kW.
H can be assumed that the drying process takes place at a constant
pressure of 100 kPa.
Analysis: At the inlet, T1 = 30·C and ¢1 = 0.8. From Table 20.1,

P Satl = 4.242 kPa.
¢1 = PyJPsatl
0.8 = P y J4.242
and
P YI = 0.8 x 4.242 = 3.394kPa.
W 1 = 0.622 PYI •
Pal
Now
Pa I = 100 - 3.394 = 96.606kPa.
Therefore
3.394 .
W1 = 0.62296.606 = 0.0218 kg per kg of au.
At the outlet, T2 = 45 ·C and ¢2 = 1.0. From Table 20.1,

P satz = 9.587 kPa.
Now
Paz = 100 - 9.587 = 90.413 kPa
[2!J I Psychrometry
and
9.587 .
(1)2 = 0.622 90.413 = 0.0660 kg per kg of aIr.
hi = Tl + (1)1 (2501 + 1.82T1)

= 30 + 0.0218(2501 + 1.82 x 30)
= 85.71 kJ per kg of air
and
h2 = 45 + 0.066(2501 + 1.82 x 45)

= 215.47 kJ per kg of air.
The mass flow rate of dry air can be found using equation (20.9):
Q = ma(h2 - hi)
2.5 = ma(215.47 - 85.71)
and
The rate of evaporation is
= 0.0193(0.066 - 0.0218)
= 0.000853kgs- l •
The time to evaporate 1 kg of water vapour is
t = 1/0.000 853 = 1172.3 s, i.e. 19.5 min.
20.3 An air-conditioning unit consists of a dehumidifying coil and a

heater. Air enters the unit with a temperature of 30·C and relative
humidity of 75%. The air leaves with a temperature of 20·C and relative
humidity of 60%.
Determine the rate of heat transfer in both the dehumidifying coil and
heater if the mass flow rate of dry air is 2 kg s - 1. Assume the processes
to take place at a constant pressure of 101 kPa.
Psychrometry I [2!J
Conceptual model: Processes shown on psychrometric chart
OJ
Analysis: At state 1, Ti = 30°C and <Pi = 0.75. From Table 20.1,

p sat ! = 4.242 kPa.
PV2 = <Pi X p sat ! = 0.75 x 4.242 = 3.182 kPa.
3.182 .
= 0.622 x (101 _ 3.182) = 0.0202 kg per kg of aIr.
At state 3, T3 = 20°C and <P3 = 0.6. From Table 20.1,

P sat3 = 2.337 kPa.
PV3 = <P3 X P Sat3 = 0.6 x 2.337 = 1.402 kPa
and
1.402 .
W3 = 0.622 x (101 _ 1.402) = 0.00876 kg per kg of aIr.
Now
and
From Table 20.1,

at lOoC, Psat = 1.227 kPa
at 15°C, Psat = 1.705 kPa.
~ I Psychrometry
Interpolating between these values

(1.402 - 1.227) 0
T2 = 10 + (1.705 _ 1.227) x 5 = 11.83 C.
Enthalpy values from equation (20.12):

hi = 30 + 0.0202(2501 + 1.82 x 30)
= 81.62kJkg- i
h2 = 11.83 + 0.00876(2501 + 1.82 x 11.83)

= 33.93kJkg- i
h3 = 20 + 0.00876(2501 + 1.82 x 20)

= 42.23 kJ kg-i.
Dehumidifier, Q12 = rh(h2 - hi) = 2(33.93 - 81.62)
= - 95.38 kW (heat loss)
Heater, Q23 = rh(h3 - h2) = 2(42.23 - 33.93)

= 16.6kW (heat gain).
Combustion 21
AIMS
• To derive the chemical reaction equations for combustion with oxygen.

• To derive the chemical reaction equations for combustion with air.
• To assess the volumetric and mass quantities involved in a combustion
process.
• To define:
air/fuel ratio
percentage excess air.
• To discuss the enthalpy of reaction for a stoichiometric combustion
process.
KEY EQUATIONS
• From combustion with oxygen:

C+ 02-+C02 (21.1)
H2 + ~02 -+ H 20. (21.2)
• For stoichiometric combustion with air:
C + O 2 + 3.76N 2-+C0 2 + 3.76N2 (21.3)
H2 + 0.50 2 + 1.88N2-+ H 20 + 1.88N2. (21.4)
• Air/fuel ratio:
AjF(volume) = ~ir/Yruel (21.5)
AjF(mass) = mair/mCuel. (21.6)
• Excess air as a percentage:
% excess au. = ( stOiCactual A/F

. h.
)
. AjF - 1 x 100.
lOmetnc
(21.7)
• Enthalpy of reaction:
(21.9)
[i!J I Combustion
EXAMPLES
21.1 Find the mass of carbon dioxide, CO 2' produced by burning 1 kmol
of propane, C 3Hs.
Analysis: Combustion equation with oxygen:

C3HS + a0 2 -+ bC0 2 + cH 2 0.
Evaluating the unknowns by equating the atoms of each element
C: 3=b
H: 8 = 2c
'0: 2a = 2b + c
gives a = 5, b = 3, c = 4 and
C3HS + 50 2 -+ 3C0 2 + 4H 2 0
1 kmol + 5 kmol-+ 3 kmol + 4 kmol
Mass of CO 2 = 3 x 44 = 132kg.
21.2 Determine the air/fuel ratio for a 50:50 mixture, by volume, of

propane, C 3H s , and methane, CH 4 , using 10% excess air.
Analysis: For propane

C3HS + 50 2 + 5 X 3.76N 2 -+3C0 2 + 4H 2 0 + 18.8N2
1 kmol + 5 kmol + 18.8 kmol-+ 3 kmol + 4 kmol + 18.8 kmol
with half the mixture consisting of propane:
0.5 kmol + 2.5 kmol + 9.4 kmol-+1.5 kmol + 2 kmol + 9.4 kmol.
For methane
CH 4 + 20 2 + 7.52N 2 -+C0 2 + 2H 2 0 + 7.52N 2
1 kmol + 2 kmol + 7.52 kmol-+ 1 kmol + 2 kmol + 7.52 kmol
with half the mixture consisting of methane:
0.5 kmol + 1 kmol + 3.76 kmol-+ 0.5 kmol + 1 kmol + 3.76 kmol.
For the mixture:
A/F( I ) = 2.5 + 9.4 + 1 + 3.76 = 1666

vo ume 0.5 + 0.5 .
AjF( mass) = (2.5 + 1) x 32 + (9.4 + 3.76) x 28

(0.5 x 44) + (0.5 x 16)
= 16.01.
Combustion I ~
21.3 Determine the enthalpy of reaction, at a standard temperature of

25 ·C, for the stoichiometric combustion of ethene, C 2 H 2 • Take the
enthalpy of formation of ethene to be 52.3 MJ kmol- 1.
Analysis: For the combustion of ethene

C 2 H 2 + a0 2 -+bC0 2 + cH 2 0 - A.Ho·
Evaluating the unknowns using the same procedure as for Example 21.2
C: 2 = b
H: 2 = 2c
0: 2a = 2b + c
gives a = 2.5, b = 2, c = 1 and
C 2 H 2 + 2.50 2 -+2C0 2 + H 2 0 - ilH o·
The enthalpy of formation values are
C2 H 2 : + 52.3 MJ kmol- 1
CO 2 : - 393.5 MJ kmol- 1
H 2 0: -241.8MJkmol- 1 •
Substituting in the reaction equation
52.3 + 2.5(0) = 2( - 393.5) + (- 241.8) - ilH 0
which can be rearranged to give
ilHo = 2(-393.5) + (-241.8) - 52.3
= -1081.1 MJkmol- 1 .
Basic heat transfer 22
AIMS
• To introduce the modes of heat transfer:

convection
conduction
radiation.
• To discuss radiation between two parallel surfaces acting as grey bodies.
• To introduce the lumped capacity method of analysing cooling, or
heating, of bodies.
• To define the overall heat transfer coefficient for combined modes of
heat transfer.
• To evaluate the overall heat transfer coefficient using a thermal
resistance analogy.
KEY EQUA nONS
• For convection between a surface and an adjacent fluid:

(22.1)
• For conduction across a wall:
k
Q = - A~ T. (22.2)
x
• For radiation between two black-body surfaces:
Q = oA(T14 - T24 ). (22.4)
• For radiation between two parallel grey-body surfaces:
OA(T.4 - T4)
Q= 1 2. (22.6)
1/e 1 + 1/e2 - 1
• For transient cooling, or heating, of a solid body:
In (T - To) = _ hcA t. (22.8)
(T - TO)i me
~ I Basic heat transfer
• For combined convection and conduction for water and air across a
plane wall:
1 1 x 1
-=-+-+-
U hc k h ·
(22.11)
w ca
• General relationship for combined convection and conduction:
Q= UA~T. (22.12)
• Thermal resistances in series:
Ro = R1 + R2 + R 3 ··• • (22.13)
EXAMPLES
22.1 A storage radiator dissipates 2 kW when the core has a temperature

of 210°C and the outer cover a temperature of 65°C. Assuming the
surfaces to have an emissivity of 0.85 and the heat transfer coefficient
between the core and the air to be 10 W m - 2 K -1, determine the surface
of the core.
Take the ambient temperature to be 20°C.
Analysis: The rate of heat transfer is the sum ofthe individual heat transfer
by radiation and convection from the core:
Q = QR + Qc·
QR = oA(T14 - T24 )/(1/e 1 + 1/e2 - 1)
= A x 5.67 X 10- 8 (583 4 - 338 4 )/(2/0.85 - 1)
= 4294.5A.
Qc = hc A(T1 - Ta)
= A x 10(210 - 20)
= 1900A.
Therefore
Q = 2000 = A(4294.5 + 19(0)
and
22.2 An electronic device is to be cooled using a solid aluminium heat

sink. The electronic device dissipates 0.5 kW and its temperature must
Basis heat transfer I ~
not exceed l00·C when the ambient temperature is 20·C. To check

whether a particular heat sink will perform this duty it is tested in the
laboratory using a lumped-capacity technique. If the heat sink has a mass
of 0.5 kg and cools from 60 K to 10 K above ambient in 2 minutes, check
its performance.
Take the specific heat of aluminium as 890 J kg - 1 K - 1.
Conceptual model:
t t
Heat sink
Device
Analysis: Assuming the temperature of the heat sink to be constant at

any particular instant during the test, the performance can be determined
from equation (22.8):
In (T - To) = _ hcA t
(T - TO)i me
(10) _ _ (hcA) 2 x
In (60) - 0.5 x 890 ( 60)
and
Checking the rate of heat transfer from the heat sink using equation (22.1)
Q = hcA(T - 7;.)
= 6.64(100 - 20) = 531.2 W.
Therefore, the heat sink is satisfactory.
22.3 A refrigerator has walls constructed of a 3 mm thick steel skin,

15 mm thick insulation and a 5 mm thick inner plastic casing. For energy
conservation reasons it is proposed to reduce the heat gain across the
wall by 50%. Find the new thickness of insulation needed to achieve this.
Take the values of thermal conductivity to be
k(steel) 40Wm- 1 K- 1
k(insulation) 0.05 W m - 1 K - 1
k(plastic) 0.8 W m -1 K - 1.
~ I Basic heat transfer
The heat transfer coefficient on the inner and outer surfaces can be taken
as 10Wm- 2 K- 1 .
Conceptual model:
3m~ T
Insulation
r-smm
Analysis: The heat gain is determined by the general relationship, equation

(22.12):
Q = UAL1T.
To reduce the heat gain, U must be reduced. The overall heat transfer
coefficient can be evaluated using the resistance analogy defined in
equation (22.13):
Ro = Ra + Rs + Ri + Rp + Ra·
F or the original design
Ra = l/ha = 1/10 = 0.1
Rs = (x/k)s = 0.003/40 = 0.000075
Ri = (X/k)i = 0.015/0.05 = 0.3
Rp = (x/k)p = 0.005/01 = 0.005.
Therefore
Ro = 0.505075m 2 K- 1 W- 1
and
For the new design
Therefore
Ro = 1/0.99 = 1.0101 m 2 K -1 W- 1
and
1.0101 = 0.1 + 0.000075 + Ri + 0.005 + 0.1
Basis heat transfer I ~
where
R j = 0.805 = x/k = x/0.05
and
x = 0.805 x 0.05 = 0.04025 m, i.e. 40.25 mm.
Heat exchangers 23
AIMS
• To introduce the mean temperature difference for a heat exchanger

and define:
arithmetic mean temperature difference
log mean temperature difference.
• To discuss the use of counterflow or parallel-flow in shell and tube
heat exchangers.
• To introduce the effectiveness and NTU method of analysing a heat
exchanger.
• To define the two main heat exchanger configurations:
in-line
cross-flow.
• To discuss the use of finned tubes for cross-flow heat exchangers with
air flow across the tubes.
KEY EQUATIONS
• Rate equation for a heat exchanger:
(23.1)
• General equation for the mean temperature method:
(23.3)
• Log mean temperature difference:
(23.7)
• Arithmetic mean temperature difference:
(23.8)
[!U I Heat exchangers
• Heat exchanger effectiveness:
E = (mCpMThl - 1i,J . (23.12)

(mCp)min(Thl - 1'.)
• Number of transfer units:
(23.13)
• Thermal capacity ratio:
R _ (mCp)min
(23.14)
- (mCp)max'
• Effectiveness-NTU relationship for counterflow and cross-flow heat

exchangers (E ~ 0.6):
NTU
(23.18)
E = 1+ t NTU(1 + R)"
• Finned-tube heat exchanger with water and air:
(23.20)
EXAMPLES
23.1 A shell and tube heat exchanger is used to cool 2 kg s - 1 of

compressed air from 110°C down to 60 °C using water entering at 20°C
and leaving at 45 0c. If the heat transfer coefficients are
he (air side) 50 W m -2 K- 1
he(water side) 2000Wm- 2 K- 1
estimate the required surface area, assuming the thermal resistance across
the tube walls to be negligible.
Take cp for air as l.OO5kJkg- 1 K- 1 •
Analysis: The surface area of the heat exchanger can be found using the
general equation (23.3):
Q = UAL\Tm
where U can be found from equation (22.11):

1 1 x 1
-=-+-+-
U hew k he.
Heat exchangers I ~
but x/k is negligible, so that

1 1 1
-:::=- +-
U hew hea
1 1
= --
2000
+ -50 = 00205m 2 K W- 1
.
and
U = 1/0.0205 = 48.8Wm- 2 K- 1 •
Assuming the heat exchanger to operate with a counterflow arrangement
the terminal temperature differences are
dT1 = 110 - 45 = 65K
d T2 = 60 - 20 = 40 K.
t
It follows that d T2 > d Tl and the arithmetic mean temperature can be used:
dTm = dT1 ; dT2 = 65; 40 = 52.5K.
The rate of heat transfer can be found from

Q = (mc p )a(T.. 1 - T.. 2 )
= 2 x 1005(110 - 60) = 100 500 W.

100 500 = 48.8 x A x 52.5
and
23.2 After the heat exchanger, defined above, has been in operation for
some time a 0.5 mm thickness of scale builds up on the water side. If the
scale has a thermal conductivity of 1 W m - 1 K - 1 estimate the new
temperature at which the air leaves the heat exchanger.
Analysis: The overall heat transfer coefficient can be found using the
resistance analogy defined in equation (22.13):
Ro = Ra + R t + R. + Rw
where
Ra = l/ha = 1/50 = 0.02
R t is negligible = 0
R. = (x/k). = 0.0005/1 = 0.0005
Rw = l/hw = 1/2000 = 0.0005.
[!!J I Heat exchangers
Therefore
Ro = 0.021 m 2 K W- 1
and
U = 1/0.021 = 47.6Wm- 2 K- 1 •
The rate of heat transfer is
Q = (mc p )a(7;.l - 7;.2)
= 2 x 1005(110 - 7;.)
The terminal temperature differences are
~ Tl = 110 - 45 = 65 K
~T2 = T..2 - 20.
Q= UA~Tm
2010(110 - 7;.2) = 47.6 x 39.23 (65 + ~2 - 20)'
Therefore
47.6 x 39.23
110 - 7;.2 = 2010 x 2 (45 + 7;.2)
= 0.465(45 + 7;.2)
and
T. = 110 - 0.465(45) = 60 8 °C
a2 1.465 ..
Note - this represents a 1.6% reduction in the performance of the heat

exchanger.
23.3 In a cross-flow heat exchanger 30000 kg h - 1 of water is raised from

25°C to 65 °C by means of 50000 kg h - 1 of flue gas entering at 400 °C.
The flue gas flows across a staggered bank of plain tubes of 25 mm
diameter. The tubes are pitched at 55 mm between centres and the
maximum velocity occurs in the space between the tubes. If the duct size
is 3 m square, find how many rows are required.
For heat transfer on the gas side assume Nu = 0.35Reo. 6 , where Re is
based on the tube diameter and maximum gas velocity.
Take the heat transfer coefficient on the water side to be 2500 W m - 2 K -1.
Take the properties to be: water, Cp = 4.2kJkg- 1 K- 1 ; flue gas,
k = 0.04Wm- 1 K-1, cp = l.1kJkg- 1 K-1, Jl. = 2.8 x 1O- S kgm- 1 s- l •
Analysis: The heat transfer coefficient on the air side can be found from
Nu = 0.35Reo. 6
Heat exchangers I ~
where
Re = pvd = md
J1. flow area x J1.
With a 55 nun pitch the number of tubes in a row is 3/0.055 = 54.5, i.e.
54 tubes per row. The flue gas flow area is
3 x (3 - 54.5 x 0.025) = 4.95 m 2
and
50000 x 0.025
Re = 3600 x 4.95 x 2.8 x 10-5 = 2505.
Therefore
Nu = 0.35(2505)°·6 = 38.3
and
h = Nu x k = 38.3 x 0.04 = 61.3Wm- 2 K- 1•

Cg d 0.025
Assuming negligible thermal resistance across the tube wall
1 1 1 1 1
-=-+-=-+--
U hcg hcw 61.3 2500
and
The surface area can be found from equation (23.18):
NTU
E = 1 + tNTU(l + R)
where R can be found from equation (23.14):
R = (mcp)min = 50000 x 1.1 = 0.437

(mcp)max 30000 x 4.2
and E can be found from equation (23.12):
E = (mcp)h(Th1 - 'I;,2) = (mcp)c('I;'2 - 1'.:1)

(mCp)min('I;,1 - TcJ (mCp)min('I;,1 - T.,J
65 - 25
0.437(400 _ 25) = 0.244.
~ I Heat exchangers

0244 _ NTU
. - 1 + ~ NTU(1 + 0.437)
NTU
= -:-1-+-0-.7-1--8N-T-U--·
Therefore
0.244
NTU = 0.825 = 0.296
where
Rearranging
A = NTU x (mcp)min
u
= 0.296 x 50000 x 1100 = 75.56m2 •
3600 x 59.8
75.56
Number of rows = 54 x 1t x 0.025 x 3 = 5.94, i.e. 6 rows.
Convective heat transfer 24
AIMS
• To define forced and natural convective heat transfer.

• To establish the dimensionless groups Nu, Re and Pr for defining
forced convection.
• To use the Reynolds analogy as a basis for analysing forced convection
situations.
• To explain the difference between local and average values of convective
heat transfer coefficient.
• To establish the dimensionless groups Nu, Gr and Pr for defining
natural convection.
KEY EQUA nONS
• From the Reynolds analogy:
(24.5)
• Allowing for variation of Prandtl number:

Nu . 1
Re Pr 1/3 = JH = iCc·
(24.6)
• Average heat transfer for laminar forced convection over a flat plate:
Nux = 0.664Re~·s Pr 1 / 3 • (24.9)
• Average heat transfer for turbulent forced convection in a tube:
Nu = 0.023Reo. s Prl/3. (24.10)
• Average heat transfer for laminar forced convection in a tube:
N u = 1.62(Re Pr d/l)1/3. (24.11)
• Natural convection for a vertical plate:
Nu = 0.55(Gr Pr)O.2S (24.14)
~ I Convective heat transfer
for (Gr Pr) ~ 109 , and
Nu = 0.13(Gr Pr)1/3 (24.15)
for (Gr Pr) > 109 .
EXAMPLES
24.1 The flow of air through the fins of a car radiator can be modelled
as flow between parallel plates. Ignoring the effect of the water tubes,
estimate the air-side heat transfer coefficient for air moving at 20 m s - 1
through fins that are 2.5 mm apart.
Take the properties of air as
p = 1.2kgm- 3
J.l = 1.8 x 10 - 5 kg m - 1 S - 1
k = 0.026Wm- 1 K- 1 .
Conceptual model:
Analysis: The hydraulic mean diameter for the flow can be found from
equation (13.16):
d = 4 x flow area = 4bh

m wetted perimeter 2(b + h)'
Assuming that b » h, then
4bh
d ~-=2h
m 2b
and
dm = 2 x 2.5 = 5 mm.
The Reynolds number for the flow can be found using equation (13.5):
R _ pvdm _ 1.2 x 20 x 0.005 _
em - J.l - 1.8 X 10-5 - 6667.
Convective heat transfer I[2!J
The flow is turbulent and the skin friction coefficient can be found from
equation (13.13):
Cf = 0.079(Rem )-1/4
= 0.079(6667)-1/4 = 0.00874.
and
Nu = t x 0.00874 x 6667 x (0.72)1/3
= 26.1.
Now
Therefore
26.1 = he X 0.005
0.026
and
24.2 An electrical iron can be modelled as a flat plate 200 mm high with
a mean width of 90 mm. Estimate the rate of heat transfer from one
surface of the plate, assuming it to be vertical, if the surface temperature
is 1OO·C and the surrounding air temperature is 20·C.
Take the properties of air to be
p = 1.2kgm- 3
jl = 1.8 x 10 - 5 kg m - 1 S-l
k = 2.7 x 10 - 2 W m - 1 K - 1
fJ = 0.0033K
Pr = 0.72.
Analysis: Assuming the heat transfer to be by natural convection it is

necessary to check the value of Gr Pr:
fJgATp2[3
GrPr = 2 Pr
jl
0.0033 x 9.81(100 - 20) x (1.2)2 X (0.2)3 x 0.72

(1.8 x 10- 5 )2
= 6.9 X 10 7
that is, laminar natural convection.
1100 II Convective heat transfer
The heat transfer coefficient can be found using equation (24.14):
Nu = 0.55(Gr Pr)0.25
= 0.55(6.9 x 10 7 )°.25 = 50.13.
Now
- hi
Nu=-e
k
and
2
h- = Nu x k = 50.13 x 2.2 x 10- = 6.7 W -2K- 1
e I 0.2 7 m .

Q = heA~T
= 6.77 x (0.2 x 0.09) x (100 - 20)
= 9.74W.
24.3 Air, flowing at the rate of 0.1 kg s -1, is to be cooled in a shell and
tube heat exchanger from 120·C down to 80 ·C, by means of water
entering at 20·C and leaving at 40·C. Assuming the thermal resistance
across the tube walls and on the water side to be negligible, estimate the
number of tubes required in the heat exchanger if the maximum pressure
drop on the air side is 200 kPa. The tubes can be assumed to have a
diameter of 10mm and the air density can be taken as 4kgm- 3 •
Analysis: Assuming the air flows through the 10mm diameter tubes and
that the Reynolds analogy is valid, from equation (24.5)
Hence
he.
----c 1
pvc - 2 c·
p
Assuming a counterflow arrangement the arithmetic mean temperature

difference for the heat exchanger is
~T. = (120 - 40) + (80 - 20) = 70K

m 2 .

Q= UA~Tm::!:!: he ndlN(70)
•
Convective heat transfer I~
where N is the number of tubes. For one tube
Q = hea 1tdl(70).
N (i)
From the Reynolds analogy

hea = tcfpVC p
which, when substituted in equation (i), gives
Q = ?:
N 2 x 70 x dlpvcp x Cf' (ii)
From equation (13.S)

llP x d
Cf = 2lpv 2
which when substituted in equation (ii) gives
-NQ = llP x -1t4 x 70 x -dv Cp •

2
(iii)
Now the rate of heat transfer in each tube is

Q m
N = N cp (120 - SO)
and the velocity in each tube is

mx4
v---- -
2- N X 1td X p'
Substituting both of these in equation (iii) gives
m 1t 1t N
-cp x SO = llP x - x 70 X d2 X cp X - X d2 X Px2
N 4 4 m
which can be rearranged to give
(~r = llP x (~r x ~~ x d 4

X P
= 200 X 103 x 0.54 X (0.01)4 x 4

and
m
N = 0.0043 kg s - 1 per tube.
Since the total mass flow rate is 0.1 kg s -1 the number of tubes is
N = 0.1/0.0043 = 23.26, i.e. 24 tubes.
Compressible flow 25
AIMS
• To define compressible flow and the stagnation conditions relating to

the flow.
• To derive a relationship for the velocity of sound in an ideal gas.
• To analyse the conditions across a normal shock wave.
• To discuss flow through a converging-diverging nozzle.
• To derive relationships for the critical temperature and pressure in a
choked converging nozzle.
KEY EQUATIONS
• The stagnation temperature:
(25.2)
• The velocity of sound in an ideal gas:
a = )yRT. (25.6)
• The Mach number:

v
Ma=-. (25.7)
a
• The changes across a normal shock wave:
Pz 1 + yMa;
-= z (25.11)
Pi 1 + yMa z
Tz 2+(y-1)Ma;
(25.13)
Ti = 2 + (y - l)Ma;
z (y - l)Ma; + 2
M a - --'--,...----"--- (25.14)
2 - 2yMa; - (y - 1)"
1104 II Compressible flow
• Steady flow energy equation for a nozzle:
V2 = J2(h l - h2 ) (25.15)
and with flow of an ideal gas:
V2 = J2c p (Tl - T2 )· (25.16)

• The critical temperature for a choked nozzle:
Tl 1'+1
7;, =-2-' (25.20)
• The critical pressure for a choked nozzle:
P1 = (1' + l)Y/(Y-l). (25.21)

P2 2
• The mass flow rate parameter for a choked nozzle:
.ft:
mAl = constant. (25.24)
Pl 2
EXAMPLES
25.1 Air enters a normal shock wave with a pressure of 100 kPa, a
temperature of 20·C and a velocity of 500 m s - 1. Calculate the pressure,
temperature and velocity of the air leaving the shock wave. For air take
l' = 1.4 and R = 0.287kJkg- l K- l .
Analysis: The Mach number upstream of the shock wave can be found
al = J1'RTl = J1.4 x 287 x 293 = 343.1ms- l

and
Vl 500
Mal = a l = 343.1 = 1.457.
The Mach number downstream of the shock wave can be found from
equation (25.14):
Ma 2 _ (1' - l)Ma~ +2
2 - 21'Ma~ - (1' - 1)
0.4(2.123) + 2
Ma=
2 x 1.4 x 2.123 - 0.4
= 0.717.
The temperature downstream of the shock wave can be found from
equation (25.13):
Tl 2+(y-1)Mai
Tl = 2 + (y - l)Ma;
and
T = 293 (2 + 0.4(2.123»)
1 2 + 0.4(0.514)
= 378.5K.
The velocity downstream of the shock wave is
V1 = Ma1jyRT1
r------
= 0.717j1.4 x 287 x 378.5 = 279.6ms-l.
The pressure downstream of the shock wave can be found from equation
(25.11):
P1 1 + yMai
-= 1
PI 1 + yMa 1
and
1 + 1.4(2.123»)
P1 = 100 ( 1 + 1.4(0.514) = 231 kPa.
25.2 Steam enters a converging-diverging nozzle at a pressure of 2 MPa

and temperature of 300 0c. If the mass flow rate is 10 kg s - I and the
steam leaves the nozzle at a pressure of 40 kPa, determine the exit area
of the nozzle.
Assume the flow to be isentropic and the entry velocity to be negligible.
Analysis: The exit velocity can be found using equation (25.15):

v1 = j2(h l - h1 )·
At the entry, from Appendix B.2,
hI = 3025kJkg- l .
Since the flow is isentropic
Sl = SI = 6.77kJkg- I K- I •
This can be used to find the dryness fraction at 2:
Sl = Sf + X1(Sfg)·
At state 2, taking properties from Appendix B
Sf = 1.026kJkg- 1 K- I and Sfg = 6.645kJkg- 1 K- I •
1106 II Compressible flow
Therefore
6.77 = 1.026 + xe(6.645), X2 = 0.864.
The enthalpy at 2 is
where
hr = 318kJkg- 1 and hrg = 2319kJkg- 1
and
h2 = 318 + 0.864(2319) = 2321.6kJkg- 1 •
The exit velocity is
V2 = J2(3025 - 2321.6) x 10 3 = 1186.1ms- 1 •

From continuity
m= pAv.
At state 2,
P2 = Pg /x 2
= 0.25/0.864 = 0.289 kg m - 3.
The exit area is
A2 = - =
m 10 2
=0.029m.
P2V2 0.289 x 1186.1
25.3 Calculate the mass flow rate of air flowing through a converging
nozzle if the air enters the nozzle at 500 K and 300 kPa and the exit area
is 0.1 m 2 • Atmospheric conditions at the outlet are 288 K and 100 kPa.
Take the properties of air as y = 1.4 and R = 0.287 kJ kg - 1 K - 1.
Analysis: The temperature at the exit will be the critical temperature, 7;"
Tl Y+ 1
-=--
7;, 2
so that
T2 = 7;, = 500 x CA2+ 1) = 416.7K.

The pressure at the exit will be the critical pressure, Pc, from equation (25.21):
PI = (Y + l)Y/(Y-l)
Pc 2
so that
P2 = Pc = 300 x ( 1
2 )1. 4 / 0 .4
= 158.5kPa.
.4+1
Since both T2 and P 2 are higher than the atmospheric conditions at 2,
this means the flow through the nozzle is choked. Therefore the exit
velocity can be found from equation (25.6):
V2 = a2 = JyRT2
~-----
= J1.4 x 287 x 416.7 = 409.2ms- 1 •

The mass flow rate can be found from continuity:
m= P2AcV2
and
= Pc = 158.5 X 10 3 = 1.325k S-1.

P2 RT2 287 x 416.7 g
Therefore
m= 1.325 x 0.1 x 409.2 = 54.2kgs- 1 .
Propulsion 26
AIMS
• To define the performance parameters for propulsive devices:

thrust
propulsive efficiency.
• To introduce the different types of aircraft gas turbine engines:
turboprop
turbojet
turbofan.
• To compare the propulsive efficiency for the three types of aircraft gas
turbine engine.
• To discuss the analysis of a turbojet engine with either a converg-
ing-diverging nozzle or a converging nozzle.
• To discuss the analysis and application of ram jet engines.
KEY EQUA nONS
• For single-stream propulsive devices in which the exhaust pressure

equals the surrounding pressure:
thrust:
F = m(v c - v) (26.1)
propulsive efficiency:
2v
'7 =--. (26.4)
prop Vc +V
• For the two-stream turbofan engine:
bypass ratio:
(26.5)
thrust:
(26.6)
~ I Propulsion
propulsive efficiency:
2Fv
(26.7)
• For turbojet engine:

temperature rise in diffuser:
v~ = 2c p (T1 - To) (26.8)
temperature change in gas generator:
(26.9)
increase in velocity in nozzle:
v; = 2c p (T4a - Ts). (26.10)
• For turbojet with converging nozzle:

temperature ratio for a choked nozzle:
T4a y+l
-=-- (26.11)
Ts 2
thrust:
(26.12)
EXAMPLES
26.1 An aircraft flies at an altitude of 9000m with a Mach number of

0.75. It is propelled by two turbojet engines, each with a jet velocity of
550ms- 1 .
The turbojet engines are to be changed for two turbofan engines having
a bypass ratio of 2 and exhaust velocities of:
cold stream 350 m s - 1

hot stream 480 m s - 1.
Determine the reduction in fuel consumption as a result of this change.

Take the properties of air at 9000 m as y = 1.4, R = 0.287 kJ kg -1 K - 1
and T = 230K.
Analysis: The velocity of sound at 9000 m can be found from equation (25.6):
a = JyRT
= J1.4 x 287 x 230 = 304ms- 1•
Propulsion I[Q!J
Therefore
v = Max a = 0.75 x 304 = 228 m s - 1.
Now the fuel consumption is inversely proportional to the propulsive
efficiency:
Turbojet:
2v 2 x 228
'7 prop = Ve + V = 550 + 228 = 0.586.
Turbofan: the propulsive efficiency can be found from equation (26.7):
2Fv
I1prop = m (v 2 _ v2) + m (v 2 _ v2)
c ec h eh
_
2v(mc(v e - v) + mh(veh - v)
C
- mc (v e2 - v2) + mh (v eh
2 - v2)·
c
Dividing through by mh gives

2v[BPR(v e - v) + (ve - v)]
'7 p rop = BPR(v2 ~ v2) + (v 2 h_ v2)
ec eh
2 x 228[2(350 - 228) + (480 - 228)]

2(350 2 - 228 2 ) + (480 2 - 228 2 )
= 0.708.
The ratio of the fuel consumptions is
0.586/0.708 = 0.828
that is, a 17.2% reduction.
26.2 A turbojet engine operates with a converging nozzle under the

following conditions:
Mach number 0.78
inlet air temperature 245K
pressure ratio in compressor 12
turbine inlet temperature 1200K
turbine efficiency 88%.
Calculate the exhaust velocity of the engine.
Assume air to have the properties cp = l.OO5kJkg- 1 K-t, R =
0.287 kJ kg- 1 K -1 and y = 1.4.
Analysis: For diffuser 0-1:

To = 245K.
[!!!J I Propulsion
The local velocity of sound is
a o = JyRTo = J1.4 x 287 x 245 = 313.8ms- 1

and
Vo = 0.78 x 313.8 = 244.7ms-l.
v~ = 2cp (Tl - To)
(244.7)2 = 2 x 1005(T - 245)
Tl = 274.8K
and
P1 (274.8)1. 4/0 . 4
Po = 245 = 1.49.
For compressor 1-2:
T2 = 274.8(12)°.4/1.4 = 558.9 K.
Applying the compressor efficiency
0.82 = 558.9 - 274.8

T2a - 274.8
and
T2a = 621.3 K.
For the gas generator 3-4: from equation (26.9)
T2a - Tl = T3 - T4a
621.3 - 279.8 = 1200 - T4a
T4a = 853.5 K.
For the nozzle 4-5: from equation (26.11)
Ts = T4aC ~ J
= 853.5 C.4 2+ 1) = 711.3 K.
v; = 2 x 1005(853.5 - 711.3)
Vs = 534.6ms- 1 •
26.3 A ram jet engine is designed to operate under ideal conditions with
inlet air temperature 220 K
mass flow rate 20 kg s - 1
maximum cycle temperature 1500K.
Propulsion IIu31
Calculate the thrust and propulsive efficiency at a Mach number of 3.
Take the properties of air as cp = 1.005 kJ kg- l K -1, R =
0.287kJkg- l K- l and y = 1.4.
Analysis: Across the shock wave 0-1: from Table 25.1

Mal = 0.475
Tl/To = 2.679
Pl/Po = 10.333.
For diffuser 1-2:
Tl = 2.679 x 220 = 589.4 K
the local velocity of sound is
a l = JyRTl = J1.4 x 287 x 589.4 = 486.6ms- l
and
Vl = 0.475 x 486.6 = 231.2ms- l
v: = 2c p (T2 - Tl )
(231.2)2 = 2 X 1005(T2 - 589.4)
T2 = 616K
the pressure ratio is
P2= (T2)YI<Y- l l
Pl Tl
616 )1.4 /0.4
= (-- = 1.167
589.4
and the overall pressure ratio is
P 2 = P 2 X P 1 = 1.167 x 10.333= 12.06.

Po P l Po
For the nozzle 3-4:
p 4)<Y - ll/y
T4 = T3 ( P 3
= 1500(1/12.06)°.4/1.4 = 736.4 K.
v! = 2c p (T3 - T4 )
= 2 x 1005(1500 - 736.4)
V4 = 1238.9ms-l.
1114 II Propulsion
Inlet velocity to the shock wave, vo, is given by
Vo = 3 x ao = 3 x JYifio
= 3 x J1.4 x 287 x 220 = 891.9ms- 1 .
The thrust is given by equation (26.1):
F = m(v4 - vo)
= 20(1238.9 - 891.9) = 6940N.
The propulsive efficiency is given by equation (26.4):
2vo 2 x 891.9
'7 prop = v4 + Vo = 1238.9 + 891.9 = 0.84.
Turbomachinery 27
AIMS
• To define the dimensionless performance parameters for rotary

compressors and turbines.
• To derive the energy equation for axial flow through a rotor.
• To analyse the velocities and pressure ratio across an axial flow
compressor stage.
• To analyse the velocities and efficiency for an axial flow impulse turbine
stage.
• To analyse the velocities and degree of reaction for an axial flow
reaction turbine stage.
KEY EQUATIONS
• Performance parameters for a compressor or turbine:
P2 = f(mJTl ,~). (27.1)

Pl Pl fit
• Work done in an axial flow rotor:
w = U(V W1 - vw ,). (27.5)
• Temperature change across a compressor stage:

W = Cp(Tl - T3)' (27.7)
• Degree of reaction in a turbine stage:
(27.8)
• Efficiency of an impulse turbine stage:

2U(v w1 - vwJ
'71 = 2 . (27.11)
vl
\116 \\ Turbomachinery
• Degree of reaction in a reaction turbine stage:
R2 _ R2
rd-- 2 1
(27.15)
2w
EXAMPLES
27.1 Air at 300 K enters an axial flow compressor stage with an axial
velocity of 150 m s - 1. The rotor has a mean diameter of 560 mm and
rotates at 5800 rev min - 1. If the air is turned through 25° in the rotor
and leaves the stage with an axial velocity of 150 m s -1, determine:
(a) the angles of the rotor and stator blades;

(b) the pressure ratio across the stage.
Take the properties of air as y = 1.4 and cp = 1.005kJkg- 1 K- 1 .
Conceptual model: It is possible to draw the velocity diagrams for a

compressor on a single diagram using the rotational velocity, U, as the
common base:
v1=150ms· 1
Analysis: At a diameter of 0.56 m the rotational velocity is
5800
U = OJr = 6() x 2n x 0.28 = 170ms- 1 •
The rotor entry angle is given by
P1 = tan- 1(v 1/U)

= tan- 1(150/170) = 41.4°.
Turbomachinery I [!!!J
The rotor outlet angle is

P2 = P1 + e = 41.4 + 25 = 66.4°.
At the rotor outlet velocity V2 will have a whirl component VW2 :
VW2 = U - vdtan 66.4°

= 170 - 150/2.289 = 104.5ms- 1.
The stator entry angle is given by
P3 = tan -1(V1/VwJ
= tan -1(150/104.5) = 55.1 0.
w = U(VWI - vwJ
= 170(0 -104.5) = -17765Jkg-1.
w = Cp (T1 - T3)
-17765 = 1005(300 - T3 )
T3 = 317.7K.
The stage pressure ratio is given by
P3 = (T 3 )Y/(Y-1 1 = (317.7)1.4/0.4 = 1.22.

P1 T1 300
27.2 The velocity of steam leaving the nozzles of an impulse turbine is

900 m s - 1 and the nozzle angle is 20°. If the rotational velocity of the
rotor blade is 400 m s - 1, determine the blade angles and turbine efficiency.
Conceptual model:
Analysis: At the entry to the rotor blades

[!!!] I Turbomachinery
Now
Va = V1 sinO(
= 900 x sin 20° = 307.8ms- 1
VW \ = v 1 cos 0(
= 900 x cos 20° = 845.7ms- 1
and
f3 1 = tan -1 ( 845.7
307.8 ) = 34.6°.
- 400
Since the turbine blades are symmetrical
f32 = 34.6°.
Now the value of VW2 is
but
Va 307.8 -1
R 2 =R 1 =-.-=. 0= 541.7ms
smf31 sm34.6
and
VW2 = 400 - 541.7 x cos 34.6°

= -45.9ms- 1.
= 2 x 400[845.7 - (-45.9)] = 835 . 8 0/

'11 (900)2 O. , I.e. 3.5/0 ,
27.3 In a stage of a reaction turbine steam leaves the nozzles with an

absolute velocity of 300 m s - 1 at an angle of 25° to the plane of rotation.
If the blade velocity is 250 m s - 1 and the stage has a degree of reaction
of 0.5, determine:
(a) the entry angle to the rotor blade;

(b) the work done in the rotor.
Turbomachinery I[!!!]
Conceptual model:
250m 5- 1
Analysis: The degree of reaction is 0.5 when

P2 = ill = 25°_
At the entry to the rotor blades
P1 = tan- 1 ( Va ).
V W1 - U
Now
Va = v1 sin ill
= 300 x sin 25° = 126.8ms- 1
V W1 = V 1 cos ill
= 300 x cos 25° = 271.9ms- 1
and
P1 = tan -1 ( 271.9300)
_ 250 = 85.8 °.
Now
V W2 = U - R z cos pz.
Since the diagram is symmetrical
R z = 300ms- 1
and
VW2 = 250 - 3OOcos2SO = -21.9ms-1.
w = 250[271.9 - (-21.9)J
= 73450Jkg- 1.
Renewable energy systems 28
AIMS
• To analyse the power output and efficiency of wind turbines.

• To discuss the operation of solar panels and photo voltaic cells.
• To discuss pumped-storage, tidal power and wave energy systems.
• To describe the use of biofuels that can be produced from living plants
and animals.
• To outline briefly some aspects of a hydrogen economy.
KEY EQUATIONS
• Power output from a wind turbine:

W = 21·
m ( v21 - v2)
2 . (28.1)
• Rate of kinetic energy of wind:
(28.3)
• Efficiency of wind turbine:

(V1 + v2 )(vi - v;)
'1 = 3 (28.4)
2V1
• Radiation density falling on the surface of a solar panel:

1= IwsinO. (28.5)
• Power of output of a water turbine:
W = mgl1z. (28.7)
EXAMPLES
28.1 A 25 m diameter wind turbine operates with an efficiency of 27%.

Estimate the power output at a wind velocity of 15 m s - 1. Take the air
density as 1.2 kg m - 3.
1122 II Renewable energy systems
7t 2 3
Wwind = 8" pd V1
= i x 1.2 X (25)2 x (15)3 = 994019.6 W, i.e. 994kW.
The power output of the wind turbine is

W = '1 X Wwind
= 0.27 x 994019.6 = 268385.3 W, i.e. 268.4kW.
28.2 A solar panel has an absorber surface area of 2.5 m 2 and is covered
with a glass sheet 5 mm thick with a 25 mm air gap between the absorber
and the glass. Ifthe solar radiation density is 750Wm- 2 on a day when
the ambient temperature is 14 ·C, find the net rate of heat transfer to the
panel assuming it contains water at a mean temperature of 30·C and the
sun is inclined at 60· to the absorber surface.
Take the thermal conductivity of the glass as 1 W m - 1 K - 1 and the
convective heat transfer coefficient on the surfaces of the absorber and
glass to be 4 W m - 2 K - 1.
Conceptual model:
.. {ft.
~==~He=at=loss~/======~
GI~
Analysis: The radiation density is given by equation (28.5):
1= Is sin 0 = 750 x sin 60· = 649.5Wm- 2.
The heat loss from the solar panel can be found from equation (22.12):
QJos s = uAAT
where U = 1/Ro and Ro comprises
R(absorber surface) = 1/h = 1/4 = 0.25
R(surface of glass) = 1/h = 1/4 = 0.25
R(across glass) = x/k = 0.005/1 = 0.005
R(surface of glass) = 1/h = 1/4 = 0.25.
Therefore
R o =O.755m 2 KW- 1 and U= 1/0.755= 1.325Wm- 2 K- 1 .
Renewable energy systems IIu31
Qloss = 1.325 x 3 x (30 - 14) = 63.6 W.
The rate of heat transfer to the absorber is
Q = IA - Qloss
= (649.5 x 3) - 63.6 = 1884.9 W.

28.3 In a small hydroelectric system water is supplied to a Pelton wheel
having a mean wheel diameter of 0.35 m rotating at 500 rev min -1. The
water flows through a pipe of 0.1 m diameter at a mean velocity of 2 m s - 1
from a reservoir with the free surface at a height of 30 m above the turbine
nozzle. If the pipe length is 55 m and the skin friction coefficient is 0.007,
estimate the power output of the system. Assume the bucket angle of the
Pelton wheel to be 25°.
Take the density of water as 1OOOkgm- 3 and 9 = 9.81 ms- 2.
Analysis: The pressure drop in the pipe can be found from equation (13.8):
1
dP = 2cc"dpiP
and
55
dP = 2 x 0.007 x 0.1 x 1000 x (2)2 = 30800 Pa.
This is equivalent to a head of

dP 30800
dz = pg = 1000 x 9.81 = 3.14m.
The jet velocity of the Pelton wheel is

Vj = J2g(head loss)
= J2 x 9.81(30 - 3.14) = 23ms- 1 .
The rotational velocity of the bucket is
500
U = ror = 60 x 21t x 0.175 = 9.16ms- 1 .
The mass flow rate through the pipe is

1t
m = pAv = 1000 x "4(0.1)2 x 2 = 15.7kgs- 1 •

W = mU(v j - U)(l + cos 0)
= 15.7 x 9.16(23 - 9.16)(1 + cos 25°)
= 3794.2 W, i.e. 3.79 kW.
1124 II Renewable energy systems
Note - this type of hydroelectric system is typical of those used by farms
or small communities where a head of 30 m, or above, is available.

Keith Sherwin, Michael Horsley (Auth.) - Thermofluids - Tutor's Manual-Springer US (1996)

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Keith Sherwin, Michael Horsley (Auth.) - Thermofluids - Tutor's Manual-Springer US (1996)

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Thermofluids

SPRlNGER-SClENCE+BUSINESS MEDIA, BY 1~lll

© 1996 Keith Sherwin and Michael Horsley

Typeset in lol/12pt Times by AFS Image Setters Ltd, Glasgow

ISBN 978-0-412-63750-6 ISBN 978-1-4899-6870-8 (eBook)

Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 95-71238

8 Printed on permanent acid-free text paper, manufactured in accordance with ANSIfNISO

List of symbols Vll

The following symbols have been used throughout the book:

• To introduce the idea of using different types of model in problem solving.

Analysis: Considering the waterfall as an open system the change of

Potential energy -+ kinetic energy -+ thermal energy.

20 x 9.81 = 4200(T2 - 14).

Evaluating the indices:

Analysis: The relationship between the variables is

• To review the concept of temperature as a thermofluid property.

• Heat transfer to a single-phase substance:

3.1 A copper bar, having a mass of 5 kg and a temperature of 150 ·C,

T= 292.5 + 836 = 13.2 C.

Analysis: From equation (3.1)

Area T("C) v (ms-I)

Analysis: From equation (3.3)

2.0(75) + 1.9(74) + 1.8(70) + 1.6(65)

• To define pressure and explain the difference between gauge and

KEY EQUA nONS

• For hydrostatic pressure in an incompressible fluid:

• For pressure variation in an isothermal atmosphere:

4.1 The static pressure of a gas is measured by means of an inclined

Analysis: From equation (4.3)

= 100 862.5 Pa.

For the manometer; from equation (4.4)

I = Ah2 = 0.5 X (0.5)2 = 00104 3

Rectangle B From equation (4.6)

• To introduce the general concept of conservation in respect of

• Conservation of energy for a system:

Analysis: From equation (5.2)

= mc(T2 - T1) + ~(V~ - V~)

Analysis: With an outlet temperature of 15·e the heat input is 65 kW.

• To explain what is meant by a transport law.

1. A driving force - in this case the temperature difference between the

Analysis: The cost of running the heating system is determined by the

Energy required = heat loss x time.

Valve Bend Constriction Bend Friction

• To introduce the concept of ideal gases.

• General ideal gas law:

• Equation of state for an ideal gas:

• Pressure variation in the atmosphere:

• Universal gas constant:

7.1 A rigid container holds 0.3 m 3 of nitrogen (M = 28) at 15 MPa and

Analysis: From equation (7.10)

7.2 A mixture of 60% nitrogen and 40% methane by mass is held in a

Analysis: Considering the nitrogen and methane separately:

p = ~ = 0.354 + 0.531 = 4.42kgm- 3 .

7.3 An aircraft flies at 10 000 m (224 K) with an internal cabin pressure

Analysis: Between sea level and 5000 m,

T = 256 + 288 = 272 K

From equation (7.8)

From equation (7.8)

• To look at the energy transfers which accompany ideal gas processes.

KEY EQUA nONS

• Non-flow energy equation:

8.1 A closed system contains 1 kg of an ideal gas. Complete the following

assuming all values to be in kJ kg - 1.