Ectrical Machine Drive

Lecture-2
Magnetic Circuits
Worku Abera
Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Electric Machines and Drives

ECEG-3202
2020/21 Semester-I
Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 1 / 31
Overview
Overview
1 Overview
2 Objective
3 Introduction
4 Magnetic Circuits
5 Flux Linkage, Inductance, and Energy

Objective
Lecture Objectives
In this lecture you will learn the following:

How Maxwell’s equations can be simplified to solve simple
practical magnetic problems,
The concepts of saturation and hysteresis of magnetic materials,
The characteristics of permanent magnets and how they can be
used to solve simple problems,
How Faraday’s law can be used in simple windings and magnetic
circuits,

Introduction
Introduction
Maxwell’s equation
relate magnetic fields to the currents which produces them.
I Z
Hdl = J · da (1)
I c s
B · da = 0 (2)
s
Where: H: magnetic field intensity, A/m, A − turn/m, A − t/m

B: magnetic flux density, webers/m2 , W b/m2 , tesla(T ).
Equation-1 states that: The line integral of the tangential
component of the magnetic field intensity H around a closed
contour C is equal to the total current passing through any surface
S linking that contour.
Note: The source of H is the current density J.
Magnetic Circuits
Equation-2 states that: The magnetic flux density, B, is conserved.

No net flux enters or leaves a closed surface.
There exists no monopole charge sources of magnetic fields.
Magnetic Circuits
A magnetic circuit consists of a structure composed for the most
part of high-permeability magnetic material.
The presence of high-permeability material tends to cause
magnetic flux to be confined to the paths defined by the structure.
Figure 1: Simple magnetic circuit.

Magnetic Circuits
In figure-1, the source of the magnetic field in the core is the

ampere-turn product N i , called the magnetomotive force (mmf) F
acting on the magnetic circuit.
The magnetic flux, φ (in weber, Wb) crossing a surface S is the
surface integral of the normal component B:
I
φ = B · da (3)
s
For φc = flux in core and Bc = flux density in core.
φc = Bc · Ac (4)
If Hc is the average magnitude of H in the core, then its direction

can be found from the Right-Hand-Rule.
I
F = N i = Hdl
c
F = N i = Hc lc (5)

Magnetic Circuits
Figure 2: Prediction of direction of field (B), given that the current I flows in
the direction of the thumb.
The relationship between the magnetic field intensity, H and the
magnetic flux density, B:
B = µH (6)
Where; µ = µr µo ; µ = magnetic permeability, W b/A · t · m = H/m
µo = 4π × 10−7 : the permeability of free space.
µr : relative permeability, typical values: 2000 − 80, 000.
Is this a linear relationship?

Magnetic Circuits
A magnetic circuit with an air gap is shown in figure-3. Air gaps are
present for moving elements. The air gap length is sufficiently small. φ
is the flux in the magnetic circuit.
Figure 3: Magnetic circuit with air gap.

φ φ
Bc = & Bg = (7)
Ac Ag
Bc Bg
F = Hc lc + Hg lg = lc + lg
µ µo

lc g
F =φ + (8)
µAc µo Ag
Magnetic Circuits
From equation-8, we can define Rc and Rg , which are the

reluctances of the core and the air gap, respectively, as:
lc g
Rc = , Rg = (9)
µAc µAg
Substituting equation-9 in equation-8 we obtain:
F
F = φ(Rc + Rg ) =⇒ φ= (10)
Rc + Rg
In general, for any magnetic circuit of total reluctance, Rtot , the
flux can be found as:
F
φ= (11)
Rtot
The inverse of the reluctance called permeance P is represented as:
1
P =
Rtot

Magnetic Circuits
Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits is shown below.
Figure 4: Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits: (a) electric

circuit, (b) magnetic circuit.

Magnetic Circuits
Fringing Effect
With high material permeability:
In this case, the reluctance of
Rc Rg and thus Rtot ≈ Rg .
the core can be neglected
In practical systems, the and hence,
magnetic field lines ”fringe”
outward somewhat as they cross F
φ= (12)
the air gap, as illustrated in Rg
figure-5.
Provided this fringing effect is
not excessive, the
magnetic-circuit concept
remains applicable.
The effect of these fringing fields
is to increase the effective
cross-sectional area, Ag , of the
air gap. Figure 5: Air-gap fringing fields.
Magnetic Circuits
General Equations of Magnetic Circuits

In general, magnetic circuits can consist multiple elements in
series and parallel.
I X X
F = Hdl = Fk = Hk lk (13)
k k
Z
F = J · da (14)
s
X
V = Rk ik (15)
k
X
in = 0 (16)
n
X
φn = 0 (17)
n
Equations (15) and (16) are Kirchoff’s voltage and current laws,
respectively. And equations (13) and (17) are their magnetic
analogies.
Magnetic Circuits
Example (1)
The magnetic structure of a synchronous machine is shown
schematically in figure-6 below. Assuming that rotor and stator iron
have infinite permeability (µ → ∞), find the air-gap flux, φ and flux
density Bg . For this example: I = 10A, N = 100 − turns, g = 1cm,
and Ag = 2000cm2 .
Figure 6: Simple synchronous machine.

Magnetic Circuits
Example (1)
Notice that there are two air gaps in series, of total length 2g, and
that by symmetry the flux density in each is equal.
Since the iron permeability here is assumed to be infinite, its
reluctance is negligible and equation-12 (with g replaced by the
total gap length 2g) can be used to find the flux.
Hence
N Iµo Ag 100(10)(4π × 10−7 )(0.2)
φ= = = 0.13W b
2g 0.02
Example (2)
For the magnetic structure of figure-6 with the dimensions as given in
Example-1 the air-gap flux density is observed to be Bg = 0.9T . Find
the air-gap flux φ and, for a coil of N = 500 − turns, the current
required to produce this level of air-gap flux.
Answer: φ = 0.18W b and i = 28.6A
Flux Linkage, Inductance, and Energy

Faraday’s Law: I Z
d
E · ds = − B · da (18)
c dt s
states that the line integral of the electric field intensity E around a
closed contour C is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic
flux linking (i.e. passing through) that contour.
Taking the assumptions that:
the E field in the wire is extremely small and can be neglected, so
that the left-hand side of equation-18 reduces to the negative of the
induced voltage e at the winding terminals; and
the flux on the right-hand side is dominated by the core flux φ.
Since the winding links the core flux N times, equation-18 reduces
to:
dϕ dλ
e=N = (19)
dt dt

dϕ dλ
e=N =
dt dt
Where λ is the flux linkage (measured in units of webers or

weber-turns) of the winding and is defined as:
λ = Nϕ (20)
Flux linkage is measured in units of webers (or equivalently

weber-turns). The symbol ϕ is used to indicate the instantaneous
value of a time-varying flux.
For a magnetic circuit composed of magnetic material of constant
magnetic permeability or which includes a dominating air gap, the
relationship between φ and i will be linear and we can define the
Inductance, L, as:
λ
L= (21)
i
Substitution of equation-5, equation-11 and equation-20 in

equation-21 gives:
N2
L= (22)
Rtot
⇒ the inductance of a winding in a magnetic circuit is propor-
tional to the square of the turns and inversely proportional
to the reluctance of the magnetic circuit associated with that
winding.
Inductance is measured in henrys (H) or weber-turns per ampere.

Example (3)
The magnetic circuit of figure-7(a) consists of an N-turn winding on a
magnetic core of infinite permeability with two parallel air gaps of
lengths g1 and g2 and areas A1 and A2 , respectively. Find:
a) the inductance of the winding, and
b) the flux density B1 in gap-1 when the winding is carrying a
current i.
Neglect fringing effects at the air gap.
Figure 7: (a) Magnetic circuit and (b) equivalent circuit for Example-3.
Example (3)
a) The equivalent circuit of figure-7(b) shows that the total
reluctance is equal to the parallel combination of the two gap
reluctances. Thus:
Ni
φ = R1 R2
R1 +R2
g1 g2
Where: R1 = R2 =
µo A1 µ o A2
From equation-21
λ Nφ N 2 (R1 + R2 )
L= = =
i i R1 R2

2 A1 A 2
= µo N +
g1 g2

Example (3)
b) From the equivalent circuit, it can be seen that
Ni µ o A1 N i
φ1 = =
R1 g1
and thus
φ1 µo N i
B1 = =
A1 g1

Magnetic circuit with more than one windings

The following figure shows a magnetic circuit with an air gap and
two windings.
Figure 8: Magnetic circuit with two windings.

The mmf acting on the magnetic circuit is given by the total
ampere-turns acting on the magnetic circuit (i.e., the net ampere
turns of both windings) and that the reference directions for the
currents have been chosen to produce flux in the same direction.
The total mmf is therefore:
F = N1 i1 + N2 i2 (23)
If the reluctance of the core is neglected and assuming that

Ac = Ag , the core flux φ is:
µo Ac
φ = (N1 i1 + N2 i2 ) (24)
g
In equation-24, φ is the resultant core flux produced by the total
mmf of the two windings.
It is this resultant φ which determines the operating point of the
core material.

If equation-24 is broken up into terms attributable to the

individual currents, the resultant flux linkages of coil-1 can be
expressed as:

µ o Ac µo Ac
λ1 = N1 φ = N12 i1 + N1 N2 i2 (25)
g g
which can be written as:
λ1 = L11 i1 + L12 i2 (26)
where
µ o Ac
L11 = N12 (27)
g
L11 is the self-inductance of coil-1 and L11 i1 is the flux linkage of
coil-1 due to its own current i1 .
The mutual inductance between coils 1 and 2 is:
µ o Ac
L12 = N1 N2 (28)
g
and L12 i2 is the flux linkage of coil-1 due to current i2 in the other
coil.
Similarly, the flux linkage of coil-2 is:

µo Ac 2 µo Ac
λ2 = N1 φ = N1 N2 i1 + N2 i2 (29)
g g
which can be written as:
λ2 = L21 i1 + L22 i2 (30)
where L21 = L12 is the mutual inductance and

µ o Ac
L22 = N22 (31)
g
is the self-inductance of coil 2.

Substituting equation-21 in to equation-19 gives:

d
e= (Li) (32)
dt
for a magnetic circuit with a single winding.
For a static magnetic circuit, the inductance is fixed (assuming
that material nonlinearities do not cause the inductance to vary),
and this equation reduces to the familiar circuit-theory form:
di
e=L (33)
dt
However, in electromechanical energy conversion devices,
inductances are often time varying, and equation-32 can be written
as:
di dL
e=L +i (34)
dt dt

The power at the terminals of a winding on a magnetic circuit is a

measure of the rate of energy flow into the circuit through that
particular winding.
The power, p, is determined from the product of the voltage and
the current as:
dλ
p = ie = i (35)
dt
and its unit is watts (W), or joules per second.
Thus the change in magnetic stored energy ∆W in the magnetic
circuit in the time interval t1 to t2 is:
Z t2 Z λ2
∆W = pdt = idλ (36)
t1 λ1
the magnetic stored energy W is measured in joules, (J).

For a single-winding system of constant inductance, the change in

magnetic stored energy as the flux level is changed from λ1 to λ2
can be written as
Z λ2 Z λ2
λ 1
λ22 − λ21

∆W = idλ = dλ = (37)
λ1 λ1 L 2L
The total magnetic stored energy at any given value of λ can be

found from setting λ1 equal to zero:
1 2 1 2
W = λ = Li (38)
2L 2

Example (4)
The magnetic circuit shown below has dimensions Ac = Ag = 9cm2 ,
g = 0.050cm, lc = 30cm, and N = 500 − turns. Assume the value
µr = 70, 000 for core material. (a) Find the reluctances Rc and Rg . For
the condition that the magnetic circuit is operating with Bc = 1.0T ,
find (b) the flux φ, (c) the current i, (d) the inductance L, (e) the
magnetic stored energy W , and (f) the induced voltage e for a 60Hz
time-varying core flux of the form Bc = 1.0 sin ωt T .
Figure 9: Magnetic circuit with air gap.

Example (4)
(a) The core and air-gap reluctances can be found as:
lc 0.3
Rc = =
µ r µ o Ac 70, 000(4π × 10−7 )(9 × 10−4 )
A · turns
= 3.79 × 103
Wb
g 5 × 10−4 A · turns
Rg = = = 4.42 × 105
µ o Ag (4π × 10−7 )(9 × 10−4 ) Wb
(b) The flux can be calculated as:
φ = Bc Ac = 1.0(9 × 10−4 ) = 9 × 10−4 W b

(c) The current can be calculated using the mmf equation as:
F φ(Rc + Rg ) 9 × 10−4 (4.46 × 105 )

i= = = = 0.80 A
N N 500

Example (4)
(d) The inductance is:
λ Nφ 500 × 9 × 10−4
L= = = = 0.5625 H
i i 0.8
What will be the value if we take Rc Rg and calculate L as
L = N 2 /Rg ?
(e) the magnetic stored energy W is:
1 1
W = Li2 = (0.56)(0.80)2 = 0.18 J
2 2
(f) the induced voltage e is:
dλ dϕ dBc
e= =N = N Ac
dt dt dt
= 500 × (9 × 10−4 ) × (377 × 1.0 cos(377t))
= 170 cos(377t) V
Questions?

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Lecture-2

Addis Ababa University

Electric Machines and Drives

5 Flux Linkage, Inductance, and Energy

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 2 / 31

In this lecture you will learn the following:

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 3 / 31

Where: H: magnetic field intensity, A/m, A − turn/m, A − t/m

Equation-2 states that: The magnetic flux density, B, is conserved.

Figure 1: Simple magnetic circuit.

In figure-1, the source of the magnetic field in the core is the

For φc = flux in core and Bc = flux density in core.

If Hc is the average magnitude of H in the core, then its direction

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 6 / 31

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 7 / 31

Figure 3: Magnetic circuit with air gap.

From equation-8, we can define Rc and Rg , which are the

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 9 / 31

Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits is shown below.

Figure 4: Analogy between electric and magnetic circuits: (a) electric

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 10 / 31

General Equations of Magnetic Circuits

Figure 6: Simple synchronous machine.

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 13 / 31

Flux Linkage, Inductance, and Energy

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 15 / 31

Where λ is the flux linkage (measured in units of webers or

Flux linkage is measured in units of webers (or equivalently

Substitution of equation-5, equation-11 and equation-20 in

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 17 / 31

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 19 / 31

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 20 / 31

Magnetic circuit with more than one windings

Figure 8: Magnetic circuit with two windings.

The total mmf is therefore:

If the reluctance of the core is neglected and assuming that

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 22 / 31

If equation-24 is broken up into terms attributable to the

Similarly, the flux linkage of coil-2 is:

which can be written as:

λ2 = L21 i1 + L22 i2 (30)

where L21 = L12 is the mutual inductance and

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 24 / 31

Substituting equation-21 in to equation-19 gives:

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 25 / 31

The power at the terminals of a winding on a magnetic circuit is a

the magnetic stored energy W is measured in joules, (J).

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 26 / 31

For a single-winding system of constant inductance, the change in

The total magnetic stored energy at any given value of λ can be

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 27 / 31

Figure 9: Magnetic circuit with air gap.

(b) The flux can be calculated as:

φ = Bc Ac = 1.0(9 × 10−4 ) = 9 × 10−4 W b

F φ(Rc + Rg ) 9 × 10−4 (4.46 × 105 )

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 29 / 31

Worku Abera (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 2020/21 Semester-I 31 / 31

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