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INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF GASOLINE

CONCERNTRATION IN CASSAVA BASED
BIOFUEL

By

MUABECHO ALIDOU NCHATDONEH

Registration Number: 10B748

(DIPET I in MD)

Presented to the Higher Technical Teacher Training College (H.T.T.T.C.) Bambili of The
University of Bamenda in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for the award of the
Higher Technical School Teacher Post Graduate Diploma (DIPET II) in Mechanical Design

Supervisor Co supervisor

Pr. NDUKUM Julius AWAH Engr Yisa T. A. Waindim

Lecturer, The University of Bamenda Assistant Lecturer, The University of Bamenda

The University of Bamenda

June 2021
 TITLE PAGE

INVESTIGATION OF THE EFFECTS OF GASOLINE

CONCERNTRATION IN CASSAVA BASED BIOFUEL

Author:

MUABECHO ALIDOU NCHATDONEH

JUNE 2021

Dissertation submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the award of a Higher
Technical Teacher School Post Graduate Diploma (DIPET II) in Mechanical Design

Department of Mechanical Engineering

The University of Bamenda
 CERTIFICATION
I hereby certify that this thesis entitled “ Investigation of the effects of gasoline concentration
in cassava based biofuel” has been carried out by MUABECHO ALIDOU NCHATDONEH
with registration number 10B748 in the Department of Mechanical Engineering and of the
Option Mechanical Design of the Higher Technical Teacher Training college (H.T.T.T.C)
Bambili, University of Bamenda.

Supervisor co-supervisor

Pr. NDUKUM Julius AWAH Engr Yisa T. A. Waindim

Signature …………………………… Signature…………………………

Date ………………………. Date…………………………….

HEAD OF DEPARTMENT
Dr. BAWE Gerald NFOR Jr.

Date…………………………….

Signature ……………………………
 ATTESTATION
I hereby declare that I am the sole author of this project. I authorize the Higher Technical
Teacher Training College (H.T.T.T.C) Bambili to lend this project to other institutions or
individuals for the purpose of scholarly research.

I understand the nature of plagiarism, and I am aware of the University’s policy on this.
I certify that this dissertation reports original works by me during my University project.

Signature ……………………………….. Date……………………………………

 DEDICATION
I dedicate this dissertation to my FAMILY
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all, I wish to express my gratitude tremendously to the vice chancellor of the University
of Bamenda Prof. NKUO THERESA AKENJI. The Director of H.T.T.T.C BAMBILI Prof.
YONG NKWAIN JOSEPH and the deputy director Prof. TSI EVARISTUS ANGWAFOR
for their immense administrative supports.

I want to equally acknowledge the entire staff of the H.T.T.T.C Bamenda and most especially
my supervisor Pr. NDUKUM Julius AWAH for the time and energy he invested for the
realization of this dissertation and to my co-supervisor Engr Yisa T. A. Waindim for his time
and attention given to me for the realisation of this dissertation. I also thank the head of division
of training and orientation Dr YAKUM RENETA NAFU for putting in place materials at our
disposal.
I sincerely thank all the staff of the department of Mechanical Engineering, particularly Mr.
WOUMO DJAMGA JEAN PIERRE and Mr. ORU ROLAND for their intellectual and
technical support.

I therefore acknowledge the inspiration, financial, moral support and guidance provided by my
parents throughout this period of studies and research.

I will equally like to acknowledge the love and support of my siblings and friends, I would not
have made it this far without your joint efforts.

Thanks to all my class mates for their intellectual and kind moral gestures during my efforts for
the completion of this piece of work.

I cannot end without thanking the ALMIGHTY GOD for guiding me throughout my research
work.
 GENERAL INTRODUCTION
I.1Background of Proposed Study
In recent years, researchers has considered necessary to do structural reforms that allow further
development to face the needs of the energy sector. One energy source that is little mentioned in
national projects and has demonstrated its feasibility in other regions of the world is the
production of ethanol. Cassava (Manihot esculenta), sometimes also called manioc, is the third
largest source of carbohydrates for human consumption in the world, with an estimated annual
world production of 208 million tonnes (Leen et al., 2007). Cassava is highly efficient in
producing starch and it is tolerant to extreme stress conditions. Furthermore, it fits nicely within
traditional farming systems. Fresh roots contain about 30% starch. Cassava starch is one of the
best fermentable substances for the production of ethanol.
Fermentation is the oldest way for humans to produce bioethanol, and this is also the traditional
way of making alcoholic beverages (Leen et al., 2007). Bioethanol can be produced from
biomass by the hydrolysis process and followed by sugar fermentation processes. Biomass
wastes contain a complex mixture of carbohydrate polymers from the plant cell walls known as
cellulose, hemi cellulose and lignin. In order to produce sugars from the cassava, the cassava is
pre-treated with acids or enzymes to reduce the size of the feedstock and to open up the plant
structure (Saoharit et al., 2009). The cellulose and the hemi cellulose portions are broken down
(hydrolysed) by enzymes or dilute acids into sucrose sugar that is then fermented into bioethanol.
There are three principle methods of extracting sugars from cassava. These are concentrated acid
hydrolysis, dilute acid hydrolysis and enzymatic hydrolysis (Akihiko et al., 2008).

Previous studies evaluated the environmental impacts of bio based fuels in various categories,
including non-renewable energy consumption, greenhouse gas emissions, acidification,
eutrophication, human and ecological health, and photochemical oxidation. Most studies have
concluded that the use of bioethanol as liquid fuel could reduce greenhouse gas emissions
indicated that life-cycle economic, environment and energy assessment provide an important tool
for policy makers to better understand trade-offs among economics, environmental impacts and
energy for the most effective use of regional energy resources (Hu et al., 2004).
In another study, presented that cassava-based ethanol has a lower net energy, better carbon
dioxide emission and lower external cost of carbon dioxide. However, it has higher production
cost than conventional gasoline (CG) does, 0.37 MJ/MJ (49% of CG), 72.61 g/MJ (83% of CG),
0.87 and 0.14 RMB/MJ (200% of CG) respectively. In Guanxi, China the cassava based
bioethanol positive net energy and net renewable energy values of 7.475 MJ/L and 7.881 MJ/L,
respectively. A study (Nguyen et al.,2007) on the net energy balance and greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions of ethanol from cassava based on a pilot plant data of the Cassava and Starch
Technology Research Unit (CSTRU), Kasetsart University, Thailand and found that the energy
balance is positive and net avoided GHG emission is 1.6 kg CO 2 eq. per litre of ethanol.

On the other hand, in Thailand based on the pilot plant research on cassava starch by CSTRU,
Kasetsart University. It was studied that, an energy efficiency (Yu and Toa, 2009) of cassava-
based fuel ethanol in Chinese Guangxi by the Monte Carlo method and showed that the energy
balance is a positive net energy and energy input to output ratio of 0.7 MJ/MJ. Several LCA
studies indicated that in categories of abiotic depletion, GHG emissions, ozone layer depletion,
and photochemical oxidation, bioethanol is better fuel than gasoline whereas gasoline is better in
terms of human toxicity, ecotoxicity, acidification and eutrophication (Luo et al., 2009). It
concluded that cassava-based (Leng et al., 2008) ethanol is energy efficient as indicated by an
energy output to input ratio of 1.28 and a major contribution to energy consumption and sulphur
dioxide and CO 2 emissions primarily comes from ethanol conversion phase as a result of the
combustion of coal to produce energy (Hu et al., 2004b)

I.2 Problem statement

The high consumption of fossil fuels is responsible for the rapid increase in global warming
which has reached levels extremely dangerous and which are practically irreversible. In addition,
the southern countries in general for example Cameroon in particular are under the influence of
the so-called "Second handed", vehicles which uses fossil fuels which is responsible for one of
the biggest pollution of our cities and also have other effects as: high rise in the sea level when
this fossil fuel are spilled into the sea which greatly affect aquatics and the burning of fossil fuel
gives out harmful compounds like sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides which causes acid rain.
We see today in the world that there is a serious energy crisis responsible for the instability of oil
and even the “so-called oil wars”.
Faced with this state of affairs, the United States of America began a search for another source of
energy started by J. Ford around 1900 for the use of ethanol as an automobile fuel. In relation to
certain climatic and technical criteria, corn as a raw material has given very promising results.
The Brazilians, use the surplus production of the Sugar cane; have produced results exceeding
expectations. France in what concerns her has opted for wheat and sugar beet as raw material,
with results very encouraging. The method common to these different countries was
fermentation and then distillation of starch and sugar plants. In this frantic search for sources
with less polluting energy, several researchers have developed methods of production of ethanol,
such as: Hydration of alkenes (ethene); the esterification of ethylene with sulfuric acid followed
by a hydrolysis reaction; hydrolysis of biomass lignocellulosic followed by its fractional
distillation. The literature review thus revealed several authors who have worked in this field:
(Robert, 1997; Roberts, 2001, Asadjeu, 2003; Proskouriakou, 1983.) From all this work, it
appears that the method by esterification of ethylene is very corrosive to processing equipment.
That of the hydration of alkenes has the best yield in terms of quantity produced but remains
closely related to petroleum, therefore unsuitable for the environment. The hydrolysis and
distillation of lignocellulosic biomass, on its part, is a complex technique that still need to be
perfected. The method by fermentation of starch and sugar plants therefore caught our attention.
Having neither sugar beet nor wheat in industrial quantities in Cameroon, we have oriented our
choice towards cassava as a raw material because of all the advantages it offers.

We wish, through this thesis to investigate the effects of gasoline concentration in ethanol which
is the fuel obtained from cassava. To do this, we have decided to use a methodology consistent to
carry out our study, Consultation of resource persons such as chemists and agronomists will be a
necessity. Bringing together companies such as: Brewery of Cameroon; HYDRAC; IRAD;
SONARA, will be important. This scientific research work is intended for petrochemical
researchers and thermal engineers who will be able to exploit the results obtained here as an
element of comparison. It is also intended for the University community as a bibliographic
reference in the study of biofuels. Finally it is addressed to Cameroonian policies maker so that
they implement a legal and economic framework conducive to the emergence and development
of the biofuel sector.
I.3 OBJECTIVES

The main objective of this work is intended to extract bioethanol alcohol from cassava (Manihot
Esculenta Grantz), and turn it into a vegetable fuel for internal combustion engines (as additive
or surrogate gas).

The research work is proposed with the following specific objectives:

 To extract the bioethanol alcohol from cassava;

 To produce blend sample of the fuel;
 To Compare the properties (chemical and physical) of biodiesel from bioethanol alcohol
in comparison with that of international diesel standard;
 To select the blend sample of the fuel with properties close or the same with the of petrol
fuel.
I.4 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY

This project is very important in that it has advantages of using biodiesel as replacements for
diesel fuel and these advantages are as follows:

 Lower emissions of contaminants: carbon monoxide, particulate matter, polycyclic

aromatic hydrocarbons, aldehydes.
 Lower health risk, due to reduced emissions of carcinogenic substances.
 Low toxicity, in comparison with diesel fuel.
 Degrades more rapidly than diesel fuel, minimizing the environmental consequences of
biofuel spills.
 No sulfur dioxide (SO2) emissions.

I.5 Scope of the study or delimitations of the study

This work is limited to extraction and characterization of bioethanol by using cassava as

raw materials. The achievement of bioethanol will be done at the Technical High School of
Nkolbisson. Theoretical results will be verified practically by means of modern equipment and
conforms to control standards quality in force in the petrochemical industries.
I.6 Organization of work

For this work to be correctly done, i have structured it in the following way:

 CHAPTER TWO: RELATED OF LITERATURE REVIEW

 CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS
 CHAPTER FOUR: PRESENTATION AND INTERPRETATION OF RESULT
 CHAPTER FIVE: SUGGESTIONS AND PROSPECTS OF BIOFUEL.
 GENERAL CONCLUSION
 CHAPTER ONE: LITERATURE REVIEW

Introduction
The combustion engine needs to operate at a fuel combustion which transforms thermal energy
into mechanical energy necessary for moving the vehicle. But this energy demand is sharply
rising, compared to products derived from crude oil and subsequently their impact on
environmental plans have encouraged research into new energy sources: biomass in general and
bio fuels in particular with the many applications made by Brazil on sugar cane; the United
States of America with corn; Canada on sunflower oil; and France with sugar beet. In this part of
our study, it will be a question of making a critical study of petroleum fuels and highlight the
benefits of the development of new energy sources.
1.1 DEFINITION OF A FUEL

A fuel is a material generating heat by combustion. They are classified into two main groups:
fossil fuels (Petroleum, coal and gas) from prehistoric organic materials and biofuels (biodiesel)
derived from living plants. (Proskouriakou, 1983)

1.2 CLASSIFICATION OF THE FOSSIL FUELS

There are two main families of Fossil fuels:

 The conventional fossil fuels And

 Unconventional fossil fuels.

a) The conventional fossil fuels

The conventional fossil fuels or everyday usage represents the near total of the current
consumption of fossil energies:

Crude oil has a greater density and it is used as jet fuel, domestic fuel, gasoline for cars, gases
liquid, gas oil and in another residues coming from catalytic cracking (Talor,1998).
Approximately 60% of the power consumption in the world in 2002 (37% in 2009)
  Coal: approximately 24% of the power consumption in the world in 2002 (Barthelemie,
2004)
 The natural gas: approximately 21% of the power consumption in the world in 2002
(23% in 2009). (Barthelemie, 2004)

b) Unconventional fossil fuels

Among the residues of distilling, one can quote:

 Oil shale containing of the kerosene, which must still be pyrolyzed;

 The tar sands which contain asphalt;
 Bituminous sands which contain bitumen;
 Peat: a little separately, its training cycle amounts in thousands of years, which halfway
places it between the fossil fuels (whose formation amounts in million year) and the
renewable ones (Barthelemie, 2004).

1.3 STUDY OF FOSSIL FUELS

1.3.1 Crude oil

1.3.1.1 Formation of crude oil

The most known fuels and most used are those which are derive from crude oil. During
geological times, less than 1% of the organic matter (biomass) was hidden in the ground, or
formed a deposit at the bottom of the lakes and the oceans. It was then transformed into
kerosene, then out of fossil fuels: oil, natural gas or coal.

Indeed crude oil is resulting from the succession of three exceptional circumstances:

 The accumulation of organic matters;

 The maturation of the organic matter And
 Trapping of hydrocarbons in the basement.

This phenomenon is not generalizable with all the areas of the ground since the organic matters
formed during the geological eras are transformed into fossil energy and, in addition, that these
invaluable resources are distributed in a very disparate way in the world.
1.3.1.2 Composition of crude oil

Oil has a composition which strongly depends on the starting organic matter and thus on the
crude considered. Whatever its origin, oil is primarily composed of hydrocarbons according to:

 Alkanes: they are the majority products (50 to 98%)

 Cyclic cyclanes or hydrocarbons (18 to 54%);
 Aromatic hydrocarbons (7 to 55%);
 Sulfur compounds especially the hydrogen sulfide (1 to 5%);
 Compounds oxygenated such as the acids (1%);
 Nitrogenized compounds.

1.4 TYPES OF FOSSIL FUELS

1.4.1 Kerosene

Also called jet fuel, kerosene powers the jet engines fitted on planes. It is particularly
characterized by its fluidity at low temperatures (of about 50 ° C) and its ability to lead to radiant
combustion, which limits heat exchange. Kerosene has a specific density ranging from 0.8 to 15
° C. It releases impressive quantitative amounts of polluting materials and particles from the
atmosphere and the upper atmosphere.

1.4.2 Gas

Diesel is a distillate obtained from the refining of crude oil; it is also obtained by cracking
catalytic. This must undergo several additional treatments to be used as fuel in diesel engines,
such as hydrodesulfurization to get rid of sulfur (not more than 0.05%). The density of diesel is
greater than that of gasoline: 0.845 compared to 0.775. Gas oils are most often characterized and
differentiated by their cetane number and their resistance to cold. Due to their structural and
functional specificities, diesel engines pollute the atmosphere greatly through the exhaust
emission of unburned hydrocarbons and sulfur.
1.4.3 Gasoline
Gasolines are hydrocarbon compounds obtained from the fractional distillation of crude oil in
distilleries. Their physicochemical properties related to their uses as fuel for internal combustion
engines. In these engines, the explosion of the mixture, gasoline and oxygen from the air in the
cylinders (triggered by the spark from a spark plug) produces the energy required to move the
vehicle.

Gasoline evaporates between room temperature of 215 °C at atmospheric pressure. Its density
(liquid) is approximately 0.775, which is much lower than that of water (1.000). Steam gasoline
is three times heavier than air.

Gasoline is a mixture of hydrocarbons to which other products are sometimes added auxiliary
fuels. On average, we have:

 20 to 30% of alkanes, saturated hydrocarbons;

 5% cycloalkanes, cyclic saturated hydrocarbons;
 30 to 45% of alkenes, unsaturated hydrocarbons;
 30 to 45% of aromatic hydrocarbons from the benzene family;
 Lead or potassium.

1.5 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACT OF FOSSIL FUELS

1.5.1 OIL EXPLOITATION AND POLLUTION.

 Oil extraction is not without impact on the ecosystem, as it causes significant geophysical
disturbances (soil subsidence, water extracted deposit, drilling mud, etc.);
 The Leakage of oil during transportation and storage usually results in irreversible
ecological disasters;
 Certain processing operations, such as refining, are accompanied by the release in the
environment of gaseous organic compounds and liquids (phenols, ammoniacal
products ...).

1.5.2 POLLUTANTS IN EXHAUST GASES

The obligation to continuously improve engine performance has prompted automakers and
petroleum refiners not only to seek mechanical solutions, but also an optimal formulation of
fuels, under pressure from global pollution control organizations. Despite all these efforts,
automotive fuels of fossil origin continue to pollute the atmosphere. According to the studies
carried out by: (Ndjock, 2006; Ebengue,2005) it appears that motor vehicles are major
environmental pollution devices. They identify in their respective works the main pollutants
from exhaust gases while specifying their environmental impact. We can cite:

 Nitrogen oxides NOx which can take various forms depending on circumstances under
which combustion takes place. They are the cause of many diseases; participate in the
formation of acid rain, stratospheric ozone and its corollaires on the environment;
 Carbon monoxide CO, resulting from incomplete combustion of organic materials
(fuels), it affects the nervous and respiratory system;
 The unburnt hydrocarbons HC, coming from bad combustion factors, participate in the
formation of stratospheric ozone, which is responsible for global warming;
 Toxic metals: lead Pb from the combustion of additive products, that accumulate in the
body and prevent proper functioning of organs and death by intoxication;
 Carbon dioxideCO 2. It is one of the gases mostly involved in the destruction of the
ozone layer therefore the consequence is the intensification of the greenhouse effect, the
corollary of which is directed to global warming.

The table below illustrates the indicative rate of the various pollutants from automobiles.

Table 1-1: Indicative rate of pollutants linked to the operation of automobile (Grossetete et
al. 1996)

Polluting elements Exhaust value (in %)

Nitrogen dioxide NO 2 40 to 50
Carbon monoxide CO 60 to 70
Unburnt hydrocarbons HC 30
Lead PB 90
Carbon dioxide CO 2 15
Sulfur dioxide SO 2 5

1.5.3 Combustion of fossil fuels and global warming.

It is proven that the combustion of fossil fuels is responsible for the emission of greenhouse
gases, the source of global warming. According to studies carried out by the IGPC
(Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), the sector of automobile transport is responsible
for 30% of CO 2 emissions (the main greenhouse gas tight). Paleoclimatology studies conducted
by them have shown a direct relationship between the atmospheric content of CO 2 recorded over
the past 150,000 years and the climatic fluctuations. It shows that CO 2 alone is responsible for
55% of greenhouse effect, phenomenon illustrated in Figure 1.1. If drastic measures are not
implemented, we can therefore fear that the increase in atmospheric carbon dioxide content will
cause an increase in global temperatures in the coming decades, which will not be without
consequences for the development of life on earth.

Figure 1.1: Block diagram of the greenhouse effect (www.eners.ch, 2007).

Despite the good management and modernization of gasoline supply systems; the recycling of
exhaust gases and others ... The fact remains that automobile is a potential polluter, although
these measures have considerably reduced its pollution rate. To remedy this, solutions have been
recommended such as the addition of gasoline to methyltertiobutylether, not necessarily free of
drawbacks. One of the solutions currently considered and which offer encouraging advantages is
the addition of gasoline to ethyltertiobutylether, a product derived from bioethanol. A Product
that demonstrates its effectiveness in overcoming the octane number deficit in unleaded fuels as
well as the reduction of the CO 2 emission rate. Once again the miracle solution came from the
biomass known as biofuels.

1.6 STUDY OF BIOFUELS.

Faced with an awareness of the dangers of greenhouse gases emanation from the combustion of
fossil fuels, given the ever-increasing price of oil, with the depletion of reserves sight, the
development of biofuel sector seems promising. Several countries such as: Brazil, USA, France
and Sweden have done this very successfully, simply by using "biomass".

1.6.1Biomass

This term designates all renewable (biological) energy sources, that is to say those whose
operation presents a minor risk to the environment (wind turbines; biogas; geothermal energy;
solar energy; biofuels).

1.6.2 Presentation of biofuels

Instead of the term “biofuel”, we should use the term “fuel of plant origin”. Biofuels are liquid
or gaseous fuels primarily produced from biomass. Bioethanol and biodiesel are the most
common biofuels used in transport worldwide. Other biofuels are also in use, such as pure
vegetable oil and biogas, although with a more limited market penetration. Biofuels are normally
referred to as first-, second- or third-generation biofuels. The main difference between the three
generations of biofuels relates to the way each of them impact on specific parameters, such as:

 Is the feedstock edible?

 Is the feedstock a by-product of solid or municipal wastes?
 What approach will be followed for the production of the specific biofuel?

The most common approach is to label a biofuel as a ‘first-generation biofuel’ when the
feedstock is generally edible. Second-generation biofuels are defined as fuels produced from a
wide array of different feedstocks, ranging from lignocellulosic feedstocks to municipal solid
wastes. Usually, ‘second-generation biofuels’ refers to biofuels that are being produced from
waste-based materials (i.e. used cooking oils). Finally, third generation biofuels are at this point
related to algal biomass but can also to a certain extent be linked to the use of CO 2 as feedstock.
There is a difference between conventional and advanced biofuels in terms of feedstock and
different generations depending on technology.
As regards feedstock, the European Sustainable Biofuels Forum considers the following
biofuels to be advanced:
(1) Having low carbon dioxide emission or high GHG reduction,
(2) Demonstrating high sustainability,
(3) Originating from lignocellulosic biomass, municipal or industrial waste, residue
streams or process by-products, algae, microorganisms.

First-generation biofuels: bioethanol produced from sugar or starch via fermentation;

biodiesel (fatty acid methyl ester) produced from esterification of vegetable oils, fats and
waste streams; and biomethane produced from upgrading biogas or landfill gas.
Second-generation biofuels: alcohols and synthetic biofuels produced from lignocellulosic
biomass or waste streams; hydrogenated vegetable oils or used vegetable oils; industrial
residues;
Advanced biofuels or third-generation biofuels: biofuels produced from non-lignocellulosic
biomass such as aquatic biomass, direct sugar and/or alcohol conversion to paraffinic biofuels,
and those produced through microbial conversion and other microorganisms. Indeed, biofuel can
partially or totally replace the petroleum fuels. Figure 1-2 gives a synoptic view of the
production protocol of biofuels.

. Figure 1.2: production protocol of biofuels (Robert, 1990)

There exist two main types of biofuels today:

 Biodiesels ( EMHV )1intended for the diesel engine;

 Organic gasolines (bioethanol) intended for gasoline engines.

Figure 1.3: Life cycle of biofuels (Robert, 1990)

1.6.3 Biodiesel

Biofuels are alcohols, esters and other organic compounds produced from biomass such as
herbaceous and woody plants, residues from agriculture and forestry, and some agro industrial
waste such as waste from the food industry.
The term biomass refers to any substance which can be obtained by photosynthesis. Most
plants utilize solar energy to create sugars, starting from simple substances such as water
and carbon dioxide. This energy is stored in molecules of glucose, starch, oil, etc. Biofuels
could include ethanol, biodiesel, and biomethanol among others. Most developed and used
are bioethanol and biodiesel (Stratta, 2003).

1.6.3.1 Biodiesel production process

Biodiesel is produced from vegetable oils or animal fats and an alcohol, through a
transesterification reaction. This chemical reaction converts an ester (vegetable oil or animal fat)
into a mixture of esters of the fatty acids that makes up the oil (or fat). Biodiesel is obtained from
the purification of the mixture of fatty acid methyl esters. A catalyst is used to accelerate the
reaction (Fig.1.4). According to the catalyst used, transesterification can be basic, acidic or
enzymatic, the former being the most frequently used, as indicated in Box1.

Box 1 Transesterification Reactions for Biodiesel Production

Basic. Most frequently used at all production scales.
Acid. Less frequent in industrial production, sometimes used a first stage
with highly acidic raw materials.
Enzymatic. Less used; the enzymes are usually lipases.

A generic transesterification reaction is presented in Eq. (2.1); RCOOR’ indicates an ester,

R”OH an alcohol, R’OH another alcohol (glycerol), RCOOR” an ester mixture and cat a catalyst:

(2.1)

When methanol is the alcohol used in the transesterification process, the product of the reaction
is a mixture of methyl esters; similarly, if ethanol were used, the reaction product would be a
mixture of ethyl esters. In both cases, glycerin will be the co-product of the reaction. This is
shown schematically in Figs. 1.4 and1.5.

Fig1.4: Basic transesterification reaction with methanol.

Fig 1.5: Basic transesterification reaction with ethanol.
Although transesterification is the most important step in biodiesel production (since it originates
the mixture of esters), additional steps are necessary to obtain a product that complies with
international standards, as shown in Box2. In consequence, once the chemical reaction is
completed and the two phases (mix of esters and glycerin) are separated, the mix of methyl esters
must be purified to reduce the concentration of contaminants to acceptable levels. These include
remnants of catalyst, water and methanol; the latter is usually mixed in excess proportion with
the raw materials in order to achieve higher conversion efficiency in the transesterification
reaction.

Box 2 Stages of Biodiesel Production Process

Treatment of raw materials
Alcohol-catalyst mixing
Chemical reaction
Separation of the reaction products
Purification of the reaction products

1.6.3.2 Advantages and disadvantages in the use of biodiesel fuel

The use of biodiesel has energetic, environmental and economic advantages. Today's
diesel engines require a clean fuel to be burned, as well as it remains stable under the
different conditions.
Biodiesel can be used directly in any diesel engine without any necessary modifications in the
engine. Their properties are similar to petroleum diesel fuel (equivalent density, viscosity only
slightly higher). It can be mixed with fossil diesel in any proportion, without any problem
(Hilbert, 2007). In comparison to fossil diesel, biodiesel has a lower calorific value (around 10%)
and a worse performance at low temperatures with a tendency to solidify at extreme cold
conditions, which requires the use of specific additives. Additional advantages include a high
cetane number (Sebastian, 2006). A summary of these characteristics is shown in Table 2.
Table 2. Characteristics of the biodiesel and fossil diesel.

Characteristics Fossil Sunflower Sunflower Rapeseed oil Rapeseed

diesel oil diesel diesel
Specific density 0.835 0.924 0.88 0.0916 0.88
( Kg/dm3 )
Viscosity( cSt )
At:20o C 5.1 65.8 …….. 77.8 7.5

50o C 2.6 34.9 4.22 25.7 3.8

HHVKcal /l 9216 8760 8482 8928 ……
LHVKcal /l 8496 8194 7930 8232 7944
Cetane number ¿ 45 33 45-51 44-51 52-56
Residue( % ) 0.15 0.42 0.05 0.25 0.02
Sulphur ( % ) 0.005 0.01 0.001 0.002 0.001

Table 3 shows the advantages and disadvantages of the use of biodiesel.

Advantages
Biodiesel is a renewable resource,
biodegradable and nontoxic
The engine performance improves
when using biodiesel instead of fossil
diesel, due to its high lubricity.
It is safer, because it has a high flash
Disadvantages
Increased emissions of NOx and aldehydes.
Biodiesel has about 8% less energy per liter
than diesel. The power and fuel consumption
of the engine is decreased.
The feedstocks for biodiesel require vast
 point.
The gases from combustion of biodiesel
do not contain sulphur dioxide, main
cause of acid rain.
Promotion of local and regional
development.
areas for cultivation and could affect the food
prices.
Biodiesel tends to oxidize more rapidly than
diesel.
High costs of production.

1.6.4.3 Statistics of biodiesel production in the world

The global production of biodiesel has increased exponentially (Figure 4 and Table 4)

Countries Percentage (%)

France 22 %
Germany 44 %
Italy 17 %
Others 17 %

Table1.2: Biodiesel Production volume worldwide (www.ifp.fr, 2007)

 Figure 1.6: Simplified schematic of biodiesel production

1.7 Bioethanol

Bioethanol is the most widely produced biofuel globally. The largest producers are the USA,
Brazil, the EU, China and India (IEA, 2012). First-generation bioethanol production is a well-
established technology, based on a fermentation process followed by distillation. Bioethanol is
produced from a wide variety of feedstocks. In Brazil, sugar cane is the preferred feedstock
owing to its very high sugar content and fuel yield. In North America, about 200 production
plants produce about 53 billion litres of ethanol annually from starch crops such as maize. Most
European ethanol is produced using sugar beet and grains, while in China and India the main
feedstocks used are maize and sugar-cane molasses respectively. Less popular bioethanol
feedstocks include cassava (South-East Asia and China), sweet sorghum (China), and sweet
potato (China). The cultivation of alternative sugar crops such as sweet sorghum opens up new
possibilities in Europe, especially in hotter and drier regions such as southern and Eastern
Europe. Sweet sorghum requires less water or nutrients and has higher fermentable sugar content
than sugar cane as well as a shorter growing period. By-products vary according to the
bioethanol production method and the feedstock used. For example, ethanol from starchy crops
produces useful livestock feed, typically in the form of dried distiller’s grains with solubles
(DDGS). Bioethanol can be used at low blends (10 %) without the need to modify engines.
Bioethanol can be used in petrol (gasoline) engines at low blends such as E10 (also known in
Brazil and the USA as ‘gasohol’) – a mix of up to 10 % bioethanol and at least 90 % petrol –
with no or little engine modification for most cars (around 85 %) circulating in the EU (and all
cars manufactured after 2010). It can be supplied in the same way as petrol through existing
retail outlets. Higher blends of bioethanol to petrol (such as E85 – 85 % of ethanol blend, or in
pure form) require several modifications to engines. Flexible fuel vehicles (FFVs) are
commercialised in Brazil and Sweden and are becoming increasingly common in the USA. They
can operate with pure ethanol, petrol, or any blend of the two.
Finally, bioethanol can also be used as a blend with diesel in diesel engines (also known as ‘E-
diesel’/ED95 fuel blends), or as a blend with biodiesel in diesel engines (also known as
‘BE-diesel’ fuel blends).Data for 2016 show that the global bioethanol production was 100.2
billion litres (7). Annual bioethanol production is constantly increasing, and the prediction of
worldwide bioethanol production and its consumption will increase to nearly 134.5 billion litres
by 2024 (Figure 1.2; 17)

Figure 1.7: Predictions of the world bioethanol production (a) and consumption (b) by 2024
(17)

Figure 1.7 shows that two-thirds of this increase will probably originate in Brazil mostly to fulfill
domestic demand (17). In Brazil, increased demand for bioethanol is mostly due to the constant
increase in the number of sold FFVs. Therefore, it is likely that the USA and Brazil will remain
the two major bioethanol producers, followed by the European Union and China (17). About 40
% of the global bioethanol production is from sugar cane and sugar beet and nearly 60 % is from
starch-containing feedstocks (18).

1.7.1 Ethanol production techniques

1. Esterification of ethylene with sulfuric acid.

It is the first method of producing ethanol by synthesis. It is also an old process for the
production of ethanol which consisted of an esterification reaction of ethylene (C 2 H 4 ) by
sulfuric acid ( H 2 SO 4 ) and a hydrolysis reaction. These reactions are as follows:

 CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2 SO 4 CH 3 - CH 2 - O - SO 3 H

 CH 3 - CH 2 - O - SO 3 H + H 2O CH 3 - CH 2 OH + H 2 SO4

This method was abandoned due to the corrosion of equipment caused by. Robert (1997)

2. Method by hydration of ethylene

This is the second method of producing ethanol by synthesis. This one is consists essentially by
adding water to ethylene in the presence of a catalyst consisting of orthophosphoric acid, brought
to a temperature between 270 and 280 ° C under a pressure of about 70 bar. The ethylene used
here generally comes from the cracking gases of the products of oil tankers. The theoretical
production equation can be summarized as:

CH 2 = CH 2 + H 2O catalyst CH 3 - CH 2 OH

This reaction is very exothermic and proceeds with decrease in volume. The high temperature at
which it operates is necessary to obtain a sufficient hydration rate. The change from hydrated
ethanol to anhydrous ethanol is done by azeotropic distillation in the presence of benzene
(Roberts, 2001)
This process gives the best performance compared to all the others, but it remains classified
among those posing the greatest risk to the environment.

3- Method by enzymatic hydrolysis of lignocellulosic biomass.

This is the biological way of producing bioethanol also called ecoethanol. This method has long
been limited for technical reasons. How to transform into sugar residues from corn or cassava
stalk, for example, which are generally unsuitable for consumption and often considered as
waste.

This technique is consists of producing ethanol from "lignocellulosic biomass" (wood; dried
grass; dried plant stems; dried kitchen waste, etc.). Indeed, living material is essentially
composed of cellulose, hemicellulose and lignin (lignin makes the bond between the cellulose
bundles and gives the plant its particular structure; it is not converted to ethanol).

Figure 1-5 shows a synoptic view of the lignocellulosic biomass structure. Thanks to a
hydrolysis reaction, cellulose and hemicellulose give monosaccharides which are then converted
to ethanol by fermentation. The resulting ethanol is then recovered by distillation. The
theoretical production equations are summarized as follows:

Cellulose Glucose( Sugar C 6 ) Ethanol + CO 2

Hemicellulose Xylose( Sugar C 5 ) Ethanol + CO 2

For example, if a hectare of sugar cane produces around 25 tonnes of simple sugar and 8 tons of
molasse (residues made up of pressed stems and leaves), it produces 50 to 60 tonnes of inedible
biomass but potentially convertible into ethanol.
 Figure1.8: lignocellulosic biomass structure (Roberts, 2001)

Although this method has some advantages such as:

 Availability of raw material and at very good cost;

 Raw material not competing with human food;

There are still disadvantages such as:

 Increase complexity of the methods of transformation into alcohol making the transfer
of difficult technologies;
 Some steps still need to be corrected to remain compliant with environmental standards;
 Requires cutting-edge technology not at all accessible to all.

Fermentation method
Historically, ethanol has been obtained by direct fermentation of natural sugar. The fermentation
of wine or beer is attested in the Babylonian Empire, as early as 3000 BC. The first pure varieties
are attributed to the Persian alchemists who developed the art of distillation at 8th and 9th century
of the Christian era. This process remains the basis of current methods.

a. Case of sugar plants

Indeed, the fermentation of sugar plants such as: beets; sugar cane… converts sucrose into
glucose using the equation:
C 6 H 12 O6 2 C2 H 5 OH +2CO 2
Zymase then intervenes to transform glucose and levulose into alcohol following the equation
(case of glucose):
C 6 H 12 O 6 2 C2 H 5 OH +2CO 2

This ethanol will be recovered by fractionated distillation.

b. Case of starchy plants

Hydrolysis of starchy plants (cassava, potato, etc.) or cereal plants (maize, wheat ...), leads to
glucose which is then fermented in the presence of brewer's yeast. The distillation collects ethyl
alcohol in the form of phlegm, which will then be rectified by fractional distillation. This will
give hydrated ethanol (95% vol).

figure1.9: The change to anhydrous alcohol (96% - 100% vol) is carried out by fractional
distillation in presence of benzene.

Figure1.9: Development principle of bioethanol (www.ifp.fr, 2007)

This method offers several advantages such as:

 Simple and easily transferable technology;

 Does not require significant intermediate energy;
  Produces useful by-products for animal husbandry and agriculture.

1.8 Energy value of biofuels

The energy value of a fuel or biofuel is measured by the calorific power (CP) which determines
the amount of energy released during combustion. The calorific power value (CP) of biofuels is
lower than that of fossil fuels. The report being 0.92 for VMEs (diester) compared to diesel and
0.66 for ethanol compared to gasoline. 1.086 liters of VMEs is needed to give the equivalent
energy of 1 liter of diesel, and 1.5 liters of ethanol to give that of 1 liter of gasoline.

1.9 THE BENEFITS OF BIOFUELS

1.9.1 Environmental aspect

The use of biofuels contributes greatly to reducing GHGs. Indeed, according to the French NGO
UNIVERS NATURE, the use of rapeseed or sunflower oil instead of diesel allows a reduction of
three quarters of GHGs emitted during the whole life cycle of the fuel (from production to
combustion, for the same energy content). The use of pure ethanol instead of gasoline allows a
75% reduction in GHGs. Figure 1-8 illustrates a comparative balance between emissions of CO 2
from biofuels and from traditional fuels.

Figure 1.10: Comparative balance of CO 2 emissions between biofuel and fuels traditional
(Grossetete, 1996)
As opposed to the massive releases of fossil fuels that nothing compensates and which are
released during the combustion of gasoline or diesel, the CO 2 emitted by biofuels during their
combustion are offset by the carbon absorbed by plants (photosynthesis phenomenon) during
their vegetation phase. It is this relationship between the CO 2 retained by plants and CO 2
emitted during combustion which explains the reduction of greenhouse gas emissions as shown
in Figure 1.11. Moreover, during combustion, these green fuels do not release toxic metals (lead,
zinc, etc.) no sulfur.

Figure 1.11: Self-recycling of CO 2 by biofuels (www.eners.ch, 2007).

 Biofuels are produced directly in national territories, so there are no imports, which limit
transport and pollution caused by this sector. Moreover, whether in harvesting, storage,
delivery or use of biofuels, the risks of pollution are limited.
 The combustion of these green fuels does not release heavy metals or sulfur.

2.10.2 Energy independence.

Beyond the environmental aspect, biofuels also contribute to the reduction of energy dependence
on oil-producing countries.
2.10.3 Economic aspect
Biofuel production helps create and maintain jobs in rural areas which would have a definite
influence on the rural exodus and consequently on the national economy. The development of
biofuel sectors in the world and in Africa in particular is of great importance. It constitutes a
credible way of the future rich in spinoffs Technology and finance especially in the agricultural
sector.

CONCLUSION

Oil has had its day; it must be recognized without being nostalgic. Even its economy weight no
longer militates in its favor. Threat to the ecosystem and to biodiversity, pollution during its
combustion, are grievances which are addressed to it. Consequently, more and more research is
underway with a view to replacing it with another source of energy that is, not only cleaner, but
also economically profitable: This is about biofuels. Referring to countries that have succeeded
in the biofuel sector, the observation that we make is that, these developed the local plants before
seeking to import other varieties. Brazil used sugar cane, the USA corn and France sugar beet.
Take in account the favorable agro-climatic conditions and the availability of arable land in
Cameroon, i chose cassava as a raw material in the development of bioethanol.

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