BAHIR DAR UNIVERSITY

BAHIR DAR INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY

FACULTY OF ELECTRICAL AND COMPUTER
ENGINEERING
Project on: Design, Simulation and Implementation of 24v dc to 230v ac
Inverter with automatic charger

Prepaired By: Name ID No.

1. Melash Ayalew ………………..0501848
2. Temesgen Minwuyelet ……………0502579
3. Temesgen Teshager ……………….0502586
4. Tesfaw Gedefew………………..0502604

Project adviser: Mr. Teketay M.

June/2017G.C
Bahir Dar Ethiopia
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Declaration
We declared that this project is original work, has not been presented for a degree in this or any
other universities, and all sources of materials used for the project have been fully
acknowledged.

Name of the Students Signature Date

Melash Ayalew _______ _______
Temesgen Minwuyelet _______ _______
Temesgen Teshager _______ _______
Tesfaw Gedefaw _______ _______

Name of the Academic Advisor Signature

Mr.Teketay M. _______

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Approval Board of Examiners

Chair Person Signature

_______________________ ____

Project Examiner 1
____________________ ___
Project Examiner 2
____________________ ___

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Acknowledgement
First and for most we are extremely grateful to the Faculty of Electrical and Computer
Engineering, for giving us the opportunity to carry out this project, which is an integral part of
the curriculum in Bahir Dar university institute of technology.
Secondly, we would like to express our earnest gratitude and regards to our project advisor Mr.
Teketay in the faculty of Electrical and Computer Engineering, for being the corner stone of our
project. It was his perpetual motivation and guidance during the period of doubts and
uncertainties that has helped us to carry on with this project. Finally, we extend our gratefulness
to one and all who are directly or indirectly involved in the successful completion of this project
work.

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Abstract
For alternative energy systems, inverters are the essential step between a battery„s DC power and
the AC power needed by standard household electrical systems. In this project, The system
consists of three stages. These are multivibrator, inverter and automatic charger stages. In the
multivibrator case, a square wave is generated from 24v dc input. Then the inverter stage
converts to a pure sine wave which has magnitude of 230v ac .Again the charger converts this
alternating current wave to direct current using step down transformer. The switching devices
used in multivibrator and inverter are transistors and MOSFETs respectively. Astable
multivibrator is used to generate the operating frequency of 50Hz through capacitors and
resistors. Utility companies and generators produce sine wave alternating current (AC) power,
which is used by most commonly available appliances today. Inverters take the direct current
(DC) power supplied by a storage battery bank and electrically convert it to alternating current
(AC) power.
The final design consists of a bi-stable multi-vibrator stage and the inverter stage based on
complementary silicon transistors and MOSFETs which converts the pulses generated from the
multi-vibrator stage into sine waves coupled to a center tapped transformer to 230VAC at
1200W power. This power inverter operates using high frequency switching technology. The
harmonic that is produced using high frequency switching near the range of those that are
relatively than the 50Hz frequency. These harmonics can be isolated using a small low-pass
filter, which translates into a much cleaner output signal. The simulation is designed and run on
proteus software. Further work can be done to improve efficiency and total harmonic distortion.
With these additional improvements, the standard can be raised for pure sine wave DC/AC
power supplies.

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Table of Contents Pages

Declaration ..................................................................................................................................................... i
Acknowledgement ....................................................................................................................................... iii
Abstract ........................................................................................................................................................ iv
List of Figures ............................................................................................................................................. vii
List of Acronyms ......................................................................................................................................... ix
Chapter One
Introduction ................................................................................................................................................... 1
1.1 Background ............................................................................................................................................. 1
1.2 Statement of the Problem ........................................................................................................................ 1
1.3 Objectives of the Project ......................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.1 General Objectives ........................................................................................................................... 2
1.3.2 Specific Objectives .......................................................................................................................... 2
1.4 Scope of the Project ................................................................................................................................ 2
1.5 Significance of the project ...................................................................................................................... 2
1.6 Methodology ........................................................................................................................................... 3
Chapter Two
Literature Review.......................................................................................................................................... 4
Chapter Three
Overall Design and Operation of the System................................................................................................ 6
3.1 Introduction ............................................................................................................................................. 6
3.2 The Overall System Design .................................................................................................................... 6
3.2.1 Multi-Vibrator Stage ........................................................................................................................ 7
3.2.1.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor ....................................................................................................... 8
3.2.1.2 Capacitor ................................................................................................................................. 10
3.2.1.3 Resistor ................................................................................................................................... 11
3.2.2 Inverter Stage ................................................................................................................................. 14
3.2.2.1 Comparison of MOSFET and BJT.......................................................................................... 14
3.2.2.2 Circuit Protection and Snubbers ............................................................................................. 18
3.2.3 Automatic Charger ......................................................................................................................... 19
3.2.3.1 The Battery.............................................................................................................................. 23
3.2.3.2 Potentiometer .......................................................................................................................... 23
3.2.3.3 Diode IN4007.......................................................................................................................... 24
3.2.4 Rectifier Circuits and Mode of Operations .................................................................................... 25
3.2.5 Filtering Circuits ............................................................................................................................ 28

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3.2.6 Smoothing Capacitor ..................................................................................................................... 29

3.2.7 Voltage Regulator .......................................................................................................................... 30
3.2.8 Transformer.................................................................................................................................... 31
Chapter Four
Results and Discussion ............................................................................................................................... 38
4.1 Results ................................................................................................................................................... 38
4.1.1 Waveform Analysis for Multi-Vibrator Stage ............................................................................... 38
4.1.2 Waveform Analysis for Multi-Vibrator and Inverter Stage ........................................................... 39
4.1.3 Waveform Analysis for Overall System Design ............................................................................ 40
4.1.4 Waveform Analysis for the Charger .............................................................................................. 41
4.1.5 Discussion ...................................................................................................................................... 42
Chapter Five
Conclusion and Recommendation .............................................................................................................. 43
5.1 Conclusion ............................................................................................................................................ 43
5.2 Recommendation .................................................................................................................................. 44
References ................................................................................................................................................... 45
Appendix ..................................................................................................................................................... 46

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List of Figures
Figure 1.1 Working Methodology .................................................................................................. 3
Figure 3.1 Block Diagram of Power Inverter with Automatic Charger ......................................... 6
Figure 3.2 Power Inverter Circuit Diagram .................................................................................... 7
Figure 3.3 Multivibrator Circuit ..................................................................................................... 8
Figure 3.4 BJT Schematics and Structures of BJT ......................................................................... 9
Figure 3.5 The Two Junctions in BJT............................................................................................. 9
Figure 3.6 Current Through the Two Junctions ............................................................................ 10
Figure 3.7 Two Common Resistor Schematic Symbols ............................................................... 11
Figure 3.8 Portion of Circuit Diagram .......................................................................................... 12
Figure 3.9 MOSFET Characteristics Curves ................................................................................ 15
Figure 3.10 Cut-Off Characteristics .............................................................................................. 15
Figure 3.11 Saturation Region ...................................................................................................... 16
Figure 3.12 High Side Switching Losses ...................................................................................... 17
Figure 3.13 Inductive Load Circuit with Snubber ........................................................................ 19
Figure 3.14 Block Diagram of Automatic Charger ...................................................................... 19
Figure 3.15 Automatic Battery Charger Circuit ........................................................................... 20
Figure 3.16 Circuit Analysis of Automatic Charger ..................................................................... 23
Figure 3.17 Potentiometer ............................................................................................................. 24
Figure 3.18 Symbol of LED.......................................................................................................... 25
Figure 3.19 Bridge Rectifier ......................................................................................................... 26
Figure 3.20 Positive Half Cycle of the Bridge Rectifier ............................................................... 27
Figure 3.21 Negative Half Cycle of the Bridge Rectifier ............................................................. 27
Figure 3.22 Waveforms of the Input and Output Voltages for One Cycle ................................... 28
Figure 3.23 Capacitor Smoothing Circuit ..................................................................................... 30
Figure 3.24 Simple Three -Terminal Regulator ............................................................................ 30
Figure 3.25 Shunt Voltage Regulator ........................................................................................... 31
Figure 3.26 Inverter Circuit with Center Tap Transformer .......................................................... 35
Figure 3.27 Inverter Conversion Process ...................................................................................... 36
Figure 3.28 Inverters in Solar Panels ............................................................................................ 37
Figure 3.29 Inverters Used in Fuel Cell ........................................................................................ 37
Figure 4.1 Output of Multi-Vibrator Stage Wave Form ............................................................... 38
Figure 4.2 Output of Multivibrator with Digital Oscilloscope ..................................................... 39

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Figure 4.3 Wave Form of Multi-Vibrator and Inverter Stage ....................................................... 40

Figure 4.4 Overall System Design Waveform ............................................................................. 41
Figure 4.5 Automatic Charger Output Waveform ........................................................................ 41
Figure 4.6 Output of Charger with Digital Oscilloscope .............................................................. 42

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List of Acronyms
A Ampere
AC Alternative Current
BJT Bipolar Junction Transistor
CO Change Over

DC Direct Current

Hz Hertz
KHz Kilo Hertz
LED Light Emitting Diode
MOSFET Metal -Oxide Semiconductor Field Effect Transistor
NC Normally Close
NO Normally Open
NPN Negative Positive Negative
PCB Printed Circuit Board
SPST Single Pole Single Throw
V Volt
W Watts

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Chapter One
Introduction
1.1 Background
An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current (AC).
The converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate
transformers, switching, and control circuits.
Static inverters have no moving parts and are used in a wide range of applications, from small
switching power supplies in computers, to large electric utility high-voltage direct current
applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are commonly used to supply AC power from
DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.
The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early
mechanical AC to DC converter was made to work in reverse mode, and thus was inverted to
convert DC to AC. The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier.
The need for continuous power supply arises, if the consequences of a failure or disruption of the
normal supply are not acceptable. Basically, there are four reasons for having continuous power
supply these are: safety, security, financial loss and data loss.
Inverters can be designed in a number of topologies depending on the situation and its
requirements. The efficiency of the inverter is highly dependent on the switching device,
topology and switching frequency of the inverter.
There should be no limitation in the use of an electronic tool or gadget at a fixed location due to
power limitations and unreliable power supply. To make power supply more accessible to
everyone, even those in the remote and rural areas, the invention of DC to AC power inverter
was produced.
In the market, however, the power inverters available are limited to areas where it can be
recharged by AC power supply. In order to overcome this problem, a power inverter which can
recharge automatically is so developed that, it can produce a continuous power supply to be used
everywhere.
1.2 Statement of the Problem
The power inverters available are limited to areas where it can be recharged by AC power
supply. In order to overcome this problem, a power inverter which can recharge automatically is
so developed that, it can produce a continuous power supply to be used everywhere.

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There varied choice of power inverters is available in the market. They range from the very
expensive to the inexpensive, with varying degrees of quality, efficiency and power output
capability. Continuous power supply has always been an issue when it comes to the use of
inverters. As a result, electronic mobility is limited and not suitable for camping, vacations
and rural areas where there is no electricity.an inverter of DC to AC type will be needed to
convert 24Vdc to 230Vac and recharge the batteries automatically while in use.
1.3 Objectives of the Project
1.3.1 General Objectives
The main objective of this project is to design, simulate and implement an automatic power
inverter that can convert 24Vdc to 230Vac with automatic charger.
1.3.2 Specific Objectives
 To identify the basic components for the system.
 To design and simulate automatic charger.
 To design the overall system.
 To simulate the overall designed circuit in proteus software.
 To implement the simulated result.
1.4 Scope of the Project
The scope of work is to design an inverter circuit and automatic battery charger that will
recharge the battery while in use and produce a continuous power supply. The output voltage
wave form of the inverter is to be sinusoidal and with a high output gain. Minimum power is
required by its controlling circuit and the semi-conductor device used in the inverter is to be of
minimum switching and conduction losses. The switching devices used are transistors and
MOSFETs.
1.5 Significance of the project
Increasingly, governments around the world are turning to renewable energy to end our
dependence on fossil fuels. Homes, businesses, community groups and schools are being
encouraged to install solar power and other renewable sources of energy, like the power inverters
to reduce greenhouse effect on the environment.
This is a simple project which is easy to build and cheap, as all the parts are readily available on
the market. With average background in engineering, the inverter circuit can be made and used at
all times. It can be constructed and used in the villages where there is no electricity. The inverter
can be transported and used anywhere when necessary.

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1.6 Methodology
The methodology for this project performed as follows.
Problem identification: This means that clearly stating of the problem about this project.
Literature Reviewing: This includes reading books and documents on related areas.
System modeling: It realizes combining different components to describe the system.
System analysis and simulation: This indicates how the system behaves using proteus.
Proposing Solution: The system solves the problem by designing of power inverter with
automatic charger in order to produce a continuous power.

Identifyng problems

Revising Literature
Review

Collecting Data

System Modeling and

Software Selection

Simulating and
Implementation

Figure 1.1 Working Methodology

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Chapter Two
Literature Review
An inverter is an electrical device used to convert dc source to ac source by using switching
devices like BJT and MOSFET. It provides constant AC supply at its output socket, even when
the AC mains supply is not available. A lot of research work has been published in the
field of this inverter and various techniques have been proposed.
According to Han condition designing an inverter monitor has the potential to reduce operating
costs, improve the reliability of operation, and enhance power supply and service to customers.
His project deals with studying the basic theory of a Sinusoidal Pulse Width Modulated Inverter,
its Simulink modeling, estimating various designing parameters and various instabilities. The
project is commenced by a basic understanding of the circuitry of the Inverter, the components
used in its design and the reason for choosing such components in this circuitry. After this, it will
be attempted to simulate a model circuit on any simulating software e.g. MATLAB and analyze
the output waveforms for various values of the elements used in the circuit and hence study the
system response and instabilities. But in his project he doesn‟t describe about the multi vibrator
stage which is the back bone of the invertor. Similarly he doesn‟t tell about the magnitude of the
inverter output[1].
Abniki introduces a new condition monitoring tool which provide a fully automatic charger
based inverter. An inverter is present at the outlet of battery to access stored power. He performs
his work by taking input voltage and current from solar panel, output voltage and current from
DC-to-AC inverter. An additional feature here is to transmit the output from the multi vibrator
stage[2].
Tang introduced another project aimed to design, build, and test a solar panel inverter. This
inverter system could be used as backup power during outages, battery charging, or for typical
household applications. The key features of the system are a true 60Hz, 120Vrms sinusoidal
voltage output, a wide input range, and maximum power-point tracking , and a power output of
up to 500W. The overall goal is to design this system while minimizing component costs.
Although systems with similar features already exist, many are prohibitively expensive[3].
Electricity can be generated from public supply to consumers in different ways including the use
of water, wind or steam energy to drive the turbine as well as more recently the use of gas.
Generators, solar energy and nuclear energy are also source of electricity[4].

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Generally, this project is a combination of inverter circuit, charger circuit and a battery. The
charger circuit keeps the battery charged when the mains supply is available and when the mains
AC fails, the inverter circuit takes the DC power stored in the battery and converts it into
220V/50Hz AC supply, which can be used to power any common electronic equipment or
computer systems.. Hence rechargable batteries can be used in this type of situation to reduce the
cost. An inverter is used to power device that does not have the facility to connect to a DC power
source or device that requires AC power source for its operation.

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Chapter Three
Overall Design and Operation of the System
3.1 Introduction
This chapter gives a concise and complete coverage of all the theory relevant to the design of this
power inverter and the automatic charger. Here the overall system has two stages i.e. multi-vibrator
stage and inverter stage in addition to this, the system also includes automatic battery charger.
3.2 The Overall System Design
One of the most important considerations in building a power inverter is the AC output signal. An
overall block diagram of the power inverter is shown in the figure 3.1.

Figure 3.1 Block Diagram of Power Inverter with Automatic Charger

The power inverter circuit consists of a multi-vibrator stage and the inverter stage controlled by
two 2N597 transistors in multi-vibrator stage and eight complementary 2N6660 MOSFETs.
Figure 3.2 shows the circuit diagram of the power inverter.

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Figure 3.1 Power Inverter Circuit Diagram

3.2.1 Multi-Vibrator Stage
A multi-vibrator is an electronic circuit used to implement a variety of simple two-state systems
such as oscillators, timers and flip-flops. It is characterized by two amplifying devices
(transistors, electron tubes or other devices) cross-coupled by resistors and capacitors.
Types of multi-vibrator circuit
Astable:- in which the circuit is not stable in either state. It continuously oscillates from one state
to the other. Due to this, it does not require an input (Clock pulse or other).
Mono-stable:- in which one of the states is stable, but the other is not. The circuit will flip into
the unstable state for a determined period, but will eventually return to the stable state. Such a
circuit is useful for creating a timing period of fixed duration in response to some external event.
This circuit is also known as a one shot. A common application is in eliminating switch bounce.
Bi-stable:-in which the circuit will remains in either state indefinitely. The circuit can be flipped
from one state to the other by an external event or trigger. Such a circuit is important as the
fundamental building block of a register or memory device. This circuit is also known as a latch

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or a flip-flop. In its simplest form, the multi-vibrator circuit consists of two cross-coupled
transistors. Using resistor-capacitor networks within the circuit to define the time periods of the
unstable states, the various types may be implemented. Multi-vibrators are applied in a variety of
systems where square waves or timed intervals are required. Simple circuits tend to be inaccurate
since many factors affect their timing, so they are rarely used where very high precision is
required. Before the advent of low-cost integrated circuits, chains of multi-vibrators found use as
frequency dividers. A free-running multivibrator with a frequency of one-half to one-tenth of the
reference frequency would accurately lock to the reference frequency. Other applications
included early television systems, where the various line and frame frequencies were kept
synchronized by pulses included in the video signal.

Figure 3.3 Multivibrator Circuit

3.2.1.1 Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT)
Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a three-terminal electronic device constructed of doped
semiconductor material and may be used in amplifying or switching applications. Bipolar
transistors are so named because their operation involves both electrons and holes. Charge flow
in a BJT is due to bidirectional diffusion of charge carriers across a junction between two regions
of different charge concentrations. This mode of operation is contrasted with unipolar transistors,
such as the 2N597 is a silicon Epitaxial-Base Planar NPN transistor. It is intended for power
switching circuits, series and shunt regulators, output stages and high fidelity amplifier. The
complementary NPN type is 2N597.

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The transistor is the main building block element of electronics. It is a semiconductor device and
it comes in two general types: the Bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) and the Field Effect
Transistor (FET). Here we will describe the system characteristics of the BJT configuration and
explore its use in fundamental signal shaping and amplifier circuits.
The BJT is a three terminal device and it comes in two different types. The npn BJT and the pnp
BJT. The BJT symbols and their corresponding block diagrams are shown on Figure 3.4. The
BJT is fabricated with three separately doped regions. The npn device has one p region between
two n regions and the pnp device has one n region between two p regions.
The BJT has two junctions (boundaries between the n and the p regions). These junctions are
similar to the junctions we saw in the diodes and thus they may be forward biased or reverse
biased. By relating these junctions to a diode model the pnp BJT may be modeled as shown on
Figure 3.5.
The three terminals of the BJT are called the Base (B), the Collector (C) and the Emitter (E).

Figure 3.4 BJT Schematics and Structures of BJT

Figure 3.5 The Two Junctions in BJTs

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Since each junction has two possible states of operation (forward or reverse bias) the BJT with
its two junctions has four possible states of operation.
Here it is sufficient to say that the structure as shown on Figure 3.4 is not symmetric. The n and p
regions are different both geometrically and in terms of the doping concentration of the regions.
For example, the doping concentrations in the collector, base and emitter may be, and
respectively. Therefore the behavior of the device is not electrically symmetric and the two ends
cannot be interchanged.

Figure 3.6 Current Through the Two Junctions

3.2.1.2 Capacitor
A capacitor (formerly known as condenser) is a passive electronic component consisting of a
pair of conductors separated by a dielectric (insulator). When there is a potential difference
(voltage) across the conductors, a static electric field develops in the dielectric that
stores energy and produces a mechanical force between the conductors. An ideal capacitor is
characterized by a single constant value, capacitance, measured in farads. This is the ratio
of the electric charge on each conductor to the potential difference between them.
Capacitors are widely used in electronic circuits for blocking direct current while allowing
alternating current to pass, in filter networks, for smoothing the output of power supplies, in
the resonant circuits that tune radios to particular frequencies and for many other purposes.
The effect is greatest when there is a narrow separation between large areas of conductor;
hence capacitor conductors are often called "plates", referring to an early means of
construction. In practice the dielectric between the plates passes a small amount of leakage

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current and also has an electric field strength limit, resulting in a breakdown voltage, while
the conductors and leads introduce an undesired inductance and resistance.
3.2.1.3 Resistor
Resistors are the most commonly used component in electronics and their purpose is to create
specified values of current and voltage in a circuit.
All resistors have two terminals, one connection on each end of the resistor. When modeled on a
schematic, a resistor will show up as one of these two symbols:

Figure 3.7 Two Common Resistor Schematic Symbols

R1 is an American-style 1kΩ resistor, and R2 is an international-style 47kΩ resistor.
The terminals of the resistor are each of the lines extending from the squiggle (or rectangle).
Those are what connect to the rest of the circuit.
The resistor circuit symbols are usually enhanced with both a resistance value and a name. The
value, displayed in ohms, is obviously critical for both evaluating and actually constructing the
circuit. The name of the resistor is usually an R preceding a number. Each resistor in a circuit
should have a unique name/number.
Working Principle and Operation of Multi-Vibrator
From figure 3.3 when power is applied, theoretically both T1 and T2 should turn on, since their
base pins are connected through resistors (R2 and R3) to Vcc. However, due to small differences
in the electric properties, one of the one them will turn on slightly earlier than the other. Without
loss of generality, let„s assume T2 turns on first. Therefore, T2′s collector begins to conduct
and can be thought of as shorted to ground. Note that C2′s right lead is connected to T2′s
collector, and since C2 is not charged yet, its left lead also has a voltage close to ground. This
immediately shuts off T1, i.e.T1 becomes an open circuit. Therefore C1′s left lead is in floating
status, and its right lead is connected to T2′s base, which is about 0.7V due to the forward voltage
drop of transistors. This forward voltage drop is the same as a diode. So at this moment, the

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circuit is equivatlent to the following: During this period, T2′s collector (output O2) remains low,
and C2 begins to charge through R3. Thus the voltage on C2′s left lead will rise, and the rising
time depends on R3 x C2. At the same time, C1 also charges, through R1, which is typically a
small resistor (usually 1000-2000 ohm). So C1′s left lead (output O1) will quickly rise up to Vcc
and remains high. As C2 continues to charge, a critical moment will happen when its left lead rise
up to 0.7V, at which moment transistor T1 will turn on, and its collector will conduct to ground.
This will shuts off T2firmly.Note that since C1′s left lead is connected to T1′s collector; it will
also drop to ground voltage. As C1 is fully charged, its right lead will suddenly drop to a negative
voltage (-Vcc) this will shuts off T2 firmly. Therefore the circuit will suddenly transition to the
following equivalent: During this period, output O1 will remain low, and output O2 will quickly
raise toVcc (due to the charging of C2 through a small resistor R4). But what we must understand
that R1 and R4 are similar (i.e 1000-2000ohm). In similar way we use the resisters R2 and R3
through the base of transistors usually have the values 50k-100k ohm. At the same time, C1
charges through R2 and the voltage on its right lead will rise over time determined by R2 x C1.
AsC1 continues to charge, the next critical moment happens when C1′s right lead rises above
0.7V. At that point, T2 will conduct again while T1 shuts off. The same cycle will repeat.the main
components required for the multivibrator stage are as follows:
2N597 – BJTs
C1=C2 =1uf
R1=R4=1K
R2=R3 =100K

Figure 3.8 Portion of Circuit Diagram

R2 and C1 are connected in series between Vcc and ground. C1 has an initial voltage of
(Vcc – Vb). How long does it take for C1′s voltage to rise up to +Vb? Assume C1′s voltage is V(t):
a function that changes over time. According to the law of capacitor, the change of V(t)
is equal to the current flowing through it divided by the capacitance:
( )
(3.1)

Since, i(t) equal to the current flowing through the resistor R2

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( )
i(t)= (3.2)

( ) ( )
=
( ( ))
( )
( ) ( ( )) (3.3)

And integrate both sides, we get:

ln(Vcc-V(t))=

(Vcc-V(t))= (3.4)
Where, K is a constant. Using the knowledge that when t=0, V(t)= -(Vcc – Vb), we find out
K=Vcc-V(t)=Vcc-(-(Vcc-Vb))=2Vcc-Vb

Vcc-V(t)=(2Vcc-Vb) (3.5)
Recall that our goal is to find hen V(t) is equal to Vb, so substitute Vb to V(t), and solve for t
t=-R2c1 (3.6)
Under the assumption that Vcc is much larger than Vb, this is approximately equal to
Ton=0.693R2C1 (3.7)
This is how long stage 2 will last. Similarly, stage 1 will last for approximately
Toff=0.693R3C2
Therefore, full cycle will take the time
T=ton+ toff = 0.693(R2C1+R3C2) (3.8)
Before the next cycle begins,
The frequency of the wave is thus:
f= ( )

Here we need a frequency of 50Hz

50Hz= ( )

Let R2=100k=R3
C1=1µF=C2
Therefore Ton= 0.693R2C1
=0.693x100kx1μf=0.0693sec
Toff=0.693R3C2=0.693x100kx1μf=0.0693sec
From this information to calculate the firing angel to consider f=50hz, ton=0.0693 .after
this from the general formula finding the firing angel.
α=ωxton=2xπxfxton

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=2x50xπx0.0693
=21.76
To calculate the duty cycle (q)
Ul=Us x (q/1-q) (3.9)
q=Ul/(Ul+Us)=230/(230+24)*100
=90.5% duty cycle
3.2.2 Inverter Stage
The main function of the inverter stage is to invert the pulses generated by the astable
multivibrator into useful sine wave to be amplified by the transformer. It consists of a pair of
complementary field effect transistors connected back to back to amplify the sine wave. The
main components are:
 2N6660 (four)
 Heat sink (1kΩ)
 Resistor
 Capacitor
3.2.2.1 Comparison of MOSFET and BJT
A bipolar Junction Transistor (BJT) is a current-controlled device and requires base current for
current flow in the collector. Since the collector current is dependent on the input current the
current gain is highly dependent on the junction temperature. BJT suffered from second
breakdown. A power MOSFET is a voltage-controlled device and requires only a small input
current and their parameters are less sensitive to junction temperature. The switching speed is
very high and the switching times are of the order of nanoseconds. It does not have the problems
of second breakdown phenomena as BJT do.
MOSFET Characteristics Curves
The minimum ON-state gate voltage required to ensure that the MOSFET remains fully-ON
when carrying the selected drain current can be determined from the V-I transfer curves above.
When VIN is HIGH or equal to VDD, the MOSFET Q-point moves to point A along the
load line. The drain current Id increases to its maximum value due to a reduction in the channel
resistance, ID becomes a constant value independent of VDD, and is dependent only on VGS.
Therefore, the transistor behaves like a closed switch but the channel ON-resistance does not
reduce fully to zero due to its RDS (on) value, but gets very small. Likewise, when VIN is LOW or
reduced to zero, the MOSFET Q-point moves from point A to point B along the load line. The
channel resistance is very high so the transistor acts like an open circuit and no current flows

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through the channel. So if the gate voltage of the MOSFET toggles between two values, HIGH
and LOW the MOSFET will behave as a single-pole single-throw (SPST) solid state switch and
this action are defined as:
1) Cutoff mode
2) Triode mode or Saturation mode

Figure 3.9 MOSFET Characteristics Curves

1) Cutoff mode
During the cutoff mode, the gate source voltage is insufficient to activate the transistor and the
connection between the source and drain terminals remain closed.
Here the voltage VDS = VDD. Therefore the MOSFET is switched “Fully-OFF”.
Cut-off Characteristics

Figure 3.10 Cut-off Characteristics

 The input and Gate are grounded ( 0v )
 Gate-source voltage less than threshold voltage VGS< VTH
 MOSFET is “fully-OFF” ( Cut-off region)

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 No Drain current flows ( ID = 0 )

 VOUT = VDS = VDD= “1″
 MOSFET operates as an “open switch”
Cut-off Characteristics
Then we can define the “cut-off region” or “OFF mode” when using a MOSFET as a switch as
being, gate voltage, VGS<VTH and ID= 0. For a P-channel Enhancement MOSFET, the Gate
potential must be more positive with respect to the Source.
Saturation Region
During the triode mode the gate voltage is enough to establish a weak connection between the
source terminal and the drain terminal. In this mode the transistor acts like a resistor whose
resistance is a function of the voltage applied to the gate terminal. Finally, when sufficient
voltage is applied to the gate terminal the transistor enters saturation mode and a full connection
is established between the source and drain terminals. In the saturation or linear region, the
transistor will be biased so that the maximum amount of gate voltage is applied to the device
which results in the channel resistance RDS(on) being as small as possible with maximum drain
current flowing through the MOSFET switch. Therefore the MOSFET is switched “Fully-ON”.

Figure 3.11 Saturation Region

 The input and Gate are connected to VDD.
 Gate-source voltage is much greater than threshold voltage VGS> VTH.
 MOSFET is “fully-ON”( saturation region ).
 Max Drain current flows( ID = VDD / RL ) • VDS = 0V (ideal saturation).
 Min channel resistance RDS(on) < 0.1Ω.
 VOUT = VDS = 0.2V ( RDS.ID ).
 MOSFET operates as a “closed switch”.
Then we can define the “saturation region” or “ON mode” when using a MOSFET as a switch as
gate-source voltage, VGS > VTH and ID = Maximum. For a P-channel Enhancement MOSFET, the
Gate potential must be more negative with respect to the Source. By applying a suitable drive
voltage to the gate of an FET, the resistance of the drain-source channel, RDS (on) can be varied

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from an “OFF resistance” of many hundreds of kΩs, effectively an open circuit, to an “ON
resistance” of less than 1Ω, effectively a short circuit. when using the MOSFET as a switch we
can drive the MOSFET to turn “ON” faster or slower, or pass high or low currents. This ability
to turn the power MOSFET “ON” and “OFF” allows the device to be used as a very efficient
switch with switching speeds much faster than standard bipolar junction transistors. For our
design we have Pmax=1.2kw and V=24V, So that we can find the values of voltage and currents
that is used for our circuit.
P=v*I (3.10)
I=p/v (3.11)
ID=1200/24=50A
RDS(on) =P/ ID2
=1200w/2500A=0.48Ω
During the switching transition, the voltage and current in the MOSFET will look
approximately like this:

Figure 3.12 High Side Switching Losses

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The switching losses we are going to calculate are those in periodst2 and t3 due to the
voltage and current in the MOSFET. The way to approach this is to calculate the energy of
each transition, then convert this into an average power according to your switching frequency.
If you look at just t2, Vis nearly constant, and increases approximately linearly, forming a
triangle. Thus, the power also increases linearly, and the total energy is the time integral of
power. So the energy is just the area of that triangle:
Et2 = t2 (VinIout2) t3 (3.12)
also forms a triangle. In this case, the voltage is changing instead of the current, but still the
power makes a triangle, and the calculation of energy is the same. Since the calculation is the
same for t2 and t3, then it's not really important how much time is spent in t2 vs t3; all that really
matters is the total time spent switching. The energy losses from one switch are thus:
Eswitch=(t2+t3)(VinIout2 ( 3.13)

And, your switching frequency is how many times per second you incur this energy loss, so
multiplying the two together gets you the average power loss due to switching:
Pswitch=f(t2+t3)(VinIout2) (3.14)
So, taking our calculation of the switching period being 10ns, and the maximum current
being 50A, and the voltage 24V, and the switching frequency 1MHz, the power losses from
switching are:
Pswitch=1MHz*10ns(24V*50A2)=12W
So those, the circuit dissipate 12w per MOSFET. The total loss in the circuit becomes
4*12w=48w.
3.2.2.2 Circuit Protection and Snubbers
One of the major factors in any electronic device is its ability to protect itself from surges
that could damage the circuitry. In the case of the inverter, inductive loads can cause special
problems because an inductor cannot instantly stop conducting current, it must be dampened or
diverted so that the current does not try to flow through the open switch. If not dampened the
surges can cause trouble in the MOSFETs used to produce the output sine wave; when a
MOSFET is turned off the inductive load still wants to push current through the switch, as it has
nowhere else to go. This action can cause the switch to be put under considerable stress,
the high dV/dt, dI/dt, V and I associated with this problem can cause the MOSFETs to
malfunction and break. To combat this problem snubber circuits can reduce or eliminate any
severe voltages and currents. Composed of simply a resistor and capacitor placed across each
switch it allows any current or voltage spikes to be suppressed by critically dampening the

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surge and protecting the switch from damage. The snubber can become more effective by the
addition of a zener diode so that any large current surge the resistor capacitor snubber cannot
handle gets passed through to ground by the zener diode. The diagram in Figure 3.13 shows a
simple representation of an inductive load (L) over a switch representation, Figure show how
snubbers can be implemented so that a surge will be suppressed.

Figure 3.13 Inductive Load Circuit with Snubber

3.2.3 Automatic Charger

The battery charger consists of the following: transformer, bridge rectifier, filter and voltage
regulator. But in the simulation and implementation zener diode is used in terms of voltage
regulator.

Figure 3.14 Block Diagram of Automatic Charger

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Figure 3.15 Automatic Battery Charger Circuit

This automatic battery charger circuit is mainly involves two sections , power supply section and
load comparison section. The main supply voltage 230V, 50Hz is connected to the primary
winding of the center tapped transformer to step down the voltage to 24v.
The output of the transformer is connected to the Diodes D1, D2. Here diodes D1, D2 are used to
convert low AC voltage to pulsating DC voltage. This process is also called as rectification. The
pulsating DC voltage is applied to the 470uF capacitor to remove the AC ripples.
Thus the output of the capacitor unregulated Dc voltage. This unregulated DC voltage is now
applied to the LM317 variable voltage regulator to provide regulated DC voltage.
The output voltage of this voltage regulator is variable from 1.2V to 37V and the maximum
output current from this IC is 1.5A. The output voltage of this voltage regulator is varied by
varying the pot 10k which is connected to the adjust pin of LM317. Lm317 voltage regulator
output is applied to the battery through the diode D5 and resistor R5. Here diode D5 is used to
avoid the discharge of battery when main supply fails.
When battery charges fully, the zener diode D6 which connected in reverse bias conducts. Now
base of BD139 NPN transistor gets the current through the zener so that the total current is
grounded.
In this circuit green LED is used for indicating the charge of the battery. Resistor R3 is used to
protect the green LED from high voltages.

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Circuit Principle
If the battery voltage is below 24V, then the current from LM317 IC flows through the resistor
R5 and diode D5 to the battery. At this time zener diode D6 will not conduct because battery
takes all the current for charging.
When the battery voltage rises to 24.5V, the current flow to the battery stops and zener diode
gets the sufficient breakdown voltage and it allows the current through it.
Now the base of the transistor gets the sufficient current to turn on so that the output current from
LM317 voltage regulator is grounded through the transistor Q1. As a result Red LED indicates
the full of charge.
Charger settings
The output voltage of the battery charger should be less than 1.5 times of the battery and the
current of the charger should be 10% of the battery current. Battery charger should have over
voltage protection, short circuit protection and reversed polarity protection.
In most of our electronic products or projects we need a power supply for converting mains AC
voltage to a regulated DC voltage. For making a power supply designing of each and every
component is essential. Here let us going to discuss the designing of regulated 5V Power Supply.
Let‟s start with very basic things the choosing of components
Component List:
 Step down transformer
 Voltage regulator
 Capacitors
 Diodes
Let‟s get into detail of rating of the devices
Voltage regulator:
As we require a 5V we need LM7805 Voltage Regulator IC.
7805 IC Rating:
 Input voltage range 7V- 35V
 Current rating Ic = 1A
 Output voltage range VMax=5.2V ,VMin=4.8
Selecting a suitable transformer is of great importance. The current rating and the secondary
voltage of the transformer is a crucial factor.
The current rating of the transformer depends upon the current required for the load to be driven.

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The input voltage to the 7805 IC should be at least 2V greater than the required 2V output,
therefore it requires an input voltage at least close to 7V. So choosing a 12-0-12 transformer with
current rating 500mA (Since 12*√2 =16.8v).
Note : Any transformer which supplies secondary peak voltage up to 35V can be used but as the
voltage increases size of the transformer and power dissipation across regulator increases.
Rectifying Circuit :
 The best is using a full wave rectifier.
 Its advantage is DC saturation is less as in both cycle diodes conduct.
 Higher Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF).
 1N4007 diodes are used as capable of withstanding a higher reverse voltage of 1000v
whereas 1N4001 is 50V
Capacitors:
Knowledge of Ripple factor is essential while designing the values of capacitors. It is given by
Y=1/(4√3fRC) (as the capacitor filter is used),Where

 f= frequency of AC ( 50 Hz)
 R=resistance calculated
R= V/Ic
 V= secondary voltage of transformer
V=12√2=16.8v
R=16.8/500mA=33.8Ω standard 33Ω chosen
 C= filtering capacitance
We have to determine this capacitance for filtering
Y=Vac-rms/Vdc
Vac-rms = Vr/2√3
Vdc= VMax-(Vr/2)
Vr= VMax- Vmin
Vr = 5.2-4.8 =0. 4V
Vac-rms = 0.3464V
Vdc = 5V
Y=0 .6928
Hence the capacitor value is found out by substituting the ripple factor in Y=1/(4√3fRC)
Thus, C= 465.6 µF and standard 470µF is chosen.

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Datasheet of 7805 prescribes to use a 2.2μF capacitor at the output side to avoid transient
changes in the voltages due to changes in load and a 1μF at the input side of regulator to avoid
ripples if the filtering is far away from regulator.

Figure 3.16 Circuit Analysis of Automatic Charger

3.2.3.1 The Battery

The battery is a two-terminal device that provides DC supply to the inverter section when the AC
mains is not available. This DC is then converted into 230V AC supply and output at the inverter
output socket.
It is pertinent to state that lead-acid batteries used in automobiles are very good for this purpose
as they provide good quality power for a long duration and can be recharged once the power
stored in them are consumed. The backup time provided by the inverter depends on the battery
type and its current capacity.
The selections of batteries are based on the power rating and their input voltages. Within the
different types of batteries available, Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries offered more powerful
technology as compared to the other battery. The Lion batteries store more energy in smaller
spaces than the traditional lead acid and nickel metal hydride batteries. It also has the most
energy density and electrochemical potential of all.
3.2.3.2 Potentiometer
A device with three terminals, two of which are connected to a resistance wire and the third to a
brush moving along the wire, so that a variable potential can be tapped off. It is used in
electronic circuits, especially as a volume control. Sometimes shortened to Potentiometer. It is
applied in an electronic circuit for adjusting circuit resistance to control voltage or current of that

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 Final Thesis

circuit or part of that circuit. The electrical resistance is varied by sliding a wiper contact along a
resistance track. This type of variable resistor with two contacts (a Rheostat) is usually used to
control current. Variable resistors, or rheostats, have a resistance that may be varied across a
certain range, usually by means of a mechanical device that alters the position of one terminal of
the resistor along a strip of resistant material. The length of the intervening material determines
the resistance. Mechanical variable resistors are also called potentiometers, and are used in the
volume knobs of audio equipment and in many other devices. In this inverter circuit the variable
is used to control the duty cycle. Examples include: adjusting lamp brightness, adjusting motor
speed, and adjusting the rate of flow of charge into a capacitor in a timing circuit. Figure 3.17
shows the schematic symbol for a potentiometer.

Figure 3.17 Potentiometer

3.2.3.3 Diode IN4007
An electrical device with two active terminals, an anode and a cathode, through which current
passes more easily in one direction (from anode to cathode) than in the reverse direction. Diodes
have many uses, including conversion of AC power to DC power, and the decoding of audio-
frequency signals from radio signals.
It is an electronic component that conducts electric current in only one direction. The term
usually refers to a semiconductor diode, the most common type today. This is a crystalline piece
of semiconductor material connected to two electrical terminals. The most common function of a
diode is to allow an electric current to pass in one direction (called the diode's forward direction)
while blocking current in the opposite direction (the reverse direction). Thus, the diode can be
thought of as an electronic version of a check valve. This unidirectional behavior is called
rectification, and is used to convert alternating current to direct current, and to extract
modulation from radio signals in radio receivers.
Features of 1N4001 diode

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 High reliability
 Low leakage
 High current capability
3.2.3.4 Light Emitting Diode
A light-emitting diode (LED) is a semiconductor light source. LEDs are used as indicator lamps
in many devices, and are increasingly used for lighting. Introduced as a practical electronic
component in 1962, early LEDs emitted low-intensity red light, but modern versions are
available across the visible, ultraviolet and infrared wavelengths, with very high brightness.
When a light-emitting diode is forward biased (switched on), electrons are able to recombine
with holes within the device, releasing energy in the form of photons. This effect is called
electroluminescence and the color of the light (corresponding to the energy of the photon) is
determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor. A LED is often small in area (less than 1
mm2), and integrated optical components may be used to shape its radiation pattern. LEDs
present many advantages over incandescent light sources including lower energy consumption,
longer lifetime, improved robustness, smaller size, faster switching, and greater durability and
reliability.
LEDs powerful enough for room lighting are relatively expensive and require more precise
current and heat management than compact fluorescent lamp sources of comparable output.
Light-emitting diodes are used in applications, such as replacements for aviation lighting,
automotive lighting (particularly brake lamps, turn signals and indicators) as well as in traffic
signals. The compact size, the possibility of narrow bandwidth, switching speed, and extreme
reliability of LEDs has allowed new text and video displays and sensors to be developed, while
their high switching rates are also useful in advanced communications technology. Infrared
LEDs are also used in the remote control units of many commercial products including
televisions, DVD players, and other domestic appliances.

Figure 3.18 Symbol of LED

3.2.4 Rectifier Circuits and Mode of Operations

There are three basic types of rectifier circuits:

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 Final Thesis

 The half – wave rectifier

 The full – wave rectifier
 The bridge – wave rectifier
The most commonly used rectifier circuit is the bridge rectifier followed by the full-wave
rectifier. The half -wave rectifier is made up of a diode. When the transformer output voltage is
positive, the diode conducts, and when the transformer output voltage is negative, no current
flows, so there is zero voltage drops across the load.
The full – wave rectifier
The full – wave rectifier consists of two diodes and required a center tapped transformer. Each
diode is connected across the half of the winding to one diode is reverse biases during one half –
cycle of the wave form and the other is reverse biased during the other half-cycle. At any
particular time, therefore, only one half of the transformer is supplying current. But the diodes
are arranged so that the current through the wall resistance is in the same direction during each
half-cycle of the AC waveform. The bridge-wave rectifier consist of four diodes.
The Bridge Rectifier
The main advantage of bridge rectifier over the full rectifier because it does not require the use
of a center tapped transformer. It also provides a higher peak output voltage than the full rectifier
does. Therefore, it provides a higher DC output voltage from the power supply. The bridge
rectifier consists of four diodes that formed liked a bridge arrangement as show in Figure 3.19.
The bridge rectifier alternates conduction between two diode pairs. When diodes, D1 and D3 are
on, D2 and D4 are off, and vice versa.

Figure 3.19 Bridge Rectifier

Mode of Operation
a. The positive half cycle

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During the positive half cycle of the input, V2 is energized, causing D1 and D3 to conduct and D2
and D4 to reverse biased. Therefore, the direction of current flow from the positive terminal
through D3, passing the load through D1 and return to the negative terminal.

Figure 3.20 Positive Half Cycle of the Bridge Rectifier

b. The negative half cycle
During the negative half cycle of the input, V2 will have reverse polarity. The diodes D2 and D4
will now conduct and D1 and D3 are reversed biased. Therefore, the direction of current flow
from the positive terminal through D4, passing up through load, through D2 and return to the
negative terminal. Figure 3.21 shows the negative half cycle of the bridge rectifier.

Figure 3.21 Negative Half Cycle of the Bridge Rectifier

The circuit ensures that, even though the sign of the output voltage from the transformer is
reversed with each half cycle of the AC supply, the voltage across the load has the same signal.
figure 3.22 shows the waveforms of the input and output voltages for one cycle.

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Figure 3.22 Waveforms of the Input and Output Voltages for One Cycle
Diode
For most of the power supplies, it requires the use of rectifier diodes that have extremely high
forward current or power dissipation ratings. The commonly used rectifier devices would be the
ultrafast rectifier, single phase Bridge or the Schottky diode that meet its requirement and
applications. For selection of bridge rectifier, we must ensure that the minimum requirement and
its application must be met. Since for this project, we need the bridge rectifier to obtain the
required 12VDC voltage to supply to the battery.
3.2.5 Filtering Circuits
All waveforms produced by the rectifier circuit alone consist of a sequence and are therefore
quite unstable as a form of DC supply. The filtering circuits described in this section filter out, in
one way or another, most of the nonzero frequency components of this waveform and so greatly
reduce the amplitude of the undulations until they are no more than a ripple.
Basically, an electrical filter is a circuit that can be designed to modify, reshape or reject all
unwanted frequencies of an electrical signal and accept or pass only those signals wanted by the
circuits designer.
In other words they “filter-out” unwanted signals and an ideal filter will separate and pass
sinusoidal input signals based upon their frequency. In low frequency applications (up to
100kHz), passive filters are generally constructed using simple RC (Resistor-Capacitor)
networks, while higher frequency filters (above 100kHz) are usually made from RLC (Resistor-
Inductor-Capacitor) components.

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 Final Thesis

Passive filters are made up of passive components such as resistors, capacitors and inductors and
have no amplifying elements (transistors, op-amps, etc) so have no signal gain, therefore their
output level is always less than the input.
Filters are so named according to the frequency range of signals that they allow to pass through
them, while blocking or “attenuating” the rest. The most commonly used filter designs are the:
The Low Pass Filter – the low pass filter only allows low frequency signals from 0Hz to its cut-
off frequency, ƒc point to pass while blocking those any higher.
The High Pass Filter – the high pass filter only allows high frequency signals from its cut-off
frequency, ƒc point and higher to infinity to pass through while blocking those any lower.
The Band Pass Filter – the band pass filter allows signals falling within a certain frequency
band setup between two points to pass through while blocking both the lower and higher
frequencies either side of this frequency band.
3.2.6 Smoothing Capacitor
When current flows, it only charges up the capacitor to the peak value of the transformer output
voltage (minus the diodes voltage drops) but also supplies current to the load. But when the input
voltage falls below its peak value, the diodes cuts off, disconnecting the transformer from the
load. The capacitor then discharges into the load, so that between peaks in the waveform the
current is supplied by the capacitor only. The capacitance of the capacitor must be sufficiently
large that it only loses a small fraction of its charge through the load between each cycle of the
waveform.
The droop of the output voltage between each cycle is the exponential decay of the capacitor
voltage as it discharges through the load. The discharge is virtually linear if the droop is small.
Evidently, the bigger the capacitance or the load resistance, or both, the smaller the voltage
droops. The magnitude of the droop or the peak – peak variation in the output is the ripple
voltage.
The capacitors involved in this kind of smoothing usually have very large capacitance often
greater than 400000nF (i.e. take a standard of470μF) – so they are electrolytic capacitors and
must be connected the right way round. They are likely to claim only within +50% and -30% of
their nominal value, so allowance should be made for this wide tolerance in the smoothing circuit
design. Note that it is usually a good idea to connect a resistor (e.g. an indicator lamp or a light
emitting diode) across the capacitor whose resistance is automatically discharged when the
power unit is on open circuit. An unexpected residual change on such capacitors can sometimes
cause change to other equipment.

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 Final Thesis

Figure 3.23 Capacitor Smoothing Circuit

3.2.7 Voltage Regulator

The IC voltage regulator is a device that is used to hold the output voltage from a DC power
supply relatively constant over a wide range of line and load variations. The most commonly
used IC voltage regulators are three – terminal devices. The schematic symbol for a three
terminal regulator.

Figure 3.24 Simple Three -Terminal Regulator

There are basically four types of IC voltage regulators:
 Fixed positive
 Fixed negative
 Adjustable and
 Dual tracking
The fixed – positive and fixed – negative IC voltage regulators are designed to provide specific
output voltages. The adjustable regulator can be adjusted to provide any DC output voltage that
is within its two specific limits.
The dual – tracking regulator provides equal positive and negative output voltages. The IC
voltage regulators are series regulators. It contains internal pass transistors and transistor control

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 Final Thesis

components. The input/output voltage regulator differential rating indicates the maximum
difference between input and output voltage that occur without damaging the device.
Zener Diode as voltage regulator
The zener diode is a unique device which exploits a property of diodes that is generally avoided
in standard diode applications. Typical diodes have a very high reverse breakdown voltage, the
voltage at which the diode begins to conduct in the reverse direction. This voltage is generally
avoided in standard diodes, but zener diodes are designed and manufactured to have a very
specific reverse breakdown voltage. On top of that, the transition into reverse breakdown is very
sharp.
With an ideal zener diode, construction of a voltage regulator is easy, simply connect the diode
between the unregulated voltage and ground. Since the exploited property of zener diodes is the
reverse breakdown voltage, connect the anode of the diode to ground, not the cathode.
Unfortunately, this is only an ideal circuit. Like most passive elements, if enough current is
allowed to pass through the diode, it will be destroyed. A resistor will be added to our circuit to
limit the current through the diode. First, select the zener diode based on the voltage
requirements of the circuit. For a robust solution, the diode must be able to handle the entirety of
this current. Zener diodes have power ratings, so to determine the maximum power the diode
will multiply the maximum current draw by the zener voltage. The resistor will shoulder the rest
of the voltage drop not handled by the Zener diode, which is the difference of the source voltage
and the Zener voltage. Select the resistor value using Ohm's Law, where the resistance is the
voltage drop across the resistor divided by the maximum current draw. The Zener diode itself
requires some current to stay in reverse breakdown, typically in the order of 5mA, so the resistor
value may be lowered slightly to accommodate.

Figure 3.25 Shunt Voltage Regulator

3.2.8 Transformer
Transformer is a device, or a machine, that transfers electrical energy from one electrical circuit
to another electrical circuit through the medium of magnetic field and without a change in the

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frequency. The electric circuit which receives energy from the supply mains is called primary
winding and the other circuit which delivers electric energy to the load is called the secondary
winding.
Actually, the transformer is an electromagnetic energy conversion device. The energy received
by the primary is first converted to magnetic energy and it is then reconverted to useful electrical
energy in the other circuits (secondary winding circuit, third winding circuit etc.). Thus primary
and secondary windings of a transformer are not connected electrically, but are coupled
magnetically. This coupling magnetic field allows the transfer of energy in either direction, from
high voltage to low voltage circuits or from low voltage to high voltage circuits.
If the transfer of energy occurs at the same voltage, the purpose of the transformer is merely to
isolate the two electric circuits and this use is very rare in power applications. If the secondary
winding has more turns than the primary winding, then the secondary voltage is higher than the
primary winding and the transformer is called a step up transformer. In case the secondary
winding has less turns than the primary winding, then the secondary voltage is lower than the
primary voltage and the transformer is called a step down transformer. A step up transformer can
be used as a step down transformer, in which the secondary of step up transformer becomes the
primary of step down transformer. Actually a transformer can be termed a step up or step down
transformer only after it has been put into service. Therefore, when referring to the windings of a
particular transformer, the terms high voltage winding and low voltage winding should be used
instead of primary and secondary windings.
The Power Transformer
The transformer is either to step up or step down the AC supply voltage to suit the requirement
of the solid state electronic devices and circuits fed by the DC power supply. One of the
important features of a transformer is the electrical isolation offered between the primary and the
secondary. The voltages in the primary and secondary windings are directly proportional to the
turn„s ratio of the two windings. If V1 is the voltage applied to the primary, V2 is voltage induced
in the secondary, N1 is the number of turns in the primary and N2 is the number of turns in the
secondary, then the relationship between them is given by the expression. The main drawback of
the centre-tapped configuration is that it needs a center-tapped transformer/supply and higher
voltage rating of switch. This limitation can be overcome by bridge inverter. The circuit diagram
and v-i wave form is shown in Fig.
For square output when S1, S2, S3, & S4 are on (For 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π) +Vs appear across the load and
when S5, S6, S7& S8 are on For (π≤ωt≤2π) -Vs appear across the load.

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The rms output voltage is given by;

Vrms=√ ∫ ( ) (3.15)

Vrms= 24v

Vo=∑ ( ( ));for odd harmonic

V0=0 for even number (3.16)

The fundamental rms component is
V1rms= 0.9Vs
√

Vrms=0.9x24=21.6v
Turns ratio:
= 144turns

= (3.17 )

N2= = =1380turns

I2= =5.22A

(3.18 )

I1= = 50.025A
n= 6turns/volt

n= 6 turns/volt

At standard load factor value 1200w inverter is 0.85 pf .then based on this given pf to calculate
the primary VA.
( )
Primary VA= = = 1411.7VA
Finally to calculate the efficiency of our designing inverter is
( )
Efficiency= ( )
= = 85% (3.19)
A common topology for DC-AC power converter circuits uses a pair of transistors to switch DC
current through the center-tapped winding of a step-up transformer. In electronics, a center tap is
a connection made to a point half way along a winding of a transformer or inductor, or along the

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element of a resistor or a potentiometer. Taps are sometimes used on inductors for the coupling
of signals, and may not necessarily be at the half- way point, but rather, closer to one end. A
common application of this is in the Hartley oscillator.
Inductors with taps also permit the transformation of the amplitude of alternating current (AC)
voltages for the purpose of power conversion, in which case, they are referred to as
autotransformers, since there is only one winding. An example of an autotransformer is an
automobile ignition coil. Potentiometer tapping provides one or more connections along the
device's element, along with the usual connections at each of the two ends of the element, and
the slider connection. Potentiometer taps allow for circuit functions that would otherwise not be
available with the usual construction of just the two end connections and one slider connection.
Common Applications of Center-tapped Transformers
In a rectifier, a center-tapped transformer and two diodes can form a full-wave rectifier that
allows both half-cycles of the AC waveform to contribute to the direct current, making it
smoother than a half-wave rectifier. This form of circuit saves on rectifier diodes compared to a
diode bridge, but has poorer utilization of the transformer windings. Center-tapped two-diode
rectifiers were a common feature of power supplies in vacuum tube equipment. Modern
semiconductor diodes are low-cost and compact so usually a 4-diode bridge is used (up to a few
hundred watts total output) which produces the same quality of DC as the center-tapped
configuration with a more compact and cheaper power transformer. Center-tapped configurations
may still be used in high-current applications, such as large automotive battery chargers, where
the extra transformer cost is offset by less costly rectifiers.
In an audio power amplifier center-tapped transformers are used to drive push-pull output
formers must tolerate a small amount of direct current that may pass through the winding.
 In analog telecommunications systems center-tapped transformers can be used to provide
a DC path around an AC coupled amplifier for signaling purposes.
 In electronic amplifiers, a center-tapped transformer is used as a phase splitter in coupling
different stages of an amplifier.
 Power distribution. A center-tapped rectifier is preferred to the full bridge rectifier when
the output DC current is high and the output voltage is low.
Here in our design of inverter circuit, DC power is connected to a transformer through the center
tap of the primary winding. A switch is rapidly switched back and forth to allow current to flow
back to the DC source following two alternate paths through one end of the primary winding and

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then the other. The alternation of the direction of current in the primary winding of the
transformer produces alternating current (AC) in the secondary circuit.
The figure shown below can clarify what the center tap transformer works for an inverter circuit.

Figure 3.26 Inverter Circuit with Center Tap Transformer

Applications of Inverters
No doubt that many of our smaller appliances work on DC as well, as it is really useful and
provide the best results in some cases, but then most of our electronic equipment work on AC
and it is the AC power that is supplied in our houses and that‟s the reason why bigger appliances
are designed to work on AC voltages.
Another reason is the fact that DC cannot supply sufficient volts as many as large appliances
require. So AC power is very crucial. Due to this reason now-a-days, inverters find diverse uses
and applications in daily life, due to their function of converting DC to AC.
As we know that an inverter takes current from a battery, which is usually 12 Volt Dc, as
batteries usually produce DC power, and then after passing this current through a 50Hz
processor, it converts it into the normal 220 volt Ac which is commonly used here.
In case we want to power a small appliance like a mobile charger, an LED or some small radio,
then that 12 volt Dc power would be sufficient enough. But if the question is of a bigger
appliance, like a fridge, TV, Laptop or something like that, then we surely have to make use of
AC power since most of our bigger appliances are designed to run on AC.

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In such cases, inverters are of great use, especially if the appliance is not powered directly from a
switch board or is acquiring power from a battery or some sort of DC producing devices.
The process of conversion is shown through a block diagram as follows:

Figure 3.27 Inverter Conversion Process

Inverters used in Solar Panels
Other than these, bigger inverters are also available which can run on 24 volt DC as well and
deal with higher currents. Other than batteries, we know that solar power is becoming the new
trend now a days, since it is cheaper, economical and hence more affordable.
So it is needless to mention here that inverters find their diverse uses in solar panels as well, as
the solar panels produce DC, which then needs to be converted to AC by the help of inverters.
This can be shown below.

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Figure 3.28 Inverters in Solar Panels

Inverters Used in Fuel cells and UPS
Another very common use of inverter is in fuel cells, as they also produce DC power which later
needs to be converted to AC for use in electronic equipment.
Similarly, we have seen that UPS (Uninterruptible Power Supplies) are a very common trend
now a days due to load shedding and a need of an uninterruptible power to sensitive equipment
for domestic or commercial uses.
A Ups uses a set of batteries along with an inverter to supply power when the main power is no
longer available.

Figure 3.29 Inverters Used In Fuel Cell

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Chapter Four
Results and Discussion
4.1 Results
The final result from our project only shows wave form from simulation result. The results from
our designing project are divided into four portions wave form:
i. Multi-vibrator stage
ii. Inverter stage.
iii. Automatic charger
iv. The overall design.
4.1.1 Waveform Analysis for Multi-Vibrator Stage
The pulses produced are square waves which are continuous as the Astable multi-vibrator
switches between the two stages of states.

Figure 4.1 Output of Multi-Vibrator Stage Wave Form

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Figure 4.2 Output of Multivibrator with Digital Oscilloscope

4.1.2 Waveform Analysis for Multi-Vibrator and Inverter Stage
Figure 4.3 shows the output waveform of the inverter after being step-up by the center tapped
transformer. The harmonics produced are high frequencies switching that are relatively more
than the 50Hz frequency. The displayed output waveform is distorted with noise and
interference.

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Figure 4.3 Wave Form of Multi-Vibrator and Inverter Stage

4.1.3 Waveform Analysis for Overall System Design
Figure 4.4 shows the output waveform of the overall system design from the oscilloscope. The
design is no different from the above multi-vibrator inverter stage. The difference is shown on
simulation proteus software. The horizontal axis displays the time scale in seconds while the
vertical axis displays the different voltage levels from the oscilloscope displayed.

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Figure 4.4 Overall System Design Waveform

4.1.4 Waveform Analysis for the Charger

Figure 4.5 shows the output waveform of the charger obtained from the oscilloscope. The
horizontal axis displays the time scale in seconds while the vertical axis displays the different
voltage levels from the oscilloscope displayed.

Figure 4.5 Automatic Charger Output Waveform

The battery needs a rough waveform in other to charge effectively. The above waveform is the
unfiltered waveform produced after rectification of the AC into DC voltage.

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Figure 4.6 Output of Charger with Digital Oscilloscope

4.1.5 Discussion
The design of the circuitry and the proper selection of the electronics components were
presented. The simulation run and tested to obtain the targeted output wave form. The
evaluations of the calculation process in the design phase were fairly analyzed. The schematic
and design was also presented so as to provide a better simulation.
However, there were many problem is happened during simulation some of this are selection of
the electronic equipment, capacity of filtering material when using the protues simulation
software to obtain the required waveform.
Certain sensitive devices run erratically or not at all due to high frequencies spikes and
distortions generated in the production of the AC voltage.
Then from the simulated circuit electrical power can be produced continuously without breaking,
suitable for rural areas camping and vacations. The inverter also serve as an alternative source of
power for homes when electrical power goes off and used to obtain a reliable and economical
source of power. A 24 v dc voltage was converted to a pure sine wave 230v ac voltage.
And we have got out put dc voltage from ac voltage source .The project is conducted by simple
electronic materials like MOSFET,BJT,diode ,resistor,capacitors etc.

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Chapter Five
Conclusion and Recommendation
5.1 Conclusion
From the test carried out and results obtained the system as performed to the desired design
specification. Hence, the set out objective was realized.
In the inverter stage the distortion due to high switching effect of MOSFET is somehow difficult
to produce pure sine wave voltage, even though it has been tried to minimize the switching effect
by using snnuber circuit and also resistors connecting with the gates of the MOSFET to share the
high switching.
As seen from simulated result, it is so interesting to advance the design into fabrication. This is
because every things of the design was satisfactory and has good performance, as well as it
require less coast to develop into hard ware.
In this project work, Astable multivibrator was used to generate the operating frequency of 50Hz
through capacitors and resistors. Utility companies and generators produce sine wave alternating
current (AC) power, which is used by most commonly available appliances today. Inverters take
the direct current (DC) power supplied by a storage battery bank and electrically convert it to
alternating current (AC) power.
The final design consists of a bi-stable multi-vibrator stage and the inverter stage based on
complementary silicon transistors which converts the pulses generated from the multi-vibrator
stage into sine waves coupled to a center tapped transformer to 230VAC at 1200W power. This
power inverter operates using high frequency switching technology.

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5.2 Recommendation
This project has successfully been demonstrated by converting a 24Vdc to 230Vac with an
automatic charger. Further work on this project may include:
The harmonics that are produced using the high frequency switching can be isolated using a
small low-pass filter.
Further work should be done to improve efficiency and total harmonic distortion. With these
additional improvements, the standard can be raised for pure sine wave DC/AC power supplies.
Better PCB software should be used in other to simulate the circuit diagram before building the
hardware. This will ensure high efficiency of the inverter.
Microcontroller can also be used as the voltage comparator and switch between the two batteries.
Finally, depending on the availability of further advance technologies, it is better to inform that
this type of power inverter with automatic charger could be further improved on the better
efficiency and reduced size.

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References
[1] Ganiyu, S. (2004). Design and Construction of a 1KVA Power Inverter, Unpublished B.Tech
Thesis, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso.
[2] Suleiman, D. (2000). Design and Construction of a 500Watts Inverter, Unpublished B.Tech
Thesis, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
[3] Adeyanju, A. Y. (2003). Design and Construction of a 750Watts Inverter, Unpublished
B.Tech Thesis, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
[4] Nelson, J. C. (1986). Basic Operation Amplifier, London, Butter Worth and Co. Limited.
[5] http://www.maxim IC SG 3524 Pulse Width Modulation.
[6] http://www.maxim IC TC 4066BP.
[7] Ronald, J. T. and Neal, S. W. (1998). “Digital System Principle and Applications”, 7th
Edition, Prentice-Hill International Inc., London.
LAUTECH, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.
[8] Theraja, A. K. and Theraja, B. L. (1997). “A text book of Electrical Technology”, 22nd
Edition, S. Chan and Co. Ltd, Delphi.
[9] Thomas, C. B. (1991). “Computer Architecture and Logic Design,” McGraw-Hill, New
York.
[10] Adeyanju, A. Y. (2003). “Design and Construction of a 750Watts Inverter”, Unpublished
B.Tech Thesis, LAUTECH, Ogbomoso, Nigeria.

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Appendix
Multi-vibrator stage

Figure A.1 Multi-Vibrator Circuit and its Wave Diagram

Figure A.2 Inverter Circuit and its Wave Diagram

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Figure A.3 Automatic Charger

Figure A.4 The Overall Integrated Circuit

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Table A1.components of the whole system

Reference Type Value Package
B1 Battery 24v
Br1 2W005G 2W005G BRIDGE2
C1 Capacitor 1µF
C2 Capacitor 1µF
C3 AVX0603Y5V100N 470n 0603
C4 AVX0603Y5V100N 200n 0603
C5 AVX0603Y5V100N 1n 0603
C6 AVX0603Y5V100N 1n 0603

C7 CAP-ELEC 1000µF ELEC-RAD10

C8 CAP 1Nf CAP10

D1 1N4001 1N4001 D041
D3 LED-YELLOW LED-YELLOW
D4 LED-YELLOW LED-YELLOW
Q1 2N697 2N697 T05
Q2 2N697 2N697 T05
Q3 2N6660 2N6660 T039
Q4 2N6660 2N6660 T039

Q5 2N6660 2N6660 T039

Q6 2N6660 2N6660 T039

Q7 2N6660 2N6660 T039
Q8 2N6660 2N6660 T039
Q9 2N6660 2N6660 T039

Q10 2N6660 2N6660 T039

Q11 2N6457 2N6457 T03
Q12 2N3055 2N3055 T03
R1 RES 1K RES40
R2 RES 100K RES40
R3 RES 100K RES40

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R4 RES 1K RES40
R5 RES 1K RES40
R6 RES 1K RES40
R7 RES 10 K RES40

R8 RES 600K RES40

R19 ERJ-3EKF1300V 1300hm

R20 10WATT1R 1R
R21 7WATT5R6 5R6
R22 ERA-S15J100V 100
R23 RES 10k
R24 RES 1k
R25 RES 10k
RV1 POT-HG 10k
RV2 POT-HG 10k
RV3 POT 1k
TR1 TRAN-2P3S TRAN-2P3S
TR2 TRAN-2P2S TRAN-2P2S
U2 LM723 LM723 DIL14
V1 VSINE VSINE

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