Chapter 3

Psychobiology & Psychopharmacology

Function & Activities of the Brain:

- Maintenance of homeostasis
- Regulation of autonomic nervous system (ANS) and hormones
- Control of biological drives and behavior
- Cycle of sleep and wakefulness
- Circadian rhythms
- Conscious mental activity
- Memory
- Social skills

Cellular Composition of the Brain:

- Neurons
o Respond to stimuli
o Conduct electrical impulses
o Release chemicals (neurotransmitters)
- Presynaptic neuron synapse postsynaptic neuron
- Transmitter destruction
o Enzymes
o Reuptake

*which function of the brain controls sleep?

- Circadian rhythm
- Circadian rhythms are the fluctuation of various physiological and behavioral patterns over a 24-hour cycle.
Changes in sleep, body temperature, secretion of hormones such as corticotropin and cortisol, and secretion of
neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine and serotonin are influenced by these rhythms. Homeostasis (A) is the
coordinating and directing of the body’s response to both internal and external changes. ANS regulation refers to
control of communications between the brain and the cardiac muscle, smooth muscle, and glands of which the
internal organs are composed. Electrical impulse conduction (D) is the work of the neurons, not the brain.

Organization of the Brain:

- Brainstem
- Hypothalamus
- Cerebellum
- Cerebrum

Function of Brainstem:
- Core: regulates internal organs & vital functions
- Hypothalamus: basic drives and link between thought and emotion and function of internal organs
- Brainstem: processing center for sensory information
Functions of Cerebellum & Cerebrum:
- Cerebellum
o Regulates skeletal muscle
o Maintains equilibrium
- Cerebrum
o Mental activities
o Conscious sense of being
o Emotional status
o Memory
o Control of skeletal muscles—movement
o Language and communication
*which part of the brain is most responsible with delvering lectures & remembering whether you have eaten?
- Cerebrum
- The cerebrum is responsible for mental activities, memory, language and the ability to communicate, among
other conscious tasks. The brainstem (A) controls functions such as heart rate, breathing, digestion, and sleeping.
The cerebellum (c) regulates skeletal muscle coordination and equilibrium. Finally, the hypothalamus (D) controls
basic drives and provides a link between thought and emotion and function of internal organs; it works with the
brainstem to regulate the entire cycle of sleep and wakefulness, among other things. The important thing to
remember is that it’s not really quite that simple: these parts of the brain have functions that also overlap and
support the actions of the others, providing a lot of internal supports.

Visualizing the Brain:

- Structured imaging techniques
o Computed tomography (CT)
o Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)
- Functional imaging techniques
o Positron emission tomography (PET)
o Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT)
*what neuroimaging technique would reveal problems in the anatomical structure of the brain but NOT problems in
function?
- CT
- Structural imaging techniques (e.g., computed tomography [CT] and magnetic resonance imaging [MRI]) provide
overall images of the brain and the layers of the brain. Functional imaging techniques (e.g., positron emission
tomography [PET] and single photon emission computed tomography [SPECT]) reveal physiological activity in the
brain. Invite students to identify the full meaning of each abbreviation.

Disturbances of Mental Function:

- External: drugs, infection, hormones, trauma
- Genetics
- Neurotransmitters
o Norepinephrine
o Serotonin
o Dopamine
 o Glutamate
o Y-Aminobutyric acid (GABA)
o Neuropeptides
o Acetylcholine

Action of Psychotropic Drugs:

- Pharmacodynamics
o What drugs do and how they do it
o Drug action and drug responses
- Pharmacokinetics (Hint: “ADME”)
o Absorption
o Distribution
o Metabolism
o Excretion
- Pharmacogenetics
o Effects of genetic variation on drug responses

Antianxiety & Hypnotic Drugs

Short-acting sedative-hypnotic
Benzodiazepines sleep agents Melatonin receptor agonists Antidepressants
(“Z-hypnotics”)
Diazepam (Valium) Zolpidem (Ambien) Ramelteon (Rozerem) Many antidepressants have
Clonazepam (Klonopin) Zaleplon (Sonata) Doxepin (Silenor) proven to be effective
Alprazolam (Xanax) Eszopiclone (Lunesta) Suvorexant (Belsomra) treatments for anxiety
Lorazepam (Ativan) Buspirone (BuSpar) disorders.
Flurazepam (Dalmane)
Temazepam (Restoril)
Triazolam (Halcion)
Estazolam (ProSom)
Quazepam (Doral)

Antidepressant Drugs:
- Mechanism of action hypotheses
o Monoamine hypothesis of depression
o Monoamine receptor hypothesis of depression
o Prolonged use hypothesis (leads to increased neurotrophic factor production)

Selective serotonin reuptake
inhibitors (SSRIs)
Fluoxetine (Prozac)
Sertraline (Zoloft)
Paroxetine (Paxil)
Citalopram (Celexa)
Escitalopram (Lexapro)
Fluvoxamine (Luvox)
Norepinephrine and
serotonin-specific
antidepressant
Mirtazapine (Remeron)
Antidepressant Drugs
Serotonin partial agonist
reuptake inhibitor (SPARI)
Vilazodone (Viibryd)
Dual activity makes this a
SPARI
Antidepressant Drugs
Norepinephrine dopamine
reuptake inhibitor
Bupropion (Wellbutrin)
(Zyban)
Serotonin-norepinephrine Serotonin antagonists and
reuptake inhibitors (SNRIs) reuptake inhibitors
Venlafaxine (Effexor) Nefazodone (formerly sold as
Desvenlafaxine (Pristiq) Serzone)
Duloxetine (Cymbalta) Trazodone (formerly sold as
Levomilnacipran (Fetzima) Desyrel) (Oleptro)
- an SNRI with a greater effect on
Brexpiprazole (Rexulti)
norepinephrine reuptake than any Vilazodone (Viibryd)
of the other SNRIs available for Vortioxetine (Trintellix)
treating depression. Increasing
norepinephrine may be
responsible for observed increases
in heart rate and blood pressure
in some patients.
Tricyclic antidepressants (TCAs) MAOIs
Nortriptyline (Pamelor) Organic compounds
Amitriptyline (Elavil) Monoamine oxidase (MAO) =
Imipramine (Tofranil) enzyme that destroys
monoamines
Thus MAOIs (inhibitors)
inhibit MAO’s action
MAOIs increase the synaptic
level of neurotransmitters
Isocarboxazid (Marplan)
Phenelzine (Nardil)
Selegiline (EMSAM)
Tranylcypromine (Parnate)
Mood Stabilizers:
- Lithium (Eskalith, Lithobid)
- Anticonvulsant drugs
o Valproate (Depakote, Depakene)
o Carbamazepine (Equetro, Tegretol)
o Lamotrigine (Lamictal)
o Gabapentin (Neurontin)
o *Anticonvulsant properties derive from the alteration of electrical conductivity in membranes. In
particular, they reduce the firing rate of very-high-frequency neurons in the brain.

Antipsychotic Drugs:
- First-generation, conventional, typical of standard antipsychotic drugs
- Strong antagonists (blocking agents)
o Bind to D2 receptors
o Block attachment of dopamine
o Reduce dopaminergic transmission

1st generation (conventional) antipsychotics drugs

Antagonists of muscarinic receptors for Significant side effects

Acetylcholine Weight gain

Norepinephrine Sedation
Histamine

2nd generation (atypical) antipsychotic drugs:

- Produce fewer extrapyramidal side effects (EPS) - Quetiapine (Seroquel)
- Target both the negative and positive symptoms - Olanzapine (Zyprexa, Zyprexa Relprevv)
- Predominantly D2 (dopamine) and 5-HT2A - Ziprasidone (Geodon)
(serotonin) antagonists (blockers) - Aripiprazole (Abilify)
- Often chosen as first-line treatment - Paliperidone (Invega)
- *These newer agents are often chosen as first-line - Iloperidone (Fanapt)
treatments over the first-generation antipsychotics due a - Lurasidone (Latuda)
more favorable side effect profile. - Asenapine (Saphris)
- Clozapine (Clozaril)
- Risperidone (Risperdal)

Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder Drug Treatment:

- Methylphenidate (Ritalin, Daytrana)
- Dextroamphetamine (Adderall, Vyvanse)
- Atomoxetine (Strattera)
- Guanfacine (Intuniv)
- Clonidine (Kapay)
Drugs for Alzheimer’s Disease:
- Cholinesterase inhibitors (slow the destruction of acetylcholine)
o Tacrine (Cognex)
o Donepezil (Aricept)
o Galantamine (Razadyne)
o Rivastigmine (Exelon)
- Glutamate-blocking agent
o Memantine (Namenda, Namenda XR)

Herbal Medicine:
- Major concerns
o Potential long-term effects
§ Nerve damage
§ Kidney damage
§ Liver damage
o Possibility of adverse chemical reactions
§ With other substances
§ With conventional medications
- * A patient has decreased circulating levels of GABA. Which health problem is this most likely to suggest?
o Anxiety disorder
o The neurotransmitter Y-aminobutyric acid (GABA) seems to play a role in modulating neuronal
excitability and anxiety. Decreased levels are associated with anxiety.
- *cholinesterase inhibitor helps slow the destruction of acetylcholine
o Cholinesterase inhibitors show some efficacy in slowing the rate of memory loss and even improving
memory by inactivating the enzyme that breaks down acetylcholine, cholinesterase, leading to less
destruction of acetylcholine and, therefore, a higher concentration at the synapse. D2 (dopamine) and 5-
HT2A (serotonin) antagonists (blockers) (C and D) are both antidepressants.