International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 121–128

Workpiece surface modification using electrical discharge

machining
J. Simao ∗, H.G. Lee, D.K. Aspinwall, R.C. Dewes, E.M. Aspinwall
School of Engineering, Interdisciplinary Research Centre (IRC) in Materials Processing, University of Birmingham, Edgbaston, Birmingham,
B15 2TT, UK

Received 23 August 2002; received in revised form 10 September 2002; accepted 19 September 2002

Abstract

Electrical discharge machining (EDM) is a widely used process in the mould / die and aerospace industries. Following a brief
summary of the process, the paper reviews published work on the deliberate surface alloying of various workpiece materials using
EDM. Details are given of operations involving powder metallurgy (PM) tool electrodes and the use of powders suspended in the
dielectric fluid, typically aluminium, nickel, titanium, etc. Following this, experimental results are presented on the surface alloying
of AISI H13 hot work tool steel during a die sink operation using partially sintered WC / Co electrodes operating in a hydrocarbon
oil dielectric. An L8 fractional factorial Taguchi experiment was used to identify the effect of key operating factors on output
measures (electrode wear, workpiece surface hardness, etc.). With respect to microhardness, the percentage contribution ratios (PCR)
for peak current, electrode polarity and pulse on time were ~24, 20 and 19%, respectively. Typically, changes in surface metallurgy
were measured up to a depth of ~30 µm (with a higher than normal voltage of ~270 V) and an increase in the surface hardness
of the recast layer from ~620 HK0.025 up to ~1350 HK0.025.
 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: EDM; EDT; Texturing; Surface alloying; Powder metallurgy

1. Introduction
Since its development in the mid 1940s, EDM has
become widely used for the manufacture of components
such as moulds / dies and aeroengine parts. The process
is thermal in nature with material removal occurring via
the discharge of energy between a tool and workpiece
electrode, which are separated by a small gap (~5–100
µm depending on electrical parameters) filled with a
dielectric fluid, typically a hydrocarbon oil or deionised
water. A DC pulse generator is used to initiate discrete
sparks which have a duration in the region of 0.2–100
µs, followed by a similar period during which deionis-
ation of the dielectric occurs and the gap is flushed of
debris [1]. Preferred polarity arrangements for different
electrode and workpiece materials ensure that the work-
∗
Corresponding author. Tel.: +44-121-414-3541; fax: +44-121-
414-3541.
E-mail address: j.m.t.simao@bham.ac.uk (J. Simao).
piece rather than the tool suffers the majority of erosion
(~50–95%), however, some material is inevitably lost by
the tool electrode. The last decade has seen significant
development of EDM technology in terms of generator
design, with the use of fuzzy logic, high frequency
‘nano-pulse’ operation, EDM ‘milling’ using simple
electrodes, etc. [2]. There is also growing interest in the
use of ‘greener’ more eco-friendly water-based dielec-
trics [3]. Similarly, the range of applications has
expanded to encompass the growing requirement for
micro-scale features including holes down to 5 µm in
diameter [4,5].
A number of EDM process configurations are cur-
rently employed in industry, involving die sinking and
wire cutting, together with more specialised formats such
as electrical discharge texturing (EDT) [6] and electrical
discharge grinding (EDG). The latter process is increas-
ingly being used for the manufacture of polycrystalline
diamond (PCD) cutting tools [7,8], however, while there
are hybrid machines which utilise both abrasive grinding
and spark erosion, the vast majority of commercial sys-

0890-6955/03/$ - see front matter  2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 8 9 0 - 6 9 5 5 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 1 8 7 - 6
122 J. Simao et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 121–128
tems employ no abrasives and here the term is a mis-
nomer, stemming primarily from the use of a rotating
wheel electrode and similarity with a tool and cutter
grinder configuration. With such machines, material
removal is entirely due to the spark discharge, either
when using the face or periphery of the graphite / cop-
per wheel.
At present, the available techniques for enhancing the
surface mechanical / physical / topographical properties
of components subject to wear, corrosion / oxidation,
etc. include: carburising, nitriding, chromium plating and
in some instances, chemical / physical vapour deposition
(CVD / PVD), ion beam techniques and plasma arc
spraying [9]. Such processes can offer significant pro-
perty enhancements, however, they are secondary oper-
ations which either require expensive in-house equip-
ment or the use of sub-contract companies. They
therefore add to costs and lead times, in some instances,
significantly so. In addition, components that have been
manufactured using standard EDM techniques may
require prior removal of the white / recast layer before
applying or depositing a hardmetal or ceramic coating
because of adverse residual stress conditions or
unfavourable mechanical properties. An alternative
approach is deliberate surface alloying / modification
during EDM which dispenses with the need for sup-
plementary processing / coating following machining,
thereby providing lower costs and more flexibility.
2. EDM surface alloying / modification method
Spark discharge temperatures of up to 20,000 °C have
been reported [1]. Consequently, surface alloying is larg-
ely unavoidable albeit at a low level, even when using
standard electrodes with preferred polarity. Deliberate
alloying requires the use of appropriate electrodes,
and/or the addition of powders suspended in the dielec-
tric fluid which itself plays a key role. The former
approach is the most widely published. Use of powders
has grown in recent years as a means of increasing pro-
ductivity and reducing workpiece surface roughness /
associated microcracks, due to greater electrical conduc-
tivity in the spark gap / reduction in the breakdown volt-
age and higher discharge frequency. Lower electrode
wear with water dielectrics containing a powder suspen-
sion is also possible [10–13]. The powders (typically
⬍ 100 µm) include graphite, silicon, silicon carbide,
aluminium, aluminium oxide, nickel, titanium, chro-
mium and copper. While academic and industrial work
indicates significant benefits, little is detailed on possible
problems associated with the cost / life of powders, fluid
concentration / circulation / filtration, agglomeration and
arcing. Surface alloying work using this technique for
the accretion of titanium carbide layers is detailed by
[14,15], while [16] used nickel powders to double the
surface hardness of an aluminium bronze.
Typically, the properties / characteristics of materials
chosen for tool electrodes when EDM particularly die
sinking, relate primarily to electrical conductivity, melt-
ing / sublimation temperature and wear resistance. The
rapid degradation of tool electrodes is in general not a
desirable feature. Under such circumstances mould / die
accuracy and possibly integrity may be significantly
compromised, in the latter case due to debris accumu-
lation in the spark gap and subsequent arcing. There are
also obvious adverse effects in terms of the higher costs
associated with electrode supply, workpiece productivity
and dielectric filtration. Nevertheless, research has been
carried out in recent years to determine the possibility
of using electrodes as feed stock material, in an effort
to produce significant workpiece surface alloying and in
so doing, enhance the wear (abrasion) and corrosion /
oxidation resistance of the machined surface [17–28].
The electrodes employed are generally produced using
a PM route, in order to achieve the necessary combi-
nation of operating characteristics. Fig. 1 details deliber-
ate surface alloying using an appropriate PM tool elec-
trode and a hydrocarbon dielectric fluid for the texturing
and surface alloying of a workpiece, in this instance a
cold mill work roll, however, it could also be a mould
/ die cavity or alternatively an aeroengine component
such as a snubber contact area on a low pressure com-
pressor blade.
A wide range of powders with alternative compo-
sitions can be used for the manufacture of tool elec-
trodes. These tend to be materials which can form /
transfer hard particles such as carbides and may incor-
porate a secondary binder phase, e.g. WC/Co,
TiC/WC/Co, W/CrC/Cu, etc. By using electrodes made
from different materials, the possibility exists to ‘engin-
eer’ one or more alloyed layers (which may be func-
tionally graded) with different mechanical properties.
The compacting and sintering conditions under which
the PM electrodes are produced greatly affect their per-
formance. Fig. 2 details measurements of density and
electrical resistivity for various green compact, partially
sintered and fully sintered PM electrodes produced from
WC / 6 wt.% Co binder. While electrodes sintered to
full density may offer high conductivity and consistent
sparking, the release of material is generally low and
consequently, surface alloying limited.
The aim of the present work was to identify the effect
of relevant EDM operating parameters (voltage, current,
pulse on-time, polarity and capacitance) on material
removal rate (MRR), electrode wear, workpiece surface
roughness and surface microhardness, in order to achieve
enhanced surface alloying.
 J. Simao et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 121–128
Fig. 1. Schematic diagram of the EDM surface alloying process.
Fig. 2. Variation of electrical resistivity (⍀m) and density (g/cm3)
for a range of WC/Co PM tool electrodes.
3. Experimental work
3.1. Equipment, workpiece and tool electrode
materials
Die-sink surface alloying tests were performed using a
miniature servo head unit mounted on an EDG machine
connected to two Spark Tec International generators.
The first of these employed an open circuit voltage of
~125 V, the second ~270 V, see Fig. 3. A hydrocarbon
oil dielectric BP 180 was used with a 1 µm filtration
system. Fluid was supplied to the electrode / workpiece
via two flexible hoses at a flow rate of ~2 l/min. Figs.
3 and 4 show the machining arrangement with details of
the servo head assembly, tool electrode and workpiece
material. The workpiece material was AISI H13 hot
work tool steel hardened to 600–640 HK(0.025) which
was a square sectioned block approximately
120 × 120 × 50 mm. The cylindrical PM tool electrodes
were made from WC / 6 wt.% Co binder in a partially
sintered state and were turned to a size of 6 mm
diameter × 55 mm long prior to use.
Workpiece surface roughness parameters (2–D), were
measured using a Rank Taylor Hobson (RTH) Form
Talysurf-120L (cut-off length of 0.8 mm, evaluation
123
Fig. 3. EDG unit with retrofit servo head assembly.
length of 4 mm). Samples for metallographic examin-
ation were electrical discharge wire machined from the
larger block using a Charmilles Technologies Robofil
200. Workpiece subsurface microstructure was analysed
using a Leitz Wetzlar optical microscope fitted with a
JVC CCD camera, connected to a Mitsubishi DAT
image recorder and laser printers. Microhardness depth
profile measurements were made on a Mitutoyo MVK-
G3 hardness tester using a Knoop indenter, a load of 25
g and an indentation time of 15 s. Statistical analysis
was undertaken using Minitab 13.1 software.
3.2. Experimental parameters and procedures
In order to quantify the effect of EDM generator
operating parameters, an L8 Taguchi type layout /
experiment was used. Fractional factorials on which this
is based, involve substantially fewer experiments than
their full factorial counterparts and it was possible in the
124 J. Simao et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 121–128

Table 2
L8 orthogonal array

Test Factors and interactions

A B AB C AC E (BC) D (ABC)

1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1
2 1 1 1 2 2 2 2
3 1 2 2 1 1 2 2
4 1 2 2 2 2 1 1
5 2 1 2 1 2 1 2
6 2 1 2 2 1 2 1
7 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
8 2 2 1 2 1 1 2

3.3. Results and discussion

Table 3 shows results of the Taguchi experiment,

Fig. 4. Detail of machining arrangement.
present work to assess 5 factors each at two levels with
two interactions by performing eight tests and a confir-
mation test. The tool electrode cross sectional area was
kept small (6 mm diameter) in order to provide a realistic
energy density, despite the low levels of current
employed and give meaningful electrode wear data. The
die sink test arrangement, as opposed to use of a scan-
ning mode, was also useful in identifying any problems
associated with arcing due to electrode debris accumu-
lation in the spark gap. Table 1 details the variable and
fixed factor levels, while Table 2 gives the L8 orthogonal
array. A confirmation test was subsequently performed
with appropriate operating levels set to give a maximum
workpiece surface hardness.
where values of the various output measures are given
for the eight tests. The main effects plots of the means
for the output measures are given in Figs. 5–8.
Essentially, within a figure, plots with a steeper slope
and longer line indicate a factor that has a greater impact
on the output measure. Where lines are similar in slope
and length the factors would generally have a similar
effect on the output measure, ie. no one factor has a
more significant effect than another. The main effects
plot for VTW showed the significant (at the 5% level)
influence of capacitance (factor E) on the output. The
calculated PCR was 苲73%. This gives the percentage
that each factor contributes to the total variation in the
results and is a measure of how much the performance
could be improved if the factor was controlled exactly.
The main effects plot for MRR also showed the signifi-
cant influence of capacitance, here the PCR was 苲49%,
while the electrode polarity (factor D) produced a value
of 苲18%. The main effects plot for Ra highlighted the

Table 1
Rationalised factors and levels for L8 orthogonal array

Fixed factors Level

Workpiece material & hardness (HK(0.025)) AISI H13 (~600–640)
Tool electrode material WC/Co (partially sintered at 1000 °C)
Tool electrode diameter (mm) ~6
Pulse off-time (µs) 20
Peck interval (s) and lift (mm) 15 and 5
Machining time (min) 60
Dielectric type BP 180 hydrocarbon oil
Variable factors Levels
Low (1) High (2)
A Open circuit voltage (V) ~125 ~270
B Peak current (A) 1 3∗
C Pulse on-time (µs) 20 40
D Electrode polarity + ⫺
E Capacitance (µF) 0 0.1

∗
Only 2.9 A available with the ~270 V generator.
 J. Simao et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 121–128 125

Table 3
Taguchi experiment—results

Volumetric tool wear VTW Workpiece MRR Workpiece surface roughness Workpiece surface microhardness (HK
(mm3) (mm3/min) Ra (µm) 0.025)

1 2.035 0.002 1.765 579

2 32.556 0.051 1.390 903
3 63.133 0.123 1.420 1095
4 2.826 0.009 3.206 789
5 3.109 0.011 2.340 729
6 22.778 0.033 2.950 1029
7 35.099 0.041 3.330 884
8 4.239 0.022 3.004 1351

Fig. 8. Main effects plot means for workpiece surface hardness

Fig. 5. Main effects plot means for volumetric tool wear (VTW). (HK0.025).

significant influence of open circuit voltage (factor A),

electrode polarity (factor D) and peak current (factor B).
The corresponding PCR values were 苲40, 苲26 and
苲17%, respectively. The main effects plot for microhard-
ness shows comparatively little difference in the slopes
of the lines, suggesting that each factor had a similar
influence on the output measure. The PCRs confirmed
this with voltage (factor A), peak current (factor B),
pulse on-time (factor C) and electrode polarity (factor
D) calculated at 苲12, 24, 19 and 20%, respectively. The
effect of capacitance was sufficiently small to be pooled
Fig. 6. Main effects plot means for metal removal rate (MRR).
as part of the error. Based on the analysis of variance
none of the factors were found to be significant at the 5%
level. Use of a Daniel’s Half Normal plot and subsequent
interaction diagrams, suggested that in nearly all cases,
the first order interactions AB and AC were not signifi-
cant and were therefore pooled into the experimental
error. The PCR with respect to error was ⬍ 14% for all
output measures, indicating that no other important fac-
tors had been omitted.
The results for the confirmation test are detailed in
Table 5. Here, the operating parameter levels were selec-
ted in order to maximise workpiece surface microhard-
ness (~270V, 3A, 40 µs, 0.1 µF and negative polarity).
Fig. 7. Main effects plot means for workpiece surface roughness A cross-sectional photomicrograph of the die-sink
(Ra).
machined surface and the corresponding microhardness
depth profile are shown in Figs. 9 and 10, respectively.
The alloyed/modified layer had relatively few
microcracks, an average thickness of ~30 µm and a sur-
126 J. Simao et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 121–128
Table 5
Confirmation test—results
Output measures
Volumetric tool wear VTW Workpiece MRR (mm3/min)
(mm3)
96.48 0.216
Fig. 9. Cross-section of die sink surface machined using a partially
sintered WC/Co tool electrode (Taguchi confirmation test).
Fig. 10. Microhardness depth profile of die sink surface machined
using a partially sintered WC/Co tool electrode (Taguchi confir-
mation test).
face hardness of 1319 HK(0.025). This reflected the
particular levels of electrical parameters chosen. Pre-
vious work has shown the integrity, uniformity and hard-
ness of the white layer to be highly dependent on elec-
trode material and electrical parameters, the higher the
discharge energy, in particular the current component,
the greater the level of surface alloying [28]. This can
present problems, however, with respect to the required
workpiece surface roughness, in that low values of Ra
can only be obtained with low levels of discharge
energy. The use of Taguchi type experimental design
techniques enables the relative importance of factors and
their levels to be assessed in order to maximise / mini-
mise the desired response. In some cases however, a
compromise solution is required, for example, in the
present research a high workpiece surface hardness with
an acceptable (low) workpiece surface roughness. Here,
the only option is to assess the relative merits of parti-
Workpiece surface roughness Workpiece surface
Ra (µm) microhardness HK 0.025)
1.59 1319
cular responses. Unfortunately, for factors with no more
than two levels, there is no compromise situation, other
than where an interaction may occur.
The surface hardness value of the recast surface
alloyed layer was substantially higher than either that of
the hardened AISI H13 steel (~600–640 HK(0.025)) or
the typical recast layer hardness (~600 HK(0.025)) when
using ‘conventional’ graphite or copper tool electrodes
[29] (this low value of hardness is due to retained austen-
ite, which will transform during initial use, eg. rolling,
to give a higher hardness—~800 HK(0.025) and greater
toughness than with layers composed of martensite [30]).
Research on moulds / dies and also cutting tools
machined by EDM using PM electrodes made from pure
titanium, has shown that the modified / alloyed surface
is three times as wear resistant as one without such a
layer and that is also more wear resistant than a TiN
PVD coated surface [18].
Fig. 11 shows sample glow discharge optical emission
spectroscopy (GDOES) results from EDM surface
alloying work undertaken by the authors, which has a
bearing on the present work. The machining operation
involved EDM scanning / milling of AISI H13 rather
than die sinking and a voltage of ~270 V but with a
current of 1 A and a partially sintered / dewaxed WC /
6 wt.% Co binder PM electrode. The gradient transfer
of elements from the electrode, in particular tungsten,
together with pyrolytic carbon from the hydrocarbon
dielectric up to a depth of ~5 µm can clearly be seen.
The thickness of the recast layer in this case was 10–
15 µm. While giving elements, the GDOES data do not
indicate the presence of compounds such as WC. Simi-
larly, whether any compounds were directly transferred
from the electrode or produced via the discharge process
following elemental transfer. Plateau effects in relation
to elements such as carbon, suggest the presence of com-
pounds, eg. WC, rather than atoms in solution, which
give a gradual decay. Research is at present underway
to resolve these aspects.
4. Conclusions
The Taguchi approach employed enabled the identifi-
cation of significant factors and their associated levels
on specific output measures. Selection of appropriate
operating values from these data enabled preferred work-
 J. Simao et al. / International Journal of Machine Tools & Manufacture 43 (2003) 121–128
Fig. 11. Presence of elements in the electrical discharge machined workpiece.
piece characteristics to be achieved. The use of partially
sintered electrodes made from WC/Co resulted in the
formation of a uniform alloyed / modified surface layer
with relatively few microcracks and an average thickness
of up to 30 µm. Results from the confirmation experi-
ment showed an increase in workpiece surface
microhardness from ~640 HK(0.025) to 1319 HK(0.025)
using the EDM operating parameter levels suggested by
the main effects plot. This increased value compares
extremely favourably with hard chromium surfaces, typi-
cally applied by electroplating, which are extensively
used for cold mill work rolls producing steel and alu-
minium alloy strip / sheet. While voltage was shown by
the analysis to have an effect on workpiece microhard-
ness, it was not as marked as had been anticipated. This
could have been due to the fact that not all combinations
of factors were tested using the Taguchi methodology.
Even so, the very low error PCR value (for microhard-
ness ~6%) implies that all the major effects were taken
into account.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Engineering and
Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC), Univer-
sities UK and the School of Engineering for the pro-
vision of funding. We are indebted to Agie-Charmilles,
Alusuisse, Dynacast, Erodex, Rolls-Royce, Spark Tec
International and The Gauge and Toolmaker’s Associ-
ation (GTMA) for additional funding / technical support.
Additional thanks go to Mr K. Morgan and Mr S. Mor-
gan of V.I.P. Ltd for their kind help.
127
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