Composite Materials:

Materials, Manufacturing, Analysis,

Design and Repair

Professor Kuen Y. Lin

William E. Boeing Department of
Aeronautics and Astronautics
University of Washington
Seattle, WA 98195

Copyright ©2014, by Kuen Y. Lin

All Rights Reserved. No part of this book may be

reproduced, in any form or by any means, electronic
or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or
by any information storage and retrieval systems,
without prior written permission from the author.
About the Author
Dr. Kuen Y. Lin is currently a Professor in the William E. Boeing
Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics at the University of Washington,
Seattle, Washington. Dr. Lin received his Master’s degree in 1973 and Ph.D.
degree in 1977 from Massachusetts Institute of Technology, specializing in
Composite Materials and Aircraft Structures.

Dr. Lin has over 40 years of research and development experience in

advanced composite materials and structures. He has pioneered a singular
hybrid finite element method for the accurate analysis of bi-material fracture
problems (1976), and co-developed the well-known "Mar-Lin" fracture model
(1977) for predicting the strength of composites with holes or cut-outs. During
the period 1978-1983, Dr. Lin was a senior specialist engineer at Boeing,
working on Boeing’s first major composite aircraft program, ACDP. Since his
appointment to the University of Washington faculty in 1984, he has developed
an extensive research program in aerospace composite materials. He has been
awarded over 50 research grants and contracts by FAA, NASA, DOD, Toray and
Boeing in the analysis, design, testing, and repair of advanced composite
materials and aircraft structures. Results of Dr. Lin’s research have contributed
directly to design, analysis, and regulatory compliance of aerospace vehicles
made of composite materials.

In addition to his research endeavors, Dr. Lin has concentrated his

teaching on the subjects of composite materials, aircraft structures, and finite
element methods. He has received Professor of Year Awards three times from
the William E. Boeing Department of Aeronautics and Astronautics for his
excellence in teaching and research in aircraft composite structures. In 2005, in
partnership with Boeing, Dr. Lin successfully developed the Award-winning UW-
Boeing Certificate Program in Aircraft Composite Structural Analysis and Design
(ACSAD). The certificate program provides working engineers with state-of-the-
art training in analysis tools and design methodology necessary to develop
aerospace composite structural hardware. To date, Prof. Lin has taught ACSAD
certificate courses to more than 1,500 Boeing engineers. Based on his
contribution to several high-value educational programs, Professor Lin was
awarded the prestigious University of Washington’s Presidential Award on
Distinguished Contributions to Life-long Learning in 2014. Recently, under the
ii
sponsorship of Boeing LTD and UW PCE, Prof. Lin has developed an online
course on Composite Materials. More than 11,000 students from 151 countries
have enrolled in this course that started in November 18, 2014.

iii
 CONTENTS
Preface................................................................................. ix

Topic 1 Introduction ............................................................. 1

1.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 1
1.2 Composite Material Forms................................................................ 6
1.3 Typical Composite Materials ............................................................. 8
1.4 Composite Material Applications ...................................................... 10
1.5 Summary ........................................................................................... 20
1.6 References......................................................................................... 21
1.7 Review Questions .............................................................................. 22

Topic 2 Differences Between Metals and Composites ........... 23

2.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 23
2.2 Ductility ............................................................................................. 23
2.3 Anisotropy ......................................................................................... 27
2.4 Stretching and Bending/Twisting or Shear Coupling ........................ 30
2.5 Tailored Properties............................................................................ 32
2.6 Fatigue Resistance............................................................................. 34
2.7 Corrosion Resistance ......................................................................... 36
2.8 Delamination ..................................................................................... 36
2.9 Discontinuous Stresses...................................................................... 38
2.10 Fracture Behavior and Modeling .................................................... 39
2.11 Damage Tolerance .......................................................................... 42
2.12 Environmental Effects ..................................................................... 43
2.13 Inspection and Repairability............................................................ 44
2.14 Reduction in Part Counts ................................................................ 45
2.15 Summary ......................................................................................... 46
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 2.16 References....................................................................................... 47
2.17 Review Questions ............................................................................ 48

Topic 3 Material Properties .................................................. 49

3.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 49
3.2 Fiber Materials .................................................................................. 50
3.2.1 Three Common Fiber Types ....................................................... 53
3.3 Matrix Materials ................................................................................ 59
3.3.1 Requirements for Matrix............................................................ 59
3.3.2 Types of Matrix .......................................................................... 61
3.3.3 Polymer Fundamentals .............................................................. 61
3.3.4 Polymer Matrix for Composites ................................................. 66
3.3.5 Shear Stress Transfer ................................................................. 67
3.4 Interface ............................................................................................ 68
3.5 Prepreg Fabrication ........................................................................... 69
3.6 Environmental Effects ....................................................................... 71
3.7 Summary ........................................................................................... 75
3.8 References......................................................................................... 76
3.9 Review Questions .............................................................................. 77

Topic 4 Tooling and Manufacturing ...................................... 79

4.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 79
4.2 Manufacturing Fundamentals ........................................................... 80
4.3 Bag Molding and Cure Cycle ............................................................. 85
4.4 Hand Layup Method.......................................................................... 89
4.5 Automated Manufacturing Methods ................................................ 91
4.6 Resin Infusion Process ....................................................................... 97
4.7 Manufacturing of Thermoplastic Composites................................... 103
4.8 Tooling Considerations...................................................................... 104
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 4.9 Warpage, Springback, Bridging and Thin Out ................................... 106
4.10 Summary ......................................................................................... 110
4.11 References....................................................................................... 111
4.12 Review Questions ............................................................................ 112

Topic 5 Mechanics of Lamina ................................................ 114

5.1 Elasticity of Isotropic Materials ......................................................... 114
5.1.1 Definition of Stress ..................................................................... 115
5.1.2 Definition of Strain ..................................................................... 120
5.1.3 Elastic Constants ....................................................................... 123
5.1.4 Hooke’s Law for Linear Elastic Isotropic Materials .................... 126
5.1.5 Thermal and Moisture Effects.................................................... 129
5.1.6 Uniaxial Material Test ................................................................ 130
5.2 Orthotropic Materials ....................................................................... 131
5.3 Mechanics of a Unidirectional Composite ........................................ 133
5.3.1 Stress-Strain Relations in Along the 1-2 Axes ............................ 133
5.3.2 Effects of Temperature and Moisture Changes ......................... 135
5.3.3 Stress-Strain Relations in Arbitrary X-Y Axes ............................. 136
5.3.4 Extension-Shear Coupling .......................................................... 137
5.3.5 Effects of Fiber Angle on Material Properties ............................ 139
5.4 Examples ........................................................................................... 141
5.5 Appendix A ........................................................................................ 147
A1: Transformed Compliance Matrix [𝑆̅]. ........................................... 147
A2: Transformed Stiffness Matrix [𝑄̅ ] . ............................................... 147
A3: Transformed CTE {} and CME { ............................................... 148
5.6 References......................................................................................... 149
5.7 Review Questions .............................................................................. 149

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Topic 6 Mechanics of A Laminate ......................................... 152
6.1 Construction of Multi-angle Laminate .............................................. 152
6.2 Classical Lamination Theory (CLT) ..................................................... 153
6.3 Applications of CLT ............................................................................ 157
6.4 Effective Material Properties ............................................................ 161
6.5 Examples ........................................................................................... 163
6.6 Summary ........................................................................................... 174
6.7 Review Questions .............................................................................. 175

Topic 7 Design Methodology ................................................ 177

7.1 Introduction ...................................................................................... 177
7.2 Design Fundamentals ........................................................................ 177
7.3 Strengths and Weaknesses of Composites ....................................... 178
7.4 Cost Study of Metal vs. Composites .................................................. 181
7.5 General Design Considerations ......................................................... 182
7.6 Stacking Sequence Guidelines........................................................... 186
7.7 Composite Part Layout ...................................................................... 188
7.8 Model Based Definition (MBD) ......................................................... 189
7.9 Summary ........................................................................................... 191
7.10 References....................................................................................... 192
7.11 Review Questions ............................................................................ 193

Topic 8 Inspection and Repair .............................................. 194

8.1 Typical In-Service Damage ................................................................ 194
8.2 Non-Destructive Inspection .............................................................. 199
8.3 Probability of Detection (POD).......................................................... 204
8.4 Repair Methods ................................................................................. 206
8.5 Analysis of Repair Joints .................................................................... 214
8.6 Summary ........................................................................................... 218
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8.7 References......................................................................................... 219
8.8 Review Questions .............................................................................. 220

viii
PREFACE
This text provides supplemental reading materials for a MOOC (Massive
Open Online Course) entitled, “Composite Materials Overview for Engineers”
offered by the University of Washington via Edx, beginning November 18, 2014.
(https://www.edx.org/course/uwashingtonx/uwashingtonx-aa432x-composite-
materials-1809#.VDAU8E0tCeB). Composite materials such as carbon/epoxy
have been increasingly utilized for the high performance structures to improve
performance and save weight. These materials possess excellent strength and
stiffness at a low density. Additionally, unlike conventional engineering
materials, composites can be custom tailored to achieve their optimal
properties. Other benefits of composites are their superior resistance to fatigue
and corrosion. Millions of fibers that are embedded in the material can
effectively resist rapid crack propagation and reduce the chance of a
catastrophic failure. As such, typical composite parts can be designed in large
pieces which significantly reduce the part counts as well as machining and
assembly costs. Also, composites made of a polymeric (plastic) matrix have
much better resistance to corrosion than metals. Thus, high performance
composite structures such as aircraft wings and empennages do not require as
frequent inspections as metallic structures. This significantly reduces the cost of
maintenance and thus reduces the life cycle cost of composite hardware.
Despite these advantages, composites also have weaknesses as well. For
example, laminated composites generally have weak out-of-plane properties
and they are prone to delamination. In addition, polymeric composites have
relative low resistance to impact, and the efficiency of bolted joints is poor
compared with metals. Precision manufacturing techniques utilizing an
autoclave are costly and not affordable to many industries. Design methodology
is also drastically different due to the anisotropic nature of the material.
Methods for damage inspection as well as structural repair are quite different
too. Therefore in order to design an efficient, cost effective high performance
composite structure, a solid knowledge of the material behavior, manufacturing
methods, design methodology as well as repair technique is required as they are
intrinsically linked. This text is written toward that goal.

This book presents an introduction of composite technologies for high

performance structures from engineering design, manufacturing, analysis, and
repair viewpoints. The book is divided into 8 distinct subtopics. First, the
ix
material forms of high performance composites, benefits of using composites as
well as the application history are introduced. Next, how the fundamental
differences between composites and metals affect the design process is
detailed. Then, the composition of a composite and the constituents’ functions
are described. Afterward, the tooling and manufacture technologies are
explained, with popular methods for fabricating composites described. After
understanding the material properties and manufacturing techniques, methods
for the structural analysis of composites are explained in details, with Classical
Lamination Theory being the primary focus. Finally, the design, inspection and
repair of composite components are covered. Because this book is focused
primarily on aerospace structures, much of the discussion is directed toward
airplane and high performance structural design; however, the commentary and
suggestions are equally applicable to other fields such as automotive, sports,
marine, and energy industries.

The content of this book is primarily derived from the author’s 32 years
of teaching materials and research results. Similar content has been taught to
students at the University of Washington and to over 1,500 engineers in aircraft
industry. As can be seen, the course materials cover both engineering
fundamentals and practical applications. This treatment bridges the gap
between academia and industry and has been well received by university
students and working engineers.

Finally, I would like to express my sincere thanks to Luke I. Richard, a

Ph.D. student in the William E. Boeing Department of the University of
Washington for his help in preparing most of the manuscripts based on my
lecture notes. I also want to acknowledge the long-term collaboration and
support from the University of Washington’s Professional and Continuing
Education (PCE) unit. In particular, many thanks are due to Emily West of the
UW PCE for her patience, encouragement, and strong support of the composites
educational programs that I directed in the past decade. I am also indebted to
The Boeing Company for supporting my research in composite materials in the
past 30 years. Some of my research results on damage tolerance and aging
degradation are given in this book. Since 2004, I have had opportunities to work
with Boeing Learning, Training and Development (LTD) group on the 787
composites training programs. I am very grateful for the support of Boeing
training activities by Dr. Michael Richey, Associate Technical Fellow, Barry
McPherson, and Dave French of Boeing LTD. The collaboration among Boeing
x
LTD, UW PCE and me has successfully resulted in several prestigious corporate
training awards, including the top excellence Award from the ASEE in 2011. I am
also thankful to students at the University of Washington, many professionals at
Boeing LTD and UW PCE, who have inspired me and interacted with me on
composites education.

xi
Topic 1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Introduction
Composite materials have been utilized in structures for much of human
history and are present in nature as they provide a superior structural material.
Composites are simply the combination of two visibly distinct constituents into
a single material. A typical composite has two parts: a strong, stiff material,
commonly referred to as the fiber, that provides the strength and rigidity which
is embedded in a second material, called the matrix, which serves to bind and
protect these fibers.

As seen in Figure 1.1, composites engineering is a highly integrated

process, requiring understanding of all facets, from the material mechanics to
the manufacturing and repair of the part to be constructed. No single piece of a
successful composite design can be completed in isolation because the interplay
between the various design components must be considered. For example, a
composite designer should understand basic material properties and
manufacturing methods. Without such knowledge, the design may not be
fabricated cost effectively or may not be producible at all. A good composite
part should be the integrated effort of materials, manufacturing, analysis,
design, testing, inspection and repair. The successful integration has the
potential to result in a component that vastly outperforms a metallic design. In
this book, we will discuss all topics except the Model-based engineering (MBE)
which deals with CATIV5 design.

1
 Figure 1.1: Scope of Composite Engineering

Why Composites?

Composites have become the material of choice for high performance

structures, but before simply utilizing this material in a design, the question of
“why composites” should be asked. Understanding the function of the fiber and
matrix as well as the available material forms will help determine the most
suitable choice of composite. Additionally, changing fiber angles helps to
determine the response of a composite part, allowing for the material
properties to be tailored to the application.

Applications in high performance structures take advantage of all the

above properties of composite materials. Industries as diverse as aerospace,
energy, medical and sporting goods have all widely employed composite
materials including glass, carbon and Kevlar fibers to best suit their customers’
needs. In particular, composites are highly advantageous for aircraft structures,
leading to increased usage and growth in the industry.

2
What is a Composite? A brief history

As described earlier, a composite is a combination of two or more

distinct materials with a distinct, macroscopic interface which achieve the best
properties not possessed by any constituent acting alone. The most commonly
encountered composite in high performance structures is Carbon Fiber
Reinforced Plastic (CFRP), however composites are common in everyday life as
well. Just as CFRP is the combination of two materials to provide the best
properties, so are concrete and wood.

The first composites were natural composites, such as wood, which is

still commonly utilized in construction today. Wood is a fibrous structural tissue
which consists of cellulose fibers embedded in a matrix of lignin. As a result, a
piece of wood is very good in tension and compression along the grain of the
material, which is parallel to the cellulose fibers, but has less strength across the
grain. This response is typical of all composites that have a majority of their
fibers aligned in one direction. In order to overcome this limitation, the ancient
Mesopotamians fabricated the first plywood. Plywood (see Figure 1.2) is made
by gluing wood at different angles to give better properties in all directions
compared to natural wood. The only difference between these composites and
high performance composites is the basic materials: carbon fibers instead of
cellulose and plastics instead of lignin; the basic configuration is the same.

Figure 1.2: The wood fibers (left) and laminated plywood (right)

The above can be considered continuous fiber composites, as the fibers

in the pieces of wood run the length of the part. Another form of composites is
discontinuously reinforced composites. Concrete typifies this variety, visible in
these materials are loose stones (aggregate) which provide reinforcement to the
cement. As the stones do not run the length of the part the composite is
considered to be discontinuously reinforced, but the stones still provide
significantly higher compressive strength to the composite. Unfortunately, the
tensile strength of this composite is still low, so a third material is added for
3
reinforcement. Most commonly this is steel reinforcing bars (rebar), creating a
three part composite made of cement (matrix), aggregate (discontinuous
reinforcement) and rebar (continuous reinforcement) that has good properties
in compression and tension.

Figure 1.3: Concrete is reinforced discontinuously with aggregate (left) and

continuously with steel rebar (right)

Why were Composites developed?

The need to create a composite as opposed to simply utilizing the

individual elements is due to the shortcomings of the latter. For example carbon
fibers are very strong and very stiff, but also brittle. This means that the carbon
fibers may suddenly break with very little change in length and can be easily
damaged by impacts or abrasion. Meanwhile, epoxies are weak and soft, but
they have very large strain to failure, allowing them to stretch significantly
before failing. Subsequently, combining these two materials provides a superior
composite which retains the strength and stiffness of the carbon fibers while
the epoxy binds and protects the fibers from external damage.

The two or more constituents of a composite can largely be divided into

two classes: reinforcements and binders. For high performance structures, the
reinforcing material is typically a multitude of very tiny strands of materials,
leading to them being described as the fibers. Meanwhile the material which
serves to hold the fibers together is called the matrix. A third component which
is not visible is the interface. This surface between the fiber and the matrix is
critical to ensuring a high quality composite. The fiber and matrix must have a

4
strong interface to ensure that the composite behaves as a single material to
provide the best combination of properties (see Figure 1.4).

Figure 1.4: Composites such as carbon fiber reinforced polymers (CFRP)

combine fibers and a binder (matrix)

As a result of this combination of properties, composites can then be

designed to obtain the optimal properties in categories such as strength,
stiffness, weight, fatigue life, impact resistance, thermal expansion and
corrosion resistance. The synergy allows for improvements which are simply not
possible in non-composite materials. For example, the fibers serve to arrest
fatigue cracks in the matrix, improving the fatigue performance of composite
materials.

Additionally, for every application, the optimum material properties will

be different. Composites have an advantage in this case since the material
properties of composites are extremely customizable. Not only can different
combinations of materials be used, but the angle at which each layer (called a
ply or lamina) is placed and their order (the stacking sequence) can change the
material properties of the configuration (called a laminate).

For high performance structures, continuous fiber composites are

utilized, with the fibers running the full length of the part. In order to
appropriately describe the orientation of each ply in a composite laminate, a
coordinate system is defined and shown in Figure 1.5. Typically the X direction is
located parallel to the direction of loading and Y is perpendicular to the X
direction. Meanwhile, each ply has a local coordinate system, denoted by 1 and
2, where the 1 direction runs parallel to the fibers and the 2 direction is
perpendicular to the fiber (1) direction. Each ply is subsequently described by
the angle between this X direction and the 1 direction. For example, when the

5
two align, the ply is considered a 0 ply, when they are perpendicular, it is a 90
ply.

Figure 1.5: The plies (laminae) are stacked together to form a laminate (left),
Notation of the axes for each ply and the angle is shown at right

1.2 Composite Material Forms

While the part is being designed to meet performance metrics such as

strength, the appropriate material type must be chosen based on these goals as
well as manufacturability. Discussed more in detail in chapter 4, the desired
part, production run and process will help dictate the supplied material form.
Each material has its own advantages and disadvantages that must be carefully
considered in order to choose the most appropriate option. For high
performance structures, there two general classes of materials, dry fibers and
prepregs.

As the name suggests, dry fibers do not have any epoxy coating them
and will be incorporated into the resin during the manufacturing process. These
are typically supplied as a woven or braided fabric, as the weave helps hold the
dry fibers together. Braided fabric typically consists of a combination of 0, 90,
45, -45 degree fibers while woven fabric has only a 0/90 orientation. The most
common configuration also provides an equal number of fibers in each
direction, although custom weaves can be generated to tailor the strength by
6
biasing the number of plies in one direction. Unidirectional dry fibers are
available for high performance design, but do retain some cross-stitching in
order to maintain the fiber orientation. Finally, discontinuous or chopped fibers
can be utilized. These can either be supplied in a mat, such as commonly utilized
in boat repair, or may simply be fiber strands that are incorporated into a resin
and molded into shape.

Figure 1.6: From Left to right, examples of plain weave, braided and chopped
unidirectional prepreg tape (HexMC)

Prepreg materials come pre-impregnated with resin. This makes the

fibers easier to handle because they are bound together by the partially cured
epoxy. The prepreg requires storage in a freezer to prevent the complete
chemical reaction, called curing of the material. The most common forms of
prepreg are unidirectional tape and woven fabric. For unidirectional prepreg
tape, the resin holds the fibers in the appropriate orientation without cross
stitching, thus it offers the best mechanical properties along its plane amongst
all forms of composites. Additionally, the unidirectional tape allows for the most
tailorable properties as each ply consists of only 1 material orientation.
Discontinuous prepregs are also available; a common one is HexMC which
consists of chopped, unidirectional tape (see Figure 1.6). This allows for greater
moldability of the composites, closer to that of plastics or metals, but at the cost
of reduced strength. Finally, thermoplastic prepregs are occasionally utilized.
These combine the indefinite shelf life of dry fibers with the pre-mixed
fiber/matrix of a prepreg. However, thermoplastics typically require higher heat
and pressure to form, limiting their use to small parts.

7
 Figure 1.7: From left to right: carbon/epoxy woven prepreg, carbon/epoxy
unidirectional prepreg tape, thermoplastic prepreg

1.3 Typical Composite Materials

High performance, load-bearing structures are almost exclusively

created using continuous fiber composites. Because the fibers provide the
strength, when they are cut in small pieces as in discontinuous composites, the
strength of the composite unsurprisingly reduces significantly. In addition,
maximum amount of fibers can be embedded in a continuous fiber composite,
but not in a chopped fiber composite. As a result, the discussion in this book
will be focused on continuous fiber composites.

Three typical fiber materials are commonly encountered in high

performance structures: carbon, Kevlar and fiberglass. The balance of strength,
weight, environmental resistance and price for a given application will
determine the appropriate choice of materials. Carbon fiber is typically reserved
for applications where weight is at a premium while fiberglass is significantly
cheaper and thus is commonly employed in structures where weight is less
critical. While Kevlar provides excellent impact resistance compared to the
other materials, it is not as resistant to environmental attack.

Figure 1.8: From Left to right, woven carbon fibers, Kevlar and fiber glass

8
 The oldest of the three commonly employed fiber types, fiberglass is
also the lowest in cost, with similarly lower performance. As a result, it is
typically utilized in secondary structures, which are not critical to the continued
safe function of the vehicle. Examples of this would be a car hood or fender,
which, while important for aerodynamics, would not result in catastrophe if lost.
Fiberglass has replaced aluminum in many of these applications due to the
ability of composites to be molded in to complex shapes. Additionally, as the
performance of fiberglass is approximately 1/4th that of carbon, but the price
1/10th or less, for components where weight is not the primary design concern,
such as wind-turbine blades, fiberglass is utilized because the net cost is lower
even though additional material is required. Composites have supplanted
metals in this application due to their superior resistance to fatigue and
environmental attack, two key parameters for wind turbines.

Of the three most commonly encountered composite fibers, carbon has

the highest absolute strength and strength to weight ratio. Thus it is the most
commonly utilized fiber for primary airplane structures where weight control is
crucial to increasing fuel efficiency and thus improving performance. Similarly,
carbon fiber will be encountered in high performance cars as the reduction in
weight allows for higher performance without increasing the powertrain size.
Additionally, sporting goods can take advantage of the stiffness of carbon fibers
by incorporating them in to items such as fishing poles and snowboards, which
require springiness. However, the implementation of carbon fiber has been
limited in consumer goods due to its comparatively high cost as compared to
other fibers, as well as metals.

Kevlar, also known as aramid, fibers provide excellent abrasion and

impact resistance as dry fibers and are therefore commonly utilized as dry fibers
in addition to composites, unlike the other two material forms. High
performance sails and protective clothing are constructed of woven Kevlar.
Meanwhile, as a composite one common example is protective sports
equipment, such as goalie masks in hockey which must have high impact
resistance as well as good strength. Additionally, Kevlar is also commonly woven
or laminated with fiberglass or carbon to yield the best mix of price, durability,
appearance and strength.

In addition to continuous fiber application, such as those described

above, there exist discontinuous fiber applications. For very complicated
structures, the continuous fibers may not adequately conform to the shape
9
required. Chopped fibers can fill this gap, but more material is typically required
to meet the same strength requirements. As a result, discontinuous fibers are
typically limited to secondary structures where the required strength is not as
high. Glass fibers, followed by carbon fibers, are the most common chopped
fibers, with chopped Kevlar is rarely encountered. Since Kevlar is typically used
in composites for its impact resistance, chopped Kevlar fibers would not provide
significant benefit.

1.4 Composite Material Applications

Aviation
Composites are most typically utilized for structures that demand low
weight, high strength and/or environmental resistance and where the price
premium is worthwhile. This is why airplanes are being increasingly made of
composites, but why carbon fiber toasters will probably not become common.
However, some common household items, such as bathtubs are made of
discontinuous composites as the moisture resistance and longevity outweighs
the slightly higher cost compared to other materials.

Figure 1.9: The 787 represents the greatest use of composites in commercial
aviation to date [1]
10
 The primary benefit of composite materials is the strength to weight
ratio. Composite materials typically have higher specific strength (strength
divided by density) compared to metals. This parameter is much more
important than absolute strength because the airplane has to fly with minimum
structural weight. Were it to be made of high strength steel, which is stronger
than carbon fiber, the airplane would never get off of the ground. Conversely,
for large container ships where weight is a minor consideration, steel is
commonly utilized as the price premium for carbon fiber would not provide a
dramatic benefit.

This high strength to weight ratio is one of the primary methods

through which the lifetime cost is reduced. Compared to other transport
methods, aircraft have a particularly long lifespan, both in years and distance
covered. The average commercial airplane in the United States is approximately
14 years old, with many aircraft remaining in service for 20 years or more. As a
result, even a small reduction of airplane weight will yield dramatic
improvements in fuel savings over the lifespan of the aircraft.

Another lifetime benefit of composites is their reduced susceptibility to

fatigue. The millions of fibers in a composite part act as natural crack arrestors.
After repeated loading, a metal part will begin to crack. These cracks will slowly
grow through the part until it fails completely. However, in a composite, if a
crack occurs in the matrix of the composite, it will run into the fibers and be
arrested. This dramatic improvement in fatigue performance reduces the
number of inspections required and minimizes the number of parts that must
be replaced due to fatigue cracking. For rotorcraft this benefit is most dramatic
due to their fatigue sensitive structures. The vibrations of the structure can
induce fatigue cracking and the rotors spin at hundreds of revolutions per
minute, rapidly accumulating fatigue cycles. As a result, rotorcraft blades and
fuselage are commonly made of composites to save weight and improve fatigue
resistance.

A third lifetime benefit is the resistance to many types of corrosion.

Water, and particularly salt water is terrible for metal. A metal structure can be
rapidly reduced to powder through long-term exposure to salt water. This is
why airplanes are commonly kept at such a low humidity. Because composites
have a coated exterior, they are relatively unaffected by water-based corrosion,
leading to superior performance in high humidity and an attendant reduction in
inspections. This is also a passenger benefit because the airplane can be kept at
11
a more comfortable humidity. In addition, the cabin altitude of composite
airplane can be reduced to a lower, more comfortable level because carbon
fiber composites are stronger and thus can be pressurized more than
conventional aluminum airplane.

While the static and lifetime benefits are the most commonly touted
advantages of composites, there are two key manufacturing benefits as well: a
reduction in assembly time and a reduction in waste. Because composites lend
themselves to large integrated structures, once the parts are generated, there is
less assembly required because of reduced part counts. For example, the 787
has complete barrel sections of the fuselage created at once, compared to an
aluminum aircraft made of a large number of riveted sections which require
hundreds of thousands of fasteners for assembly. Additionally, the method in
which composite parts are generated leads to a reduction in waste. Metallic
parts are typically milled down, starting from a solid block and reducing it to the
desired part whereas composite parts are typically “built up” with the individual
layers added until the desired shape is created. This minimizes waste because
the only extraneous materials are small sections that are trimmed to match the
mold shape. Less waste means higher material utilization rates and lower
disposal costs for the manufacturing facility.

Automotive

In addition to the aviation industry, the automotive industry has begun

to incorporate significant amounts of composites into modern designs. This
began with manufacturers employing composites to improve the performance
of their sports cars and has trickled down as fuel efficiency becomes an
increasingly important design parameter. Additionally, composites have seen
usage in modern cars for protection of the passengers and critical systems.

The first significant usage of composites in the automotive industry was

the McLaren MP4/1 Formula One race car, which was the first to use a carbon
fiber composite monocoque. This dramatically increased the rigidity and driver
protection of the vehicle without increasing the weight or sacrificing
performance. Subsequently, McLaren utilized the same design principles to
create the F1, the first production car to utilize a carbon fiber monocoque and
fastest naturally-aspirated production vehicle in the world. This usage of
composites to improve performance was subsequently adopted by other
supercar manufacturers such as Bugatti and Lamborghini in order to push the
12
boundaries of automotive manufacturing and has begun to be adopted by
luxury manufacturers such as BMW.

Although excellent for high performance and luxury cars, carbon fiber
composites are too expensive to extensive usage in typical consumer vehicles.
However, fiberglass has begun to supplant steel and aluminum due to its lighter
weight, improved fatigue resistance and higher strength compared to
unreinforced plastics. Many non-structural components, such as the body
panels, are made of fiberglass in order to reduce the weight. Regulations and
environmental concerns have made fuel efficiency a top issue for modern
automobiles, and as a result any manner in which weight can be reduced is
embraced. Additionally, the improved fatigue performance of composites helps
to reduce this structural weight. Typical vehicles are engineered to operate
below the “fatigue limit” and for metals, this results in a large weight penalty
which is mostly eliminated by utilizing composites. As a result, in addition to
body panels, composites are utilized in supports that see significant vibration in
order to reduce the structural weight.

Space vehicles and structures

The cost to deliver mass to space is on the order of $10,000 per lb. As a
result, any reduction in mass results in a dramatic reduction in cost prompting
the incorporation of composites in space vehicles and structures. In addition,
the low thermal expansion of composites is an advantage to space design as
space structures experience dramatic thermal cycling. Finally, the efficiency can
be improved due to the tailored stiffness and fatigue resistance of composites.

Space vehicles have been increasingly utilizing composite materials due

to their lighter weight and tailorability. Rockets are loaded primarily in
compression during launch and therefore a composite structure can be
employed to better resist this loading. Similarly, pressurized cylinders, which is
what most space stations are constructed of, have a 2:1 ratio of stresses
(described in Topic 5), thus a composite’s strength can be tailored to match this
stress ratio, improving the efficiency over metals. In addition, as the specific
strength of composites are greater than that of metals, it is possible to reduce
the weight of an equivalent structure. As reductions in weight translate almost
directly to increases in profits for rocket launches, composites have seen
significant adoption in space vehicles and structures.

13
 Another benefit of composites is their ability to be designed as large
integrated structures, minimizing the number of joints. In addition to be being
structurally inefficient, joints represent points in which a structure can leak
atmosphere. As space structures are pressurized, minimizing the number of
leaks improves the efficiency by reducing the amount of resupply gas which
must be brought from Earth. In relation, by minimizing the thermal expansion,
the leaks at joints can similarly be reduced; the expansion/contraction of the
parts due to thermal cycling must be accounted for in the design and repeated
cycling can crack sealants which are designed to prevent leakage. Simply
eliminating these joints solves this problem easily.

Turbine engines

Turbine engines have also seen an increasing usage of composite parts.

The trend in commercial aviation is towards higher bypass ratio engines, which
improve efficiency but have a larger diameter. Composites are able to help solve
some of the problems that arise due to this increase in size as well as improve
the lifespan of the engines. Meanwhile, in the “hot” parts of the engine, such as
the combustor and turbine section, more exotic composites such as ceramic-
ceramics are beginning to be incorporated to reduce the weight and improve
the lifespan of these components. The epoxy in carbon/epoxy would burn, so
most commonly the hot sections are constructed of metals. However, ceramic
composites materials have better resistance to extreme heat than metals. This
will allow engines to burn hotter, improving the thermodynamic efficiency.
Additionally, ceramics oxidize much less and are more resistant to creep than
metals, which are important design considerations as these sections are
immersed in high temperature combustion products. Creep is a time-dependent
problem where parts that are loaded can slowly stretch. High temperatures
such as those encountered in the hot sections exacerbate this phenomenon. As
a result, ceramic composites will see increasing usage as the materials are
matured.

Carbon fiber composites are most commonly utilized in the “cold”

section, which is the intake through the compressor. In particular, the bypass
fan, ductwork and structural components see significant benefit from the
introduction of composites. The casing and ductwork can be considerably lighter
through use of composites as opposed to metals. The fan blades can also be
made stiffer and lighter as well as more damage resistant with the use of

14
composites. In particular, operating for hours at high RPM, the fatigue life of
engine components is a limiting factor, and as will be described, composites
have dramatically better fatigue performance compared to metals.

Figure 1.10: Many components of a modern turbine engines are constructed of

composites (Photo courtesy of General Electric Co.) [2]

Energy Industry

With the increasing focus on renewable resources and extraction of

fossil fuels in more difficult environments, composites have begun to make
significant inroads into the energy industry. In particular, wind turbine blades
are almost exclusively made of fiberglass. Meanwhile, oil platforms have
incorporated composites to take advantage of their corrosion resistance.

In order to extract the maximum amount of energy from airflows, wind

turbines are constantly increasing in size, with current blades exceeding 131
feet in length and prototypes stretching to over twice that length. Fabricating
metallic blades of this size is unfeasible due to manufacturing constraints, but
this can be accomplished reasonably easily with composites. Fiberglass in
particular is utilized because of its light weight and low cost as well as fatigue
resistance, reducing the rotational inertia of the turbine. Meanwhile, Kevlar is
15
often utilized to protect the leading edges of the blades from impact damage or
abrasion due to airborne debris. Finally, carbon fiber is utilized for reinforcing
spars within many of these turbine blades and more advanced concepts have
begun to utilize carbon exclusively.

Figure 1.11: Wind Turbines are commonly made of fiberglass with carbon fiber
reinforcements to maximize the effeciency of the wind farm (Photo courtesy
of General Electric Co.)

Fiberglass and Kevlar have also seen implementation in fossil fuel

recovery operations. Many modern oil drilling locations are located in bodies of
water. As a result, corrosion is a major problem on these off-shore oil platforms,
and composites can address this. In addition, many of the various fluids used in
drilling operations are corrosive to most metals [4]. To address these issues,
fiberglass has supplanted metals in many of these applications. Carbon fiber is
rarely utilized because these platforms are not weight limited and therefore
improved stiffness of carbon does not concur enough of a benefit to justify the
increased price. As a result, the lower net price of fiberglass is more beneficial
that the improved stiffness provided by carbon or Kevlar. Meanwhile, Kevlar is
commonly utilized to “armor” cabling, providing resistance to cuts or abrasion.

Construction

For many of the same reasons that the energy industry utilizes
composites, the construction industry has also begun to employ these materials.
In particular, the corrosion and fatigue resistance greatly improves the lifespan
and reduces the required maintenance of bridges compared to metal designs.

16
Meanwhile, all of the benefits of composites can be leveraged to design
interesting architectural features not possible with metals [5].

Bridges tend to require significant maintenance for continued safe

function, due to their environment. Most bridges are built over bodies of water,
which provides a corrosive environment for structural steel, the most common
building material. In order to then prevent corrosion, the structure is painted.
However, road traffic produces significant debris which will wear away this
paint, requiring upkeep. Meanwhile, concrete will tend to crack due to the
traffic, also requiring repair. As a result, fiberglass has been utilized to repair
these structures as well as construct new ones [6]. In particular, concrete
columns are wrapped in fiberglass to stabilize them, minimize fatigue damage
and weatherproof the structure. Steel bridge supports are being replaced,
particularly in lightly loaded structures such as pedestrian bridges, minimizing
the required maintenance [7].

As mentioned, architectural features that would be impossible for

metallic structures can be constructed of composites. The large, integrated
structures possible can eliminate the joints that would otherwise break the flow
of the design. As well, the reduced weight and improved strength can be utilized
to minimize support structure for a roof, creating more open space inside the
structure. Additionally, a fiberglass can be made thin enough to be translucent
such as at Denver International Airport, a design not possible with metals. 4

Marine

In the marine industry, the corrosion resistance and the ability to make
large integrated structures are highly desirable composite properties. As a
result, boats have been made of fiberglass for decades. Meanwhile, carbon fiber
is being utilized in race boats due to its higher stiffness and lower weight.
Finally, an ancillary benefit of composites in boating is that they can be more
readily repaired without compromising the hydrodynamics of the hull compared
to metals.

Sailboats have been made of fiberglass since the mid 1900’s, as it

provides a more readily moldable and corrosion resistant material and is simpler
to work with compared to wood planking which requires assembly of the hull as
opposed to simple molding. Most commonly, fiberglass and polyester resin is
utilized in consumer boats due to its low price and good material properties. For
17
higher performance boats, continuous strand fabric is employed for its
improved strength and stiffness, while for lower priced boats discontinuous
fibers are simply mixed with resin and sprayed onto the mold. In both cases, the
efficiency of manufacture, improved strength and corrosion resistance have
made fiberglass the material of choice for consumer boats [8].

Meanwhile, for high performance boating, such as the sailboats of the

America’s Cup, carbon fiber is the material of choice. These boats borrow
heavily from aviation composites technology, as the principles of flight and
sailing are largely the same. In particular, the high strength and stiffness has
allowed for increasingly lightweight designs. The lowered weight reduces the
displacement of the boat and therefore the wetted area, decreasing drag. As
well, the increased stiffness reduces flexion, allowing for more slender, and
therefore more hydrodynamic, yachts [9].

For all types of composites, the repairs are best able to restore the
smooth exterior of the design. The most common repair type is a bonded repair,
which can be sanded flush with the exterior, resulting in a recovery of the
hydrodynamics. In contrast, other materials such as metal typically have a patch
bolted on, which dramatically increases the drag.

Medical equipment

In the medical field, composites have come in to vogue due to their

durability, low conductivity and light weight. Scanning equipment employs
carbon/epoxy to combine the high strength and low signal attenuation with
light weight and durability. Likewise, light weight and durable prosthetics and
implants provide more functionality to patients.

Metals cannot be utilized in various types of scanning equipment due to

their properties. Magnetic imaging techniques cannot use metals because the
magnetic fields are strong enough to induce eddy currents in non-magnetic
varieties, leading to unfortunate results. Meanwhile, attenuation of X-Rays and
Positrons preclude the use of metals in these scanning devices. However,
carbon fiber is transparent to these electromagnetic waves. In conjunction with
the strength and light weight, carbon/epoxy has been the material of choice for
the beds in modern scanning machines.

18
 Figure 1.12: Medical Scanning tables are often made of carbon/epoxy due to
its strength and transparency to the electromagnetic waves (Photo courtesy of
General Electric Co.)

The ideal implanted device would never require replacement,

minimizing the surgery required. However, the fatigue of many metallic devices
necessitates their replacement, increasing the possibility of complications due
to additional surgery. As a result, carbon fiber medical devices are currently
under development and limited deployment. Meanwhile, to minimize the
fatigue and discomfort of users, prosthetics need to be as light weight as
possible without sacrificing functionality. This has resulted in the increasing
usage of fiberglass and carbon fiber to improve the stiffness and durability
without increasing the weight.

Sporting Goods

For many of the same reasons outlined previously, composites have

been increasingly utilized in sporting goods. In particular, the tailored properties
of carbon fiber and fiberglass has allowed for lighter weight designs. Also, the
impact and abrasion resistance of Kevlar has led to its usage in protective gear
[10].

Many sporting goods have a clearly defined load path. For example,
fishing poles and golf clubs are loaded almost exclusively in bending. As a result,
carbon and boron fibers run the length of the shaft to increase the stiffness and
19
strength while reducing the weight. For golf this allows for faster swings and
better energy transfer to the ball, while in fishing, the lighter weight pole is
easier to handle, and the increased strength enables larger fish to be reeled in
without breaking the pole.

In other sports, such as snowboard and skiing, the tailored properties

can be utilized to provide springiness as well as stiffness, improving the
responsiveness. Meanwhile, certain manufacturing methods can be employed
to naturally build in the camber of these boards which can improve the speed
and maneuverability.

In addition to the strength and stiffness benefits, Kevlar’s impact and

abrasion resistance has seen its implementation in protective gear. Soccer shin
guards have been made of this composite to best provide protection against
errant kicks. Goalie masks in hockey are commonly made of layered Kevlar for
protection. For motor sports, much of the protective gear is made of Kevlar,
including dirt biking chest protectors, helmets and gloves. These serve to
protect the rider from impact and abrasion in the event of a crash while still
being light enough to wear [11].

1.5 Summary

Composite materials are ubiquitous in everyday life and have been

utilized in structures for much of human history. The combination of two
materials, a reinforcement and a binder, provides a superior third material
which can be tailored to meet the application requirements. As a result,
composites have been utilized in almost every industry.

However, composites engineering is a highly integrated process; each

design decision must consider all aspects from the material mechanics to the
manufacturing and repair of the part in question. Omitting these considerations
may result in a component that may not be manufacturable. As a result, a
quality composite design should take in to account the materials,
manufacturing, analysis, design, testing, inspection and repair. Successfully
incorporating all of these competing parameters will result in the optimal
composite design.

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1.6 References

[1] "Worries about new composite made airplane," 1001 Crash

http://www.1001crash.com/index-page-composite-lg-2.html
[2] "GE Aviation Moving to Apply Ceramic Matrix Composites to the Heart of
Future Engines," GE Aviation
www.geaviation.com/press/other/other_20090309.html

[3] "Composites UK – Offshore," Composites UK

http://www.compositesuk.co.uk/Information/Applications/Offshore.asp
[4] "The Quest for the Monster Wind Turbine Blade," MIT Technology Review
http://m.technologyreview.com/news/510031/the-quest-for-the-monster-
wind-turbine-blade/
[5] "Do You Know DIA," Denver International Airport
http://flydenver.com/doyouknowdia

[6] Fratta, D., and Pincheira J., Evaluation of Fiberglass Wrapped Concrete Bridge
Columns, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of
Wisconsin-Madison, December 2008 available:
http://wisdotresearch.wi.gov/wp-content/uploads/07-
07wrappedbridgecolumns-f.pdf

[7] "Fiberglass Pedestrian and Trail Bridges," E.T. Techtonics

www.ettechtonics.com

[8] Mitchell, S., "The Birth of Fiberglass Boats," Good Old Boat, Volume 2, No. 6
November/December 1999. Also available; http://
www.goodoldboat.com/reader_services/articles/birthoffiberglass.php
[9] "America’s Cup boats fly as much as float," SF Gate
http://www.sfgate.com/sports/article/America-s-Cup-boats-fly-as-much-as-
float-3920944.php

[10] "Company Makes Kevlar Shin Guards," Bleacher Report

http://bleacherreport.com/articles/1732970-soccer-shin-guards-made-
from-bulletproof-material-give-players-shins-of-steel
[11] Cubberly, Ed., "Goalie Masks" http://www.edcubberly.com/goalie-
masks.html

21
 1.7 Review Questions

1. What forms of carbon fiber/epoxy (CFRP) composites are available?

2. When selecting an aircraft material, why the stiffness (E) of a material is an
important factor?
3. What is the typical diameter of a carbon fiber? What is the typical thickness
of a ply in a laminate?

4. Why a typical laminate is made of 0◦, 45◦, -45◦ and 90◦ plies? Is it efficient to
use an equal number of the above angles?
5. What are the advantages and disadvantages of a unidirectional (UD) tape
and a woven fabric?
6. What is the difference between a woven fabric composite and a braided
composite?
7. What is a HexMc and why use HexMc? How is it different from a chopped
fiber composite?
8. CFRP is used in what part of the 787? What percentage (by weight) is CFRP
on the 787?
9. List five major advantages and disadvantages of using CFRP for a large
transport.
10. List three major products in three different industries that advanced
composite can be applied to cost effectively.

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