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Forms of Variable Resistance Training.10
Forms of Variable Resistance Training.10
Resistance Training
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D. Travis McMaster,1 John Cronin, PhD,1,2 and Michael McGuigan, PhD, CSCS1
1
Edith Cowan University, Perth, Australia; and 2AUT University, Auckland, New Zealand
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50 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2009 Copyright Ó National Strength and Conditioning Association
by the weight of the dumbbell to cause
a concentric contraction and flexion at
the elbow. Biomechanically, the biceps
brachii, brachialis and brachioradialis
muscles generate an internal force that
is transferred through their respective
tendons, creating torque about the
elbow leading to an external endpoint
force that is applied to an external
resistive load (e.g., dumbbell) leading to
rotation about the elbow joint (66).
Multi-joint movements are complex
and more difficult to categorize be-
cause movement occurs about multiple
Figure 1. Three major strength curves: force production versus joint angle. joints (multiple degrees of rotational
freedom) in multiple planes and must
be represented by 3-dimensional co-
properties are measured: muscle cross- Strength curves approximate the tor- ordinate systems. Torque capabilities
sectional area, fiber lengths, sarcomere que (relationship between force gener- during multi-joint movements are in-
lengths, the arrangement of thin and ation and joint angle) production fluenced by a number of physiological
thick filaments, the origin and insertion capabilities for specified exercise and biomechanical factors, including
location points, and corresponding movements (37). Strength can be de- the architecture of the involved mus-
angles (36). Experimental strength fined as the maximal force and torque culature and joints, the type(s) of
curves are easier to develop than (rotational force) a musculoskeletal coordinated muscle actions, and the
theoretical strength curves because live lever system can generate at a given location of origin and insertion points.
human subjects and direct strength velocity (18,38). Muscular force gener- The majority of sport movements, such
measuring devices, such as electromy- ation and torque production are depen- as running, kicking, and throwing,
ography, force plates, in vivo force dent upon a number of physiological, occur in sequential order, where move-
transducers, ultrasound, and isokinetic biomechanical, and neural factors, ment is initiated by the larger proximal
dynamometers are used to calculate including muscle cross-sectional area, muscles and segments, and then trans-
joint torque capability (23,35,36,39,42). muscle length, pennation angle, the ferred to smaller distal muscles and
Strength can be measured during iso- radius of the internal and external segments along the kinetic chain. This
metric, concentric, and eccentric con- moment arms, contraction speed, and phenomenon is known as the summa-
tractions at varying speeds and loading the size, number, and type of motor tion of forces and or the summation of
conditions; the shape of strength units recruited (20,21,40). speed principle (10,28). During many
curves are similar when comparing multi-joint movements, the accumula-
Human strength curves of single joint
isometric to concentric or eccentric tion of forces generated about each
movements (see Figure 1) are generally
isokinetic testing for a specific joint easy to categorize, as movement is joint along the kinetic chain results in
range of motion (30). generated via a single muscle or group an assimilation of joint torques; exer-
Knowledge of the biomechanical rela- of muscles (i.e., biceps brachii, brachia- cise movement examples include the
tionships and the subsequent benefits lis, and brachioradialis muscles) with bench press, leg press, squat, deadlift,
and limitations of the different modes proximal insertion points causing rota- and power clean (10). When the
of resistance would seem of great tion about a single axis (1 degree segments of these multi-joint move-
practical benefit to the practitioner, of rotational freedom), such as flex- ments approach full extension, the
strength and conditioning coach, and ion–extension, adduction–abduction, musculoskeletal lever system gains
clinician. This framework provides the elevation–depression, or internal rotation– a mechanical advantage and is able to
direction for future discussion of VR external rotation. The dumbbell arm bare larger external resistive forces;
training. curl can be used to explain the rela- theoretically these movements would
tionship between internal forces acting be supplemented well by VR equip-
VR TRAINING within and external forces acting on ment that increases in a linear or
VR equipment is designed to alter the the musculoskeletal system. During the curvilinear fashion (66).
resistance placed on the musculoskel- dumbbell arm curl, the biceps brachii, Exercises with ascending strength
etal system throughout the range of brachialis, and brachioradialis muscles curves include the squat, deadlift,
motion, in an attempt to match the must produce a force and create a bench press, leg press, and shoulder
various exercise strength curves (24). torque that is greater than that created press. In these exercises, maximum
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Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 51
Forms of Variable Resistance Training
strength and force production capabil- mechanical advantage of the joints pullovers (37). The equation for torque
ity occur near the apex of the lift (24). associated with a specific movement is as follows:
In a descending strength curve, max- (64). An ‘‘irregular-shaped cam’’ de-
Torque ¼ ForceðNewtonsÞ3 Length
imum strength is produced at the start signed by Herz of Vienna in 1901,
of the lift, examples include bent-over allowed for increased resistance at of Movement Arm ðMetersÞ
and upright rows, pull-ups, chin-ups, points where strength was greatest From this equation, it can be observed
and lat pull-downs. Single joint exercise and decreased the resistance at points that torque may be altered by either
movements generally have bell-shaped where the strength was lowest, accom- changing the amount of external or
strength curves (e.g., elbow flexion and modating for the musculoskeletal internal force acting on or within
extension and knee flexion and exten- systems mechanical advantage, sup- a body segment, or by changing the
sion), where maximum strength occurs posedly leading to improvements in length of these respective moment
around the mid-phase of the lift (24). strength (37). This design was adapted arms. The moment arm is the perpen-
The reader needs to be cognizant of by Jones, the inventor of Nautilus, who dicular distance from the fulcrum (axis
the fact that human strength curves are in his equipment design used a shell- of rotation) to the point of force
generalized to the samples studied, as shaped cam very similar to that of application (external load or tendon
biomechanical and physiological dif- Herz. Jones designed his first prototype attachment). The length of the mo-
ferences between body segments and in 1948 and then released the first cam ment arm is proportional to the joint
individuals are complex and not always run Nautilus machine onto the market angle between 2 longitudinal segments
accounted for. in 1970 (58). Several years later, in during uniarticular movements, which
Current forms of VR equipment in- 1972, Ariel designed the ‘‘dynamic is known as a relative joint angle
clude cams and levers, rubber-based variable resistance’’ machine, which (shown in Figure 2).
resistance (RBR), and chains. These used an external lever arm to match
the musculoskeletal changing lever Cam and lever systems have a fixed
forms of resistance are used through- resistive load; therefore, the external
out the sport science, strength and system for numerous of exercise move-
ments (2). resistance is varied by altering the
conditioning, rehabilitation, powerlift- length of the moment arm or radius
ing, and weightlifting world. In theory, and hence the changing radius of an
if the equipment is designed to match Kinematics and Kinetics of Cams and ‘‘irregular shaped cam’’ (Figure 3). A
the different human strength curves, Levers. Cam and lever systems create cam system’s resistive torque increases
then the contracting muscles would a varying torque that opposes and in proportion to the radius of the cam;
maximize force production throughout corresponds to the torque production therefore, the larger the radius, the
the range of motion and maximal gains ability of the different musculoskeletal greater the resistance and vice versa
in strength would be achieved (22). lever systems (38). In other words, the (30). The same can be said for lever
Whether this is actually the case and machines resistive torque attempts to systems, where length changes in the
the practical relevance of VR training match human torque capabilities for effective lever increase or decrease
modes are not well understood, which uniarticular movements, such as leg the effective resistance throughout
provides the focus of subsequent extensions, leg curls, bicep curls, and the exercise movement. Three notable
discussion.
CAMS AND LEVERS
Lever and cam systems are designed to
change the external moment arm (the
length or radius) of the corresponding
lever or cam to approximate the body’s
changing moment arm (leverage and
mechanical advantage) during the lift,
which forces the muscles to exert near
maximal effort throughout the range of
motion (59). Therefore, the system
attempts to provide resistance changes
to match the musculoskeletal systems
ability to produce torque at various
joint angles along the movement path
(26,32). Mechanical advantage is
a product of the force–joint angle Figure 2. Moment arm versus relative elbow joint angle. The length of the moment
relationship, where the force exerted arm shortens and lengthens in proportion to the decreasing and increasing
by the muscles will vary with the joint angles.
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52 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2009
Figure 3. Changing radius of a pullover cam machine.
cam shapes with varying moment near maximal force/torque values over (see Figure 4) (59). Johnson et al. (37)
arms have been designed by Nautilus, a longer period of time than constant compared human torque capabilities
Universal, and other manufacturers, to external resistance modes. Given that and machine resistive torque by using 4
match the machines resistive torque mass remains constant, the net result of Eagle cam-based resistance machines
to human torque capabilities for an increase in angular impulse should that included knee extension, knee
specific exercises (Table 1). be an increase in average angular flexion, elbow extension, and elbow
The cams changing radius is designed velocity, which is a desirable training flexion. They found that the 4 ma-
to minimize the negative effects of goal for many athletic movements. chines accommodated the subjects
momentum by matching external Hay and Andrews (34) studied the fairly well by creating machine resistive
resistance to the internal force biomechanical effects of the Universal torque curves similar to human torque
and torque generating capabilities arm curl machine versus barbell arm curves, an example of which can be
(mechanical advantage) of the muscu- curls and found that the machine observed in Figure 5. It must be noted
lature, theoretically causing the work- provided a VR more consistent with that as a result of individual variations
ing muscles to exert maximum force the working muscles capacity to exert of size and strength, it is difficult to
throughout the complete range of force throughout the range of motion construct a machine that accommo-
motion. Angular impulse is propor- than the barbell curl. They found that dates everyone’s unique anthropome-
tional to the amount of applied torque the barbell curl was inferior to the try. Regardless of this inherent
produced over time; therefore, angular Universal arm curl machine, in terms of limitation, cam and lever systems have
impulse should be greater when cam- matching the external resistance and grown in popularity and are currently
based machines are used, as the the muscular force capabilities of the used in many fitness and rehabilitation
working muscles should be producing elbow flexors at varying joint angles centers worldwide. The benefits and
Table 1
Human strength curves for various cam based exercise movements (adapted from Fleck and Kraemer [24])
Strength curve Ascending Descending Bell-shaped
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Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 53
Forms of Variable Resistance Training
For this to occur, the bands are attached in the vertical (frontal and sagittal) recreational athletes by 10–30% over 6-
to the top of a power rack, to provide plane only. A comparison between the to 12-week training periods; however,
assistance when the active muscles in direction of external resistance of RBR similar gains also have been reported
movements, such as the bench press and free weights is shown in Figure 9. with most other modes of resistance
and squat are at maximal lengths, where The curvilinear deformation–tension when used properly; therefore, further
the mechanical advantage is least. properties of RBR allow for increased research is needed to determine whether
acceleration in the initial, less-resisted one mode is superior to the other (53).
Kinematics and Kinetics of RBR. RBR positive phase of a lift; as a result, A study by Damush and Damush (15)
is proportional to the amount of velocity of the exercise movement found that older adult women in-
deformation multiplied by the stiffness increases. During the ascent phase of creased strength during an 8-week
constant during the elastic region of an ascending strength curve lift, the RBR training program. The program
the deformation–tension curve. Rubber musculoskeletal system gains a me- consisted of 2 training sessions per
bands allow for variable resisted move- chanical advantage and force produc- week. Seven 1-set exercises were
ment in a multiple of planes, such as tion decreases (6,17,24,66). This area is performed at each session, each exer-
the sagittal, frontal, transverse, or one in which the added band tension cise was performed until a level of 4
a combination (oblique) of planes has the potential to increase muscle was reached on the Borg Perceived
while maintaining consistent resistive stimulation, motor unit recruitment, Exertion Scale. The 7 exercises in-
properties in all planes, unlike gravity and firing rates and in turn prevent cluded seated lat. pulldown, seated
dependent modes. Most gravity-de- a decrease in muscular force produc- single leg press, seated chest press,
pendent modes of training (e.g., free tion throughout the last quarter of the seated single toe press, standing tricep
weights and chains) offer the greatest lift (17). The use of RBR in training has press, standing bicep curls, and seated
amount of resistance with movements been shown to increase strength in leg extension. Strength improvements
occurred in 3 major muscle groups;
the latissimus dorsi (19.7 6 10.3%), the
quadriceps (27.7 6 17.6%), and the
pectoralis major (16.5 6 11.2%); where
the subjects 3 repetition maximums
were measured on the seated lat pull
down, seated leg extension, and seated
chest press, respectively.
When bands are added to free weight
exercises, such as the squat, dead-lift,
and bench press, the added tension
towards the end of the positive con-
centric phase may trigger an increase in
muscular force generation and peak
power production (64). Wallace et al.
Figure 8. Tension of rubber bands at different percentages of elongation (adapted (64) reported increases in peak force
from Page and Ellenbecker [52]). (16%) and peak power (24%) were
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56 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2009
Figure 9. (a) Rubber based resistance (collinear to the movement) versus (b) free weight resistance (perpendicular to the
movement).
greater during the back squat when accelerations to be produced in the neuromuscular coordination and sta-
rubber bands were used in combina- initial phases of a movement compared bilization, which are all important
tion with free weights compared with to a constant external resisted move- factors in postinjury rehabilitation
the use of free weights only. These ment with an equivalent load. How- (52). RBR training may be used to
variables (peak force and peak power) ever, the force required to elicit benefit many different components of
were recorded at a frequency of 500 Hz movement will increase proportionally the musculoskeletal system, including
using a Quattro Jump force plate and with the displacement and changing increases in muscle mass, power and
assessed with Quattro software. It deformation–tension of the RBR; and endurance, decreased body fat, and
may be speculated that RBR allowed the greatest forces will be required at improved balance, gait, and mobility
the lower-extremity muscles of the maximal displacement or end range of (53). Exercises performed in the trans-
subjects to produce greater peak force movement. Thereafter, greater accel- verse plane would benefit from RBR
at the position where the mechanical erations occur earlier in the eccentric because the resistance supplied by the
advantage of the segment lever system phase, which should result in increased rubber bands is collinear to the move-
was greatest (near full extension) due eccentric forces and potentially greater ment. Rotator cuff rehabilitation pro-
to the curvilinear tensile properties of SSC enhancement. It has been sug- grams use rubber bands for this very
RBR and ascending strength curve gested that the benefits of RBR are reason, as internal and external rota-
properties of the squat. Another study most apparent when combined with tions about the shoulder are performed
by Cronin et al. (14) compared the free weights, so that the inherent in the transverse plane. Many baseball
kinematics, kinetics, and EMG of shortcomings of either resistance type pitchers use RBR training after re-
ballistic squats with and without rubber compensate for one another (7,64). constructive surgery of torn rotator
bungies and a nonballistic squat; all That is, free weights provide greatest cuffs initially to increase strength of the
movements were performed with a su- mechanical overload at the beginning internal and external rotators and to
pine squat machine. They found that or inner range of the concentric phase the increase range of motion about the
when loads were equated that there and the bands provide overload at the glenohumeral joint (47,54,63). Reha-
was greater EMG activity of the vastus end or outer range of the concentric bilitation programs that use RBR
lateralis during the eccentric contrac- phase for ascending strength curve training include stroke patients, osteo-
tion of the rubber bungie supine squat, movements. The opposite is true of arthritic patients, elderly populations,
and greater peak velocities were found the eccentric phase in terms of the contracture patients, and other patho-
for both ballistic squats (14). Improve- mechanical overload; therefore, the logical groups. Through supplemented
ments in peak velocity, force, and combination of both resistance modes RBR training programs, stroke, osteo-
power in the lower extremities may may compliment each other through- arthritic, and elderly patients have
be beneficial to athletes participating in out the entire concentric and eccentric demonstrated improvements in strength,
contact sports, such as rugby, all phases for most multi-joint movements. gait, balance, and function, leading to
disciplines of football, ice hockey, as improved quality of life and the pre-
well explosive track and field events Practical Applications of RBR. RBR is vention of falls (13,41,50,52,55). Manor
(sprinting, shot putt, hammer throw, prescribed and used in many rehabil- et al. (44) also found that rubber bands
high jump and long jump). itation programs because it is a portable were a valid and reliable means to assess
In summary, the addition of RBR to and a relatively inexpensive low-impact, upper extremity strength in older adults.
a constant external resisted movement momentum-controlled resistance used It is inferred that RBR training can be
alters the biomechanical profiles, as for multiplanar training unaffected by used effectively in exercises with as-
RBR products allow for greater gravitational forces. It also promotes cending strength curves because of the
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Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 57
Forms of Variable Resistance Training
Figure 11. Resistive curves of; (a) rubber-based resistance (5 different bands), and (b) chain resistance (5 different chain widths).
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Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 59
Forms of Variable Resistance Training
Table 2
Chain mass, length and diameter
cm in cm in cm in cm in cm in
Length
Diameter (cm) 10 4 50 20 100 40 150 59 200 79
Mm Inches Mass kg lbs kg lbs kg lbs kg lbs kg lbs
(kg)
6.4 ¼ 0.3 0.6 1.3 2.8 2.5 5.5 3.8 8.3 5.0 11.0
9.5 3/8 0.4 0.8 1.9 4.1 3.7 8.1 5.6 12.2 7.4 16.3
12.7 ½ 0.7 1.6 3.7 8.1 7.4 16.3 11.1 24.4 14.8 32.6
19.1 G 1.4 3.1 7.0 15.4 14.0 30.8 21.0 46.2 28.0 61.6
22.2 7/8 2.2 4.8 10.8 23.8 21.6 47.5 32.4 71.3 43.2 95.0
25.4 1 2.8 6.2 14.0 30.8 28.0 61.6 42.0 92.4 56.0 123.0
The multi-joint movements in power- force (65). It has been proposed that the overload principle, muscular force
lifting (e.g., bench press, deadlift, and using chains with powerlifting and production may be increased towards
squat) and specific phases (assistance various assistant weightlifting move- the end range of the lift, as the
lifts) of weightlifting (e.g., snatch, clean ments may promote the development musculoskeletal system must adapt to
and jerk) have ascending strength of power, acceleration, motor control, the increasing external load of the
curves and are performed primarily in stabilization and enhanced neurologi- chains (24,27). Athletes could possibly
the vertical planes (sagittal and frontal), cal adaptation (9,12,27). In terms of increase absolute strength, as supple-
as illustrated in Figure 12. With power development, this makes sense, menting free-weights with chains will
ascending strength curve exercises, as there is an initial increase in result in a greater maximum load
the musculoskeletal system gains a me- movement velocity and latter increase compared with free-weight only train-
chanical advantage as the working in muscular force requirement, caused ing, due to the reduction and change in
muscles extend the involved joint seg- by the progressively increasing external position of the sticking point for
ments. Varying the resistance through- resistive load of the chains. However, it ascending strength curve movements.
out the lift alters the kinetic (e.g., force, should be remembered that most of the For example, if an athlete has a maxi-
work, and power) and kinematic (e.g., aforementioned claims are anecdotal. mum bench press of 100 kg, he/she
time, velocity, and acceleration) varia- should be able to bench press a total
bles. Theoretically, adding chains to Practical Applications of Chains. The load greater than that of his of her
powerlifting movements and assistance use of chains alone and in combination maximum, due to the change (rise) in
lifts (e.g., first pull in the clean and the with free weight training is becoming position of the sticking point. One
snatch, and the jerk phase in the clean more frequently used by strength and practitioner suggested using a lighter
and jerk) in weightlifting with ascend- conditioning practitioners as a method free weight load (e.g., 90 kg) and attach
ing strength curves, should allow for of training. It has been suggested that additional chain resistance (e.g., 15 kg)
enhanced acceleration during the ini- chains improve strength and power, to the bar, resulting in a total apex load
tial phase of the lifts. At the base of the extend the duration of the acceleration greater than the athletes 1RM (105 kg),
lift, the chains’ external resistance and phase and subsequently increase ve- possibly leading to increases in maxi-
human torque capabilities are low; and locity during the positive (concentric) mal strength (17,57). As for optimal
progressively increase throughout the phase of the lift (e.g., bench press). gains in power, another practitioner
range of motion to match the muscu- Whether this is actually true is yet to be suggested that a lighter total resistance
loskeletal system’s increased ability to determined and the reader needs to be between 60 to 90 % of the athletes
produce force and create torque (9). cognizant of this limitation when 1RM be used, with 80–85% of the
During these multi-joint movements reading the literature in this area. percentage load coming from free
the musculoskeletal system’s ability to One practitioner has suggested that weight resistance and 15–20% from
handle greater external forces (loads) optimal strength gains are achieved chains; as this changes the kinetics of
increases as the involved joints extend using 1RM loads of 80–100% com- a strength exercise into a power exer-
and reach a position of single joint posed of a chain resistance of 10–15% cise allowing for greater acceleration
configuration i.e. the involved joints of the total load with the remaining throughout the range of motion (5). All
have reached full extension and the 85–90% of the load comprised of free of these practical benefits may poten-
external load is applying a compressive weight resistance (5,57). On the basis of tially lead to a stronger more explosive
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60 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2009
Figure 12. The deadlift supplemented with chains, illustrating a collinear movement with respect to gravity.
athlete and could possibly be applied to chains are not well documented and There is limited information on the
sport specific training programs. Ath- current claims lack scientific support; relationship between chain diameter
letes who must overcome large exter- therefore, some of the contentions and length to weight ratios (9). The
nal resistances (e.g., American football, must be viewed with caution. length, diameter, and density of the
rugby, wrestling, and mixed martial chain, as well as the selected exercise,
arts) may benefit from strength and Limitations of Chains. One distinct segment length, and height of the lifter,
power training programs supple- limitation in chain training is the lack dictates how much weight the lifter
mented with chains. of scientific research performed in this will be moving throughout the range of
Chains may be a useful supplement to area; most claims are anecdotal and motion (9). All of these factors must be
free-weight resistance in that they add until conclusive evidence is presented, taken into consideration when calcu-
a variable training stimulus to a training the proposed benefits remain hypo- lating the exact load of the correspond-
program, which would be otherwise thetical. Two studies, one by Coker ing chain. In this process, the chance of
unavailable (57). The oscillating chains et al. (12) and the other by Berning calculation error would increase as the
provide a predictable, but varying et al. (8), found that lifting with chains number of factors considered increases.
movement path, as a result of the versus lifting without chains did not The average external chain load and
applied force. Practitioners claim that cause any changes in the kinematic and length to weight ratios over the entire
the oscillating chains may promote kinetic variables of the lifter during the range of motion should be measured
improved motor control, increased snatch; which may have been due to and calculated to allow practitioners to
activation and recruitment of stabiliz- the a low chain load (5% of the total prescribe specific and precise loading
ing and synergist muscles, and en- load) used. In addition, only a limited patterns for the desired lift and in-
hanced neurological adaptation; but number of kinematic and kinetic var- dividual. These measures need to be
these claims are not scientifically iables were measured in these studies, validated and published in a standard-
supported and may merely be a result none of which truly reflected the ized chart, as none currently exist. The
of performing free weight resistance technique of the lifters, giving sports following measures should be in-
(9,12). It may be speculated that chains scientists another reason to be skeptical cluded; chain diameter to weight ratios
offer a changing external resistance of chain training. Because chain load and chain length to weight ratios
proportional to the mechanical advan- varies with position and, therefore, ranging from 1 to 250 centimeters in
tage gained by the musculoskeletal time, position- and time-dependent length as the ranges in displacements
lever system as the joints extend and variables should be considered in (range of motion) vary largely from
flex throughout positive-concentric future research (e.g., time to peak force exercise to exercise.
and negative-eccentric phases. How- and peak power, position of peak force, In terms of the strength curves, because
ever, the benefits of training with peak power, and maximum velocity). chain weight increases in a positive
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Strength and Conditioning Journal | www.nsca-lift.org 61
Forms of Variable Resistance Training
linear fashion, exercises with descend- a second order polynomial, rather than training also include the lack of
ing and bell-shaped strength curves a first order-linear function polynomial, standardization in regards to the type
may not be properly overloaded with as rubber is not purely elastic. RBR and quality of steel used for resistance
chains. For optimal benefits, chain may be used in a multiple of planes (e.g. training. Another inherent limitation is
training may be limited to ascending sagittal, frontal, transverse, and obli- that chain weight to displacement
strength curve exercises. The gap que), as the resistance is collinear to ratios have not been properly quanti-
between scientific data and anecdotal and directly opposes most exercise fied over a large displacement range.
claims is a clear indication that future movements. For this reason, RBR is Future biomechanical research is re-
research is required if chains are to used widely in the rehabilitation setting quired in the area of VR training
become a valid mode of training for for many pathologies (e.g., contrac- modes, in order to bridge the gap
enhancing power, strength and athletic tures, patellofemoral pain, stroke, between the practitioner and scientist.
performance (12). elderly, and osteoarthritis) and sport Ariel (3) once said that ‘‘the equipment
specific training (e.g. sprint, rotator should adapt to the user rather than
CONCLUSION
cuff rehabilitation, racket sports). the user adapt to the equipment.’’
After reviewing the different forms of
RBR provides a low-load resistance Following along with this line of logic
VR training, we hope that a better
for initial rehabilitation, and when used when implementing resistance training
understanding and appreciation of the
in conjunction with constant external programs, the kinematic and kinetic
kinematics and kinetics, practical ap-
resistance, it can gradually and pro- profiles associated with the various
plications, and limitations has been
gressively increase strength in weak modes of resistance should be consid-
acquired. Cam and lever systems are
atrophied muscles. RBR used in com- ered and prescribed appropriately to
designed to accommodate exercises
with ascending, descending and bell- bination with free weight resistance has match the varying human strength
shaped strength curves purportedly been beneficial in improving various curves and mechanical advantage of
enabling greater specificity in terms kinematic and kinetic variables over the different musculoskeletal lever
of overloading the working muscles, a narrow range of loading intensities. systems; as well as the sport and
but there is contradictory evidence in Limitations arise, as RBR has visco- athlete specific training goals (2,3).
the literature. The systems resistive elastic properties where tension in-
torque is designed to match human creases in a curvilinear fashion and may Travis
torque capabilities, increasing resis- not compensate exercises with de- McMaster is
tance at points where strength is scending and bell-shaped strength a Master of
greatest and decreasing the resistance curves. The lack of scientific support Sports Science
at points where the strength is lowest; for RBR training and the limited student specializ-
but again there is much debate over the research quantifying its viscoelastic ing in biome-
validity and effectiveness of cam and properties (deformation-tension rela- chanics at Edith
lever systems as a mode of resistance tionship), provides further constraints Cowan Univer-
training. Cams and levers also are used to RBR training, hence the need for sity, Western
widely in the rehabilitation setting to future research. Australia.
correct muscle imbalances and certain Chain resistance increases linearly with
pathologies; where single joint- displacement and can be represented John Cronin is
designed machines allow clients to by a basic linear function (first order an Associate
isolate a specific group of muscles. A polynomial), as chain resistance is Professor at Edith
major limitation to cam and lever sys- gravity dependent and determined by Cowan University.
tems is that the movement must travel the density, diameter and length of the
a fixed path and may not accommo- chain; therefore, chain resistance
date for the biomechanical and phys- would appear best suited for training
iological variations of the individual. A exercises with ascending strength
fixed movement path may also hinder curves, such as the squat, dead-lift,
development of intramuscular and bench press and shoulder press. Vari-
intermuscular coordination. Even with Michael
ous reputed practitioners have claimed
these limitations, cam and lever sys- McGuigan is
improvements in the kinematic and
tems can still be utilized effectively in a Senior Lecturer
kinetic variables of the lifter, as well as
resistance training programs. at Edith Cowan
increased activation of stabilizing
University and
RBR is viscoelastic and its tension is muscles and enhanced neurological
a strength and
determined by its stiffness properties, adaptations; but a lack of scientific
conditioning
where its curvilinear deformation- evidence has led many to be skeptical specialist.
tension relationship is better fitted by of chain training. Limitations to chain
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62 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2009
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64 VOLUME 31 | NUMBER 1 | FEBRUARY 2009